LECTURE NO: 9 SUBJECT: Research Methods and Term Paper Writing

Data processing
Data processing is concerned with editing, coding, classifying, tabulating and
charting and diagramming research data Data processing in research consists of five
important steps
 Editing of data
 Coding of data
 Classification of data
 Tabulation of data
 Data diagrams
Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable
information. Data processing starts with data in its raw form and converts it into a
more readable format (graphs, documents, etc.), giving it the form and context
necessary to be interpreted by computers and utilized by employees throughout an
organization.
Editing of data
First step in analysis is to edit the raw data. Editing detects errors and omissions,
corrects them whatever possible. Editor’s responsibility is to guarantee that data are
– accurate; consistent with the intent of the questionnaire; uniformly entered;
complete; and arranged to simplify coding and tabulation. Editing of data may be
accomplished in two ways –
(i) field editing Field editing is preliminary editing of data by a field
supervisor on the same data as the interview. Its purpose is to identify
technical omissions, check legibility, and clarify responses that are
logically and conceptually inconsistent. When gaps are present from
interviews, a call-back should be made rather than guessing what the
respondent would probably said. Supervisor is to re-interview a few
respondents at least on some pre-selected questions as a validity check.
(ii) in-house also called central editing. In center or in-house editing all the
questionnaires undergo thorough editing. It is a rigorous job performed by
central office staff.
Coding
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes
LECTURE NO: 9 SUBJECT: Research Methods and Term Paper Writing

should be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also
possess the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data
item) Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies
may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical information
required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode the questionnaire
choices and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight
forward key punch from the original questionnaires. But in case of hand coding some
standard method may be used. One such standard method is to code in the margin
with a coloured pencil. The other method can be to transcribe the data from the
questionnaire to a coding sheet. Whatever method is adopted, one should see that
coding errors are altogether eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
Classification of data
Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the
basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy,
sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.). Descriptive
characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be measured

(b) Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the

numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be measured
through some statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc.
come under this category. Such data are known as statistics of variables and are
classified on the basis of class intervals.
Tabulation of data
Tabulation is a systematic & logical presentation of numeric data in rows and
columns to facilitate comparison and statistical analysis. It facilitates comparison by
bringing related information close to each other and helps in further statistical
analysis and interpretation. In other words, the method of placing organised data into
a tabular form is called as tabulation. It may be complex, double or simple depending
upon the nature of categorization.
Graphical Representation is a way of analysing numerical data. It exhibits the
relation between data, ideas, information and concepts in a diagram. It is easy to
understand and it is one of the most important learning strategies. It always depends
on the type of information in a particular domain.
LECTURE NO: 9 SUBJECT: Research Methods and Term Paper Writing

Line Graphs –
Line graph or the linear graph is used to display the continuous data and it is useful
for predicting future events over time.
– Bar Graph is used to display the category of data and it compares
the data using solid bars to represent the quantities.
– The graph that uses bars to represent the frequency of numerical
data that are organised into intervals. Since all the intervals are equal and continuous,
all the bars have the same width.
– It shows the frequency of data on a given number line. ‘ x ‘ is placed
above a number line each time when that data occurs again.
ncy Table – The table shows the number of pieces of data that falls within
the given interval.
– Also known as the pie chart that shows the relationships of the
parts of the whole. The circle is considered with 100% and the categories occupied
is represented with that specific percentage like 15%, 56%, etc.
Stem and Leaf Plot – In the stem and leaf plot, the data are organised from least
value to the greatest value. The digits of the least place values from the leaves and
the next place value digit forms the stems.
Box and Whisker Plot – The plot diagram summarises the data by dividing into
four parts. Box and whisker show the range (spread) and the middle ( median) of the
data