5th

Edition
The Hardware/Software Interface

Chapter 2 | Part 1
Instructions: Language
of the Computer
 §2.1 Introduction
Instruction Set

The repertoire of instructions of a
computer

Different computers have different
instruction sets

But with many aspects in common

Early computers had very simple
instruction sets

Simplified implementation

Many modern computers also have simple
instruction sets

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 2

The MIPS Instruction Set

Used as the example throughout the book

Stanford MIPS commercialized by MIPS
Technologies (www.mips.com)

Large share of embedded core market

Applications in consumer electronics, network/storage
equipment, cameras, printers,

Typical of many modern ISAs

See MIPS Reference Data tear-out card, and
Appendixes B and E

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 3

 §2.2 Operations of the Computer Hardware
Arithmetic Operations

Add and subtract, three operands

Two sources and one destination
add a, b, c # a gets b + c

All arithmetic operations have this form

Design Principle 1: Simplicity favours
regularity

Regularity makes implementation simpler

Simplicity enables higher performance at
lower cost

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 4

Arithmetic Example

C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);

Compiled MIPS code:
add t0, g, h # temp t0 = g + h
add t1, i, j # temp t1 = i + j
sub f, t0, t1 # f = t0 - t1

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 5

 §2.3 Operands of the Computer Hardware
Register Operands

Arithmetic instructions use register
operands

MIPS has a 32 × 32-bit register file

Use for frequently accessed data

Numbered 0 to 31

32-bit data called a word

Assembler names

$t0, $t1, , $t9 for temporary values

$s0, $s1, , $s7 for saved variables

Design Principle 2: Smaller is faster

c.f. main memory: millions of locations

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 6

Register Operand Example

C code:
f = (g + h) - (i + j);

f, , j in $s0, , $s4

Compiled MIPS code:
add $t0, $s1, $s2
add $t1, $s3, $s4
sub $s0, $t0, $t1

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 7

Memory Operands

Main memory used for composite data

Arrays, structures, dynamic data

To apply arithmetic operations

Load values from memory into registers

Store result from register to memory

Memory is byte addressed

Each address identifies an 8-bit byte

Words are aligned in memory

Address must be a multiple of 4

MIPS is Big Endian

Most-significant byte at least address of a word

c.f. Little Endian: least-significant byte at least address

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 8

 Memory Operand Example 1

C code:
g = h + A[8];

g in $s1, h in $s2, base address of A in $s3

$s3: 1000
A [0]

A [1]

...

1000 + 8x4
A [8]

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 9

Memory Operand Example 1

C code:
g = h + A[8];

g in $s1, h in $s2, base address of A in $s3

Compiled MIPS code:

Index 8 requires offset of 32

4 bytes per word
lw $t0, 32($s3) # load word
add $s1, $s2, $t0
offset base register

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 10

Memory Operand Example 2

C code:
A[12] = h + A[8];

h in $s2, base address of A in $s3

Compiled MIPS code:

Index 8 requires offset of 32

Index 12 requires offset of 48

lw $t0, 32($s3) # load word

add $t0, $s2, $t0
sw $t0, 48($s3) # store word

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 11

Registers vs. Memory

Registers are faster to access than
memory

Operating on memory data requires loads
and stores

More instructions to be executed

Compiler must use registers for variables
as much as possible

Only spill to memory for less frequently used
variables

Register optimization is important!

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 12

Immediate Operands

Constant data specified in an instruction
addi $s3, $s3, 4

No subtract immediate instruction

Just use a negative constant
addi $s2, $s1, -1

Design Principle 3: Make the common
case fast

Small constants are common

Immediate operand avoids a load instruction

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 13

The Constant Zero

MIPS register 0 ($zero) is the constant 0

Cannot be overwritten

Useful for common operations

E.g., move between registers
add $t2, $s1, $zero

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 14

 §2.4 Signed and Unsigned Numbers
Unsigned Binary Integers

Given an n-bit number
x = x n−1 2n−1 + x n−2 2n−2 +
+ x1 21 + x 0 20

Range: 0 to +2n – 1

Example

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 10112
=0+ + 1×23 + 0×22 +1×21 +1×20
=0+ + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 1110

Using 32 bits

0 to +4,294,967,295

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 15

2s-Complement Signed Integers

Given an n-bit number
x = − x n−1 2n−1 + x n−2 2n−2 +
+ x1 21 + x 0 20

Range: –2n – 1 to +2n – 1 – 1

Example

1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 11002
= –1×231 + 1×230 + + 1×22 +0×21 +0×20
= –2,147,483,648 + 2,147,483,644 = –410

Using 32 bits

–2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 16

2s-Complement Signed Integers

Bit 31 is sign bit

1 for negative numbers

0 for non-negative numbers

–(–2n – 1) can’t be represented

Non-negative numbers have the same unsigned
and 2s-complement representation

Some specific numbers

0: 0000 0000 0000

–1: 1111 1111 1111

Most-negative: 1000 0000 0000

Most-positive: 0111 1111 1111

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 17

Signed Negation

Complement and add 1

Complement means 1 → 0, 0 → 1

x + x = 1111...1112 = −1

x + 1 = −x

Example: negate +2

+2 = 0000 0000 00102

–2 = 1111 1111 11012 + 1
= 1111 1111 11102

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 18

Sign Extension

Representing a number using more bits

Preserve the numeric value

In MIPS instruction set

addi: extend immediate value

lb, lh: extend loaded byte/halfword

beq, bne: extend the displacement

Replicate the sign bit to the left

c.f. unsigned values: extend with 0s

Examples: 8-bit to 16-bit

+2: 0000 0010 => 0000 0000 0000 0010

–2: 1111 1110 => 1111 1111 1111 1110

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 19

 §2.5 Representing Instructions in the Computer
Representing Instructions

Instructions are encoded in binary

Called machine code

MIPS instructions

Encoded as 32-bit instruction words

Small number of formats encoding operation code
(opcode), register numbers,

Regularity!

Register numbers

$t0 – $t7 are reg
s 8 – 15

$t8 – $t9 are reg
s 24 – 25

$s0 – $s7 are reg
s 16 – 23

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 20

MIPS R-format Instructions
op rs rt rd shamt funct
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits

Instruction fields

op: operation code (opcode)

rs: first source register number

rt: second source register number

rd: destination register number

shamt: shift amount (00000 for now)

funct: function code (extends opcode)

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 21

R-format Example
op rs rt rd shamt funct
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits

add $t0, $s1, $s2

special $s1 $s2 $t0 0 add

0 17 18 8 0 32

000000 10001 10010 01000 00000 100000

000000100011001001000000001000002 = 0232402016

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 22

Hexadecimal

Base 16

Compact representation of bit strings

4 bits per hex digit

0 0000 4 0100 8 1000 c 1100

1 0001 5 0101 9 1001 d 1101
2 0010 6 0110 a 1010 e 1110
3 0011 7 0111 b 1011 f 1111

Example: eca8 6420

1110 1100 1010 1000 0110 0100 0010 0000

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 23

MIPS I-format Instructions
op rs rt constant or address
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

Immediate arithmetic and load/store instructions

rt: destination or source register number

Constant: –215 to +215 – 1

Address: offset added to base address in rs

Design Principle 4: Good design demands good
compromises

Different formats complicate decoding, but allow 32-bit
instructions uniformly

Keep formats as similar as possible

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 24

MIPS I-format Instructions
op rs rt constant or address
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

Immediate arithmetic and load/store instructions

rt: destination or source register number

Constant: –215 to +215 – 1

Address: offset added to base address in rs

lw $t0, 32($s3) # load word

rt constant rs

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 25

Stored Program Computers
The BIG Picture
Instructions represented in
binary, just like data

Instructions and data stored
in memory

Programs can operate on
programs

e.g., compilers, linkers,

Binary compatibility allows
compiled programs to work
on different computers

Standardized ISAs

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 26

 §2.6 Logical Operations
Logical Operations

Instructions for bitwise manipulation
Operation C Java MIPS
Shift left << << sll
Shift right >> >>> srl
Bitwise AND & & and, andi
Bitwise OR | | or, ori
Bitwise NOT ~ ~ nor

Useful for extracting and inserting

groups of bits in a word
Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 27
Shift Operations
op rs rt rd shamt funct
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 5 bits 6 bits

shamt: how many positions to shift

Shift left logical

Shift left and fill with 0 bits

sll by i bits multiplies by 2i

Shift right logical

Shift right and fill with 0 bits

srl by i bits divides by 2i (unsigned only)

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 28

AND Operations

Useful to mask bits in a word

Select some bits, clear others to 0
and $t0, $t1, $t2

$t2 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000

$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1100 0000 0000

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 29

OR Operations

Useful to include bits in a word

Set some bits to 1, leave others unchanged
or $t0, $t1, $t2

$t2 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101 1100 0000

$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1101 1100 0000

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 30

NOT Operations

Useful to invert bits in a word

Change 0 to 1, and 1 to 0

MIPS has NOR 3-operand instruction

a NOR b == NOT ( a OR b )
nor $t0, $t1, $zero Register 0: always
read as zero

$t1 0000 0000 0000 0000 0011 1100 0000 0000

$t0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 0011 1111 1111

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 31

 §2.7 Instructions for Making Decisions
Conditional Operations

Branch to a labeled instruction if a
condition is true

Otherwise, continue sequentially

beq rs, rt, L1

if (rs == rt) branch to instruction labeled L1;

bne rs, rt, L1

if (rs != rt) branch to instruction labeled L1;

j L1

unconditional jump to instruction labeled L1

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 32

Compiling If Statements

C code:
if (i==j) f = g+h;
else f = g-h;

f, g, in $s0, $s1,

Compiled MIPS code:
bne $s3, $s4, Else
add $s0, $s1, $s2
j Exit
Else: sub $s0, $s1, $s2
Exit: …
Assembler calculates addresses

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 33

Compiling Loop Statements

C code:
while (save[i] == k) i += 1;

i in $s3, k in $s5, address of save in $s6

Compiled MIPS code:
Loop: sll $t1, $s3, 2
add $t1, $t1, $s6
lw $t0, 0($t1)
bne $t0, $s5, Exit
addi $s3, $s3, 1
j Loop
Exit: …

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 34

Compiling Loop Statements

C code:
while (save[i] == k) i += 1;

i in $s3, k in $s5, address of save in $s6

Compiled MIPS code:
Loop: sll $t1, $s3, 2
add $t1, $t1, $s6
lw $t0, 0($t1)
bne $t0, $s5, Exit
addi $s3, $s3, 1
j Loop
Exit: … Need to multiply i by 4 to address
elements of save.

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 35

Basic Blocks

A basic block is a sequence of instructions
with

No embedded branches (except at end)

No branch targets (except at beginning)

A compiler identifies basic

blocks for optimization

An advanced processor
can accelerate execution
of basic blocks

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 36

More Conditional Operations

Set result to 1 if a condition is true

Otherwise, set to 0

slt rd, rs, rt

if (rs < rt) rd = 1; else rd = 0;

slti rt, rs, constant

if (rs < constant) rt = 1; else rt = 0;

Use in combination with beq, bne
slt $t0, $s1, $s2 # if ($s1 < $s2)
bne $t0, $zero, L # branch to L

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 37

Branch Instruction Design

Why not blt, bge, etc?

Hardware for <, ≥, slower than =, ≠

Combining with branch involves more work
per instruction, requiring a slower clock

All instructions penalized!

beq and bne are the common case

This is a good design compromise

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 38

Signed vs. Unsigned

Signed comparison: slt, slti

Unsigned comparison: sltu, sltui

Example

$s0 = 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111

$s1 = 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001

slt $t0, $s0, $s1 # signed

–1 < +1 ⇒ $t0 = 1

sltu $t0, $s0, $s1 # unsigned

+4,294,967,295 > +1 ⇒ $t0 = 0

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 39

 §2.8 Supporting Procedures in Computer Hardware
Procedure Calling

Steps required
1. Place parameters in registers
2. Transfer control to procedure
3. Acquire storage for procedure
4. Perform procedure
s operations
5. Place result in register for caller
6. Return to place of call

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 40

Register Usage

$a0 – $a3: arguments (reg
s 4 – 7)

$v0, $v1: result values (reg
s 2 and 3)

$t0 – $t9: temporaries

Can be overwritten by callee

$s0 – $s7: saved

Must be saved/restored by callee

$gp: global pointer for static data (reg 28)

$sp: stack pointer (reg 29)

$fp: frame pointer (reg 30)

$ra: return address (reg 31)

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 41

Procedure Call Instructions

Procedure call: jump and link
jal ProcedureLabel

Address of following instruction put in $ra

Jumps to target address

Procedure return: jump register

jr $ra

Copies $ra to program counter

Can also be used for computed jumps

e.g., for case/switch statements

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 42

Leaf Procedure Example

C code:
int leaf_example (int g, h, i, j)
{ int f;
f = (g + h) - (i + j);
return f;
}

Arguments g, , j in $a0, , $a3

f in $s0 (hence, need to save $s0 on stack)

Result in $v0

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 43

Leaf Procedure Example

MIPS code:
leaf_example:
addi $sp, $sp, -4
Save $s0 on stack
sw $s0, 0($sp)
add $t0, $a0, $a1
add $t1, $a2, $a3 Procedure body
sub $s0, $t0, $t1
add $v0, $s0, $zero Result
lw $s0, 0($sp) Restore $s0
addi $sp, $sp, 4
jr $ra Return

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 44

Memory Layout

Text: program code

Static data: global
variables

e.g., static variables in C,
constant arrays and strings

$gp initialized to address
allowing ±offsets into this
segment

Dynamic data: heap

E.g., malloc in C, new in
Java

Stack: automatic storage

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 45

Leaf Procedure Example (saving used
registers)
leaf_example:
addi $sp, $sp, -12 # make space in the stack for 3 words
sw $t1, 8($sp) # save $1 for use afterwards
sw $t0, 4($sp) # save $t0 for use afterwards
sw $s0, 0($sp) # save $s0 for use afterwards
add $t0,$a0,$a1 # procedure body
add $t1,$a2,$a3 # procedure body
sub $s0,$t0,$t1 # procedure body
add $v0,$s0,$zero # saves return result
lw $s0,0($sp) # restore $s0
lw $t0,4($sp) # restore $t0
lw $t1,8($sp) # restore $t1
addi $sp,$sp,12 # adjust stack to delete 3 words
jr $ra # jump back to calling routine

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 46

Non-leaf Procedure Example

main()
{ ----
----
A (3); $ao = 3
--- $ra = address X
}

int A (int n)
{ ---
B (5)
---
}

int B (int m)
{ ---
}

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 47

Non-leaf Procedure Example

main()
{ ----
----
A (3); $ao = 3
--- $ra = address X
}

int A (int n)
{ ---
B (5)
--- $ao = 5
} $ra = address Y

int B (int m) A won’t be able to continue to use $ao as 3 and it

{ --- won’t be able to return to main!
} Solution: the caller must push $a0 into the stack
and the callee must push $ra, used by the caller,
into the stack.
Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 48
Non-Leaf Procedures

Procedures that call other procedures

For nested call, caller needs to save on the
stack:

Its return address

Any arguments and temporaries needed after
the call

Restore from the stack after the call

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 49

Non-Leaf Procedure Example

C code:
int fact (int n)
{
if (n < 1) return (1);
else return n * fact(n - 1);
}

Argument n in $a0

Result in $v0

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 50

Non-Leaf Procedure Example

MIPS code:
fact:
addi $sp, $sp, -8 # adjust stack for 2 items
sw $ra, 4($sp) # save return address
sw $a0, 0($sp) # save argument
slti $t0, $a0, 1 # test for n < 1
beq $t0, $zero, L1
addi $v0, $zero, 1 # if so, result is 1
addi $sp, $sp, 8 # pop 2 items from stack
jr $ra # and return
L1: addi $a0, $a0, -1 # else decrement n
jal fact # recursive call
lw $a0, 0($sp) # restore original n
lw $ra, 4($sp) # and return address
addi $sp, $sp, 8 # pop 2 items from stack
mul $v0, $a0, $v0 # multiply to get result
jr $ra # and return

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 51

Local Data on the Stack

Local data allocated by callee

e.g., C automatic variables

Procedure frame (activation record)

Used by some compilers to manage stack storage
Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 52
Memory Layout

Text: program code

Static data: global
variables

e.g., static variables in C,
constant arrays and strings

$gp initialized to address
allowing ±offsets into this
segment

Dynamic data: heap

E.g., malloc in C, new in
Java

Stack: automatic storage

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 53

 §2.9 Communicating with People
Character Data

Byte-encoded character sets

ASCII: 128 characters

95 graphic, 33 control

Latin-1: 256 characters

ASCII, +96 more graphic characters

Unicode: 32-bit character set

Used in Java, C++ wide characters,

Most of the world
s alphabets, plus symbols

UTF-8, UTF-16: variable-length encodings

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 54

Byte/Halfword Operations

Could use bitwise operations

MIPS byte/halfword load/store

String processing is a common case
lb rt, offset(rs) lh rt, offset(rs)

Sign extend to 32 bits in rt
lbu rt, offset(rs) lhu rt, offset(rs)

Zero extend to 32 bits in rt
sb rt, offset(rs) sh rt, offset(rs)

Store just rightmost byte/halfword

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 55

String Copy Example

C code (naïve):

Null-terminated string
void strcpy (char x[], char y[])
{ int i;
i = 0;
while ((x[i]=y[i])!='\0')
i += 1;
}

Addresses of x, y in $a0, $a1

i in $s0

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 56

String Copy Example

MIPS code:
strcpy:
addi $sp, $sp, -4 # adjust stack for 1 item
sw $s0, 0($sp) # save $s0
add $s0, $zero, $zero # i = 0
L1: add $t1, $s0, $a1 # addr of y[i] in $t1
lbu $t2, 0($t1) # $t2 = y[i]
add $t3, $s0, $a0 # addr of x[i] in $t3
sb $t2, 0($t3) # x[i] = y[i]
beq $t2, $zero, L2 # exit loop if y[i] == 0
addi $s0, $s0, 1 # i = i + 1
j L1 # next iteration of loop
L2: lw $s0, 0($sp) # restore saved $s0
addi $sp, $sp, 4 # pop 1 item from stack
jr $ra # and return

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 57

 §2.10 MIPS Addressing for 32-Bit Immediates and Addresses
32-bit Constants

Most constants are small

16-bit immediate is sufficient

For the occasional 32-bit constant
lui rt, constant

Copies 16-bit constant to left 16 bits of rt

Clears right 16 bits of rt to 0

lui $s0, 61 0000 0000 0111 1101 0000 0000 0000 0000

ori $s0, $s0, 2304 0000 0000 0111 1101 0000 1001 0000 0000

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 58

Branch Addressing

Branch instructions specify

Opcode, two registers, target address

Most branch targets are near branch

Forward or backward

op rs rt constant or address
6 bits 5 bits 5 bits 16 bits

PC-relative addressing

Target address = PC + offset × 4

PC already incremented by 4 by this time
Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 59
Jump Addressing

Jump (j and jal) targets could be
anywhere in text segment

Encode full address in instruction

op address
6 bits 26 bits

(Pseudo)Direct jump addressing

Target address = PC31 28 : (address × 4)

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 60

Target Addressing Example

Loop code from earlier example

Assume Loop at location 80000

Loop: sll $t1, $s3, 2 80000 0 0 19 9 4 0

add $t1, $t1, $s6 80004 0 9 22 9 0 32
lw $t0, 0($t1) 80008 35 9 8 0
bne $t0, $s5, Exit 80012 5 8 21 2
addi $s3, $s3, 1 80016 8 19 19 1
j Loop 80020 2 20000
Exit: … 80024

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 61

Branching Far Away

If branch target is too far to encode with
16-bit offset, assembler rewrites the code

Example
beq $s0,$s1, L1
↓
bne $s0,$s1, L2
j L1
L2: …

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 62

Addressing Mode Summary

Chapter 2 — Instructions: Language of the Computer — 63