Name: Kaye Isabelle G.

Guingab Sensory memory is not consciously

controlled, short-term memory can only
Year & Course: BAP1A
hold limited information, and long-term
Subject: PSYC111 memory can store an indefinite amount of
information.
TYPES OF STAGES OF MEMORY
MEMORY Sensory Memory
Molecular neurobiology has shown that - Sensory memory is the earliest stage
memory is largely a neuro-chemical of memory. During this stage,
process, which includes conditioning sensory information from the
(training or accustoming) and any form environment is stored for a very brief
of stored experience (from the past). period, generally for no longer than a
Claimed by the information half-second for visual information
technology has led many to claim that and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory
cognition (mental action or process ) is information.
also extended, that is, memory may be Short-term Memory
stored outside of the brain.
- Short-term memory, also known as
This definition is largely accepted in active memory, is the information
neuroscience but not explicitly stated. we are currently aware of or thinking
Memory is the capacity to store and about in Freudian psychology, this
retrieve information. memory would be referred to as the
• Looking at natural (water cycle, conscious mind. Paying attention to
oxygen production, etc) and sensory memories generates
biological processes (metabolism, information in short-term memory.
digestion, etc.) of incorporation can - While many of our short-term
help us think of how incorporation of memories are quickly forgotten,
internal and external memory occurs attending to this information allows
in cognition. it to continue to the next stage: long-
term memory. Most of the
• We further argue that, if we accept
information stored in active memory
that there is such a thing as the
will be kept for approximately 20 to
storage of information outside the
30 seconds.
brain – and that this organic,
- The capacity can be stretched to
dynamic process can also be called
somewhat by using memory
“memory” – then we open the door
strategies such as chunking, which
to a very different world.
involves grouping related
• The mind is not static. The brain,
information into smaller chunks.
and the memory it uses, is a work in
- The term “short-term memory” is
progress; we are not now who we
often used interchangeably with
were then.
“working memory”, which refers to
Memory defined in psychology as the faculty the processes that are used to
of encoding, storing, and retrieving temporarily store, organize, and
information. Psychologists have found that manipulate information.
memory includes three important stages or - In a famous paper published in 1956,
types: psychologist George Miller suggested

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 that the capacity of short-term Storage refers to how, where, how much,
memory for storing a list of items and how long encoded information is
was somewhere between 5 and 9. retained within the memory system.
Some memory researchers now
The modal model of memory (storage)
believe that the true capacity of
short-term memory is probably close highlights the existence of two types of
to 4. memory: short-term and long-term
memory.
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Encoded information is first stored in
Long-term memory refers to the short-term memory and then, if need be,
continuing storage of information. In is stored in long-term memory.
Freudian psychology, long-term memory
would be called the preconscious and Atkinson and Shiffrin argue that
information that is encoded acoustically
unconscious.
is primarily stored in short-term
This information is largely outside of our memory (STM), and it is only kept there
awareness but can be called into through constant repetition (rehearsal).
working memory to be used when Time and inattention may cause
needed. Some memories are easy to information stored in STM to be
recall, while others are much more forgotten.
difficult to access.
This is because short-term memory only
Three main processes that characterize lasts between 15 and 30 seconds.
how memory works. Additionally, STM only stores between
five and nine items of information, with
Encoding. Encoding refers to the seven items being the average number.
process through which information is In this context, the term “items” refers
learned. That is, how information is to any piece of information.
taken in, understood, and altered to
better support storage. Information is Long-term memory, however, has
usually encoded through one (or more) immense storage capacity, and
of four methods: information stored within LTM can be
stored there indefinitely. Information
1. Visual encoding (how something that is encoded semantically is primarily
looks); stored in LTM; however, LTM also
2. acoustic encoding (how stores visually- and acoustically-encoded
something sounds); information.
3. semantic encoding (what
something means); and Once information is stored within LTM
4. tactile encoding (how something or STM, individuals need to recall or
feels). retrieve it to make use of said
information (Roediger & McDermott,
While information typically enters the 1995). It is this retrieval process that
memory system through one of these often determines how well students
modes, the form in which this perform on assignments designed to test
information is stored may differ from its
recall.
original, encoded form.
RETRIEVAL
STORAGE

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 Retrieval is the process through which • Write it down: The act of writing
individuals access stored information. with a pen and paper helps implant
Due to their differences, information the memory into your brain—and
stored in STM and LTM are retrieved can also serve as a reminder or
differently. reference later on.
• Attach meaning to it: You can
While STM is retrieved in the order in
remember something more easily if
which it is stored (for example, a
you attach meaning to it. For
sequential list of numbers), LTM is
instance, if you associate a person,
retrieved through association (for
you just meet with someone you
example, remembering where you
already know, you may be able to
parked your car by returning to the
remember their name better.
entrance through which you accessed a
shopping mall). • Repeat it: Repetition helps the
memory become encoded beyond
WHY WE FORGET your short-term memory. Group it:
Information that is categorized
Forgetting is surprisingly common event.
becomes easier to remember and
Just consider how easy it is to forget
recall.
someone’s name or overlook an important
• Test yourself: While it may seem like
appointment.
studying and rehearsing information
There are 4 basic explanations for why is the best way to ensure that you
forgetting occurs: will remember it, researchers have
found that being tested on
• Failure to store a memory information is actually one of the
• Interference best ways to improve recall.
• Motivated forgetting • Take a mental picture:
• Retrieval failure Systematically trying to make a
mental note of things you often
Research has shown that one of the critical
forget (such as where you left your
factors that influence memory failure is
car keys) can help you remember
time. Information is often quickly forgotten,
things better.
particularly if people do not actively review
• Get enough rest: Research has also
and rehearse the information.
found that sleep plays a critical role
Sometimes information is simply lost from in learning and the formation of new
memory, and, in another cases, it was never memories.
stored correctly in the first place. Some • Use memorization techniques:
memories compete with one another, Rehearsing information, employing
making it difficult to remember certain mnemonics, and other memorization
information. In other instances, people strategies can help combat minor
actively try to forget things that they simply memory problems.
don’t want to remember.
HOW TO PROTECT YOUR MEMORY
HOW TO IMPROVE MEMORY
Avoid Stress
Useful strategies deal with mild memory
loss include: Avoid drugs, alcohol, and other neurotoxins
Get enough exercise

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Stimulate your brain
Maintain a sense of self-efficacy
THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND
INTELLIGENCE
The frontal lobe is primarily responsible for
thinking, planning, memory, and judgment.

Your cerebrum is the largest part of your

brain, and it handles a wide range of
responsibilities. Located at the front and top
of your skull, it gets its name from the Latin
word meaning “brain.” Your cerebrum is
instrumental in everything you do in day-to-
day life, ranging from thoughts to actions.

Left hemisphere controls speech,

comprehension, arithmetic, and writing.

These are the five basic rules systems found

in language.
1. Syntax – The rules that govern word
order to form clauses, phrases, and
sentences.
2. Morphology – The rules that govern
change in meaning at the word level.
Wernicke's area is a critical language area 3. Phonology – The rules that govern
in the posterior superior temporal lobe the structure, distribution, and
connects to Broca's area via a neural sequencing of speech -sound
pathway. patterns .
4. Semantics – The rules that govern
Wernicke's area is primarily involved in the the meaning and context of words or
comprehension. grammatical units.
5. Pragmatics – The rules that govern
Historically, this area has been associated
language use across communication
with language processing, whether it is
contexts.
written or spoken.

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 and surroundings. But can words
themselves shape the way we think about
things?
Psychologists have long investigated the
question of whether language shapes
thoughts and actions, or whether our
thoughts and beliefs shape our language.
Two researchers, Edward Sapir and
Benjamin Lee Whorf began this
investigation in the 1940s.
They wanted to understand how the
language habits of a community encourage
members of that community to interpret
language in a particular manner (Sapir,
1941/1964). Sapir and Whorf proposed that
Language is a communication language determines thought.
system that involves using words
and systematic rules to organize For example, in some languages, there are
those words to transmit information many different words for love. However, in
from one individual to another. English, we use the word love for all types of
While language is a form of love. Does this affect how we think about
communication, not all love depending on the language that we
communication is language. Many speak (Whorf, 1956)? Researchers have
species communicate with one since identified this view as too absolute,
another through their postures, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind
movements, odors, or vocalizations. what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler,
This communication is crucial for 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994).
species that need to interact and Today, psychologists continue to study and
develop social relationships with debate the relationship between language
their conspecifics. and thought.
However, many people have asserted Thinking and language are difficult to
that it is language that makes separate. Although the linguistic
humans unique among all of the determinism hypothesis states that
animal species (Corballis & language determines thought, we know that
Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & thinking can occur without language, and so
Rakoczy, 2003). we might better say that thinking affects our
language as a special form of language, which then affects our thoughts.
communication, how the use of
language develops, and how Intelligence is generally considered
language affects the way we think. to be the ability to learn from
experience, solve problems, and
LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT adapt to new situations.
When we speak one language, we agree that Psychologists debate whether
words are representations of ideas, people, intelligence is one general ability or
places, and events. The given language that several specific abilities.
children learn is connected to their culture Some theorists have expanded the
definition of intelligence to include

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 social intelligence, especially Stereotype threat can adversely affect
emotional intelligence. performance and sometimes appears in
intelligence testing among African-
Take a breather first Americans and women.
ABOUT INELLIGENCE TEST SCHEMATA
France Alfred Binet developed questions A schema is a mental construct consisting of
that helped predict children’s future a cluster or collection of related concepts
progress in the Paris school system. (Bartlett, 1932).
Lewis Terman of Stanford University used There are many different types of schemata,
Binet’s ideas to develop the Stanford-Binet and they all have one thing in common:
intelligence test. German psychologist schemata are a method of organizing
William Stern derived the formula for the information that allows the brain to work
famous intelligence quotient, or IQ. more efficiently.
Modern tests are widely accepted only if When a schema is activated, the brain
they are standardized, reliable, and valid. makes immediate assumptions about the
Aptitude tests tend to be highly reliable, but person or object being observed.
they are weak predictors of success in life.
There are several types of schemata. A role
One way to test the validity of a test is to schema makes assumptions about how
compare people who score at the two individuals in certain roles will behave
extremes of the normal curve: the (Callero, 1994).
challenged and the gifted.
For example, imagine you meet someone
Studies of twins, family members, and who introduces himself as a firefighter.
adopted children point to significant genetic When this happens, your brain
determinants of intelligence test scores. automatically activates the “firefighter
These and other studies also indicate that schema” and begins making assumptions
environment significantly influences that this person is brave, selfless, and
intelligence test scores. community-oriented.

Psychologists debate evolutionary and Despite not knowing this person, already
cultural explanations of gender differences you have unknowingly made judgments
in aptitudes and abilities. about him. Schemata also help you fill in
gaps in the information you receive from the
Environmental differences are perhaps world around you.
entirely responsible for racial gaps in
intelligence. While schemata allow for more efficient
information processing, there can be
Aptitude tests, which predict performance problems with schemata, regardless of
in a given situation, are necessarily “biased” whether they are accurate: Perhaps this
in the sense that they are sensitive to firefighter is not brave, he just works as a
performance differences caused by cultural firefighter to pay the bills while studying to
experiences. become a children’s librarian.
However, the major tests are not biased in An event schema, also known as a
that they predict as accurately for one group cognitive script, is a set of behaviors that
as for another.

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can feel like a routine. Think about what you o Trait-Factor Approach
do when you walk into an elevator. o Social-Cognitive Approach
o Humanistic Approach
First, the doors open and you wait to let o Measuring Personality
exiting passengers leave the elevator car.
Then, you step into the elevator and turn How do psychoanalysts describe
around to face the doors, looking for the personality?
correct button to push.
There are three parts to the personality
You never face the back of the elevator, do according to Sigmund Freud's
you? And when you’re riding in a crowded psychoanalytic theory. These are the id,
elevator and you can’t face the front, it feels superego, and ego. The id is the first to
uncomfortable, doesn’t it? Interestingly, develop, the ego is second, and the superego
event schemata can vary widely among is the last to develop. The id is the biological
different cultures and countries. component of the personality and includes
your instincts.
For example, while it is quite common for
people to greet one another with a Drink water first!!!
handshake in the United States, in Tibet,
you greet someone by sticking your tongue
out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists
(Cairns Regional Council, n.d.)
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Why do people like psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic
Psychology Psychoanalytic and
psychodynamic psychotherapies help people
to improve their lives by gaining a better
understanding about how they think and
feel. Talk therapies can help create better
relationships, more manageable emotions,
and the ability to make better life choices.
EMOTION AND MOTIVATION
What is the main point of psychoanalysis?
o The Psychology of Motivation
o Theories of Motivation Psychoanalysis aims to promote awareness
o Hunger of unconscious and recurrent patterns of
o Sexual Motivation and Sexual emotion and behavior in order to help a
person address the root causes of their
Orientation
o Achievement Motivation psychological issues. By releasing repressed
thoughts and emotions, this type of therapy
o Emotion
may help treat depression and anxiety
PERSONALITY disorders.
o Psychoanalytic Approach

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What is Freud's psychoanalytic view of Why is it important for one to understand
personality? their personality traits and values?
The Origins of Personality – Introduction to Our personality differentiates us from other
Psychology ... people, and understanding someone's
personality gives us clues about how that
Freud proposed that the mind is divided person is likely to act and feel in a variety of
into three components: id, ego, and situations. To effectively manage
superego, and that the interactions and organizational behavior, an understanding
conflicts among the components create of different employees' personalities is
personality. Freud proposed that we use helpful.
defense mechanisms to cope with anxiety
and maintain a positive self-image. Can personality influence the way a person
lives?
How do you get your personality traits?
“Personality affects academic and job
Is Personality Genetic? The Impact of Genes performance, social and political attitudes,
vs. Environment the quality and stability of social
Both genetics and environment play a part relationships, physical health and mortality,
in the development of personality, although and risk for mental disorder.
the specific degree to which each one plays a How does personality affect others?
part often depends on the specific
personality trait in question. When we come to expect someone to act a
certain way, we learn to interact with them
How do your personality Traits affect your based on their personality. This goes both
life? ways, and people learn to interact with us
Research reveals that since your personality based on our personality. When we behave
affects your thoughts and behaviors then it different than our normal personality traits,
gradually affects your development and people may take time to adjust to the
stability as well. If you are high in situation.
extraversion and openness, then you are How does SOCIAL COGNITIVE assess
more likely to be more stable and mature personality?
both mentally and emotionally.
Social Cognitive Personality Assessment: A
What personality TRAITS do you think are Case ... To execute a social cognitive
important? personality assessment, we argue that the
15 Most Important Personality Traits of clinician must perform four tasks: (a)
Effective Leaders identify personality structures, (b) identify
if-then personality signatures, (c) map
OPENNESS AND FRIENDLINESS. personality structures to if then personality
KINDNESS. THOUGHTFULNESS. signatures, and (d) integrate social cognitive
EMOTIONAL STABILITY. CREATIVITY. assessment data to form an evidence-based
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATORS. conceptualization.
INTEGRITY. SELF-AWARENESS.
EMPATHY. ENGAGED. HUMUROUS. What is trait and social cognitive
PASSIONATE. RESPECTABLE. personality?
ACCOUNTABLE. ETHICAL. Social cognitive theory Individuals'
interpretation of the environment interacts

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with affect to produce characteristic How does HUMANISTIC describe
patterns of responses. If traits exist, they personality?
exist in terms of these links between
cognition, affect, and action. What is an The Humanistic Theory of Personality states
that people are intrinsically good, with an
example of a social cognitive personality?
Social Cognitive Perspective | Definition & innate drive to make themselves better. The
Significance ... From the social cognitive Humanistic theory is built on the premise of
a person's self-concept, consisting of their
perspective, people's personalities are
real self and their ideal self.
influenced by observing others' behavior.
For example, a teenager goes to a party and How is personality developed in humanistic
notices that the people who are drinking perspective?
alcohol are slurring their speech and being
more argumentative and louder than those A crucial component of Carl Rogers'
who were not drinking alcohol. humanistic personality theory includes the
self-concept. For Rogers, self-concept is
What is a real-life example of social critical in a person's assessment of self-
cognitive theory? worth and his attendant world view. The
Social Cognitive Theory | Overview, self-concept determines personality
Definition & Examples ... development by influencing perceptions in
negative or positive ways. Are you really
Think of a time that you have learned a skill reading this???
or behavior from observing another person.
For example, you may have learned What is purpose of MEASURING
altruistic behavior from seeing your parents PERSONALITY
bring food to a homeless person, or you may Introduction to Measuring Personality |
have learned how to train a dog from Introduction to ...
watching The Dog Whisperer.
Personality tests are techniques designed to
What is behavioral and social-cognitive measure one's personality. They are used to
perspective on personality? diagnose psychological problems as well as
Behaviorists view personality as to screen candidates for college and
significantly shaped by reinforcements and employment. There are two types of
consequences from the environment. In personality tests: self-report inventories and
social-cognitive theory, the concepts of projective tests. The five broad personality
reciprocal determinism, observational traits described by the theory are
learning, and self-efficacy all play a part in extraversion (also often spelled
personality development. extroversion), agreeableness, openness,
conscientiousness, and neuroticism.
What are the strengths of social cognitive
theory? The five basic personality traits is a theory
coined in 1949 by D. W. Fiske (1949) and
The key strength of social cognitive theory later expanded upon by other researchers
for practice lies in targeting two constructs: including Norman (1967), Smith (1967),
self-efficacy and outcome expectancies. Goldberg (1981), and McCrae & Costa
Facilitating change in these constructs in (1987).
interventions has been shown to be effective
in changing a large array of behavioral What are the two types of measurements of
outcomes. personality?

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Personality measures can generally be
broken down into two types: typologies,
which sort people into groups based on their
full personality profile, and continuum
measures, which assess each individual
personality trait of the individual separately.
What does measured personality mean?
The phrase "measured person" is correct
and usable in written English. It can be used
to describe someone who is thoughtful and
restrained in their actions. For example:
"His measured perspective helped the team
to think about their problem in a logical
way."
What is the most accurate personality test?
Any personality test can be fun and
intriguing. But from a scientific perspective,
tools such as the Big Five Inventory (and
others based on the five-factor model) and
those used by psychological scientists, such
as the MMPI, are likely to provide the most HEALTH, STRESS, AND COPING
reliable and valid results. Stress is experienced when the demands of a
What is the best way to measure personality situation tax or exceed a person's resources
and why? and some type of harm or loss is anticipated.

How do we typically measure personality? Coping is conceptualized as efforts to

This is achieved using a question-based ameliorate the perceived threat or to
model, asking respondents to rate manage stress emotions (emotion- focused
themselves based on their reactions to given coping and problem-focused coping).
situations, generally on a sliding or Likert Healthy coping to stress important.
scale. Then algorithms are used to turn
these subjective answers into objective Preventing and managing long-term stress
personality traits. can lower your risk for other conditions —
like heart disease, obesity, high blood
pressure, and depression.
Coping involves adjusting to unusual
demands, or stressors. This requires giving a
greater effort and using greater energy than
what's needed in the daily routines of life.
Prolonged mobilization of effort can
contribute to elevated levels of stress-
related hormones and to eventual physical
breakdown and illness. What is stress
coping health in psychology?

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Stress is experienced when the demands of a Unable to remember things, or make your
situation tax or exceed a person's resources memory feel slower than usual.
and some type of harm or loss is anticipated.
Coping is conceptualized as efforts to Constantly worry or have feelings of dread.
ameliorate the perceived threat or to Snap at people.
manage stress emotions (emotion- focused
coping and problem-focused coping). This Bite your nails.
exam is my source of stress. Pick at or itch your skin.
What is the role of stress coping and health Grind your teeth or clench your jaw.
Behavior model?
(to study more --
Health behaviors such as eating and https://www.mind.org.uk/information-
exercising have been linked to stress in support/types-of-mental-health-
many studies, and researchers suggest that problems/stress/signs-and-symptoms-of-
these links are in large part due to the use of stress/
health behaviors to cope with stress.
However, health behaviors in the context of What are the effects of stress?
coping have received relatively little This can put you at increased risk for a
research attention. variety of physical and mental health
Coping skills help you tolerate, minimize, problems, including anxiety, depression,
and deal with stressful situations in life. digestive issues, headaches, muscle tension
Managing your stress well can help you feel and pain, heart disease, heart attack, high
better physically and psychologically and it blood pressure, stroke, sleep problems,
can impact your ability to perform your weight gain, and memory and concentration
best. impairment.

Stress symptoms can affect your body, your

thoughts and feelings, and your behavior.
Knowing common stress symptoms can help
you manage them. Stress that's not dealt
with can lead to many health problems, such
as high blood pressure, heart disease,
stroke, obesity and diabetes.
Some of the most common causes of stress
are money, health and work. Learn how to
manage them.
Stress is a normal part of life, and one that
can occur during both good and bad times.
How do you recognize stress in your life?
If you feel stressed, it might make you:
Find it hard to make decisions.
Unable to concentrate.

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