CGMT Unit2
CGMT Unit2
• Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
• The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
• Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.
PEO1: To provide students with the fundamentals of Engineering Sciences with more
emphasis in computer science and engineering by way of analyzing and exploiting
engineering challenges.
PEO2: To train students with good scientific and engineering knowledge so as to comprehend,
analyze, design, and create novel products and solutions for the real life problems.
PEO5: To prepare students to excel in Industry and Higher education by educating Students
along with High moral values and Knowledge.
CO-PO Mapping
Computer Graphics & Multimedia Techniques 5CS4-04
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 : Implement
geometric images
3 2 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 3
using graphical input
techniques
CO2: Design and
develop images with
3 2 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 3
the help of 2D & 3D
transformations.
CO3: Identify visible
surfaces for
generation of realistic 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 3
graphics display and
curves representation.
CO4: Analyse
multimedia and 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 3
animation techniques.
CO-PSO Mapping
CO’s PSO1 PSO2
CO1: Implement geometric images using graphical input
2 2
techniques
CO2: Design and develop images with the help of 2D & 3D
2 2
transformations.
CO3: Identify visible surfaces for generation of realistic
2 2
graphics display and curves representation.
CO4: Analyse multimedia and animation techniques. 2 2
Lecture Plan of Computer Graphics & Multimedia Techniques ( CGMT)
5CS4-04
Unit
No./
Lect.
Total Topics
Req.
lec.
Req.
Unit- Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.
1
1(1)
Unit-
Fill area primitives including scan- line polygon filling, inside-outside test, boundary and 2
flood-fill
3(7)
character generation, line attributes, area-fill attributes, character attributers. Aliasing, and 2
introduction to Anti Aliasing (No anti aliasing algorithm)
3D display methods, polygon surfaces, tables, equations, meshes, curved lies and surfaces 2
quadric surfaces, spline representation, cubic spline interpolation methods, Bazier curves
2
and surfaces
Unit-
B-spline curves and surfaces.3D scaling, rotation and translation, composite
5(8) 2
transformation
Unit- Light sources – basic illumination models – halftone patterns and dithering techniques
1
6(6)
Properties of light – Standard primaries and chromaticity diagram 2
Intuitive colour concepts – RGB colour model – YIQ colour model – CMY colour model –
2
HSV colour model – HLS colour model
Colour selection. 1
Unit-
7(6) Tiling the plane – Recursively defined curves – Koch curves – C curves – Dragons –
space filling curves –fractals – Grammar based models – fractals – turtle graphics – ray
3
tracing.
Fig. 2.1: - Stair step effect produced when line is generated as a series of pixel positions.
The stair step shape is noticeable in low resolution system, and we can improve their appearance
somewhat by displaying them on high resolution system.
More effective techniques for smoothing raster lines are based on adjusting pixel intensities along the
line paths.
For raster graphics device-level algorithms discuss here, object positions are specified directly in integer
device coordinates.
Pixel position will referenced according to scan-line number and column number which is illustrated by
following figure.
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 2.2: - Pixel positions referenced by scan-line number and column number.
To load the specified color into the frame buffer at a particular position, we will assume we have
available low-level procedure of the form 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦).
1
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Similarly for retrieve the current frame buffer intensity we assume to have procedure 𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑝𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑙(𝑥, 𝑦).
Y2
y1
X1 X2
DDA Algorithm
Digital differential analyzer (DDA) is scan conversion line drawing algorithm based on calculating either
∆𝑦 or ∆𝑥 using above equation.
We sample the line at unit intervals in one coordinate and find corresponding integer values nearest the
line path for the other coordinate.
Consider first a line with positive slope and slope is less than or equal to 1:
We sample at unit x interval (∆𝑥 = 1) and calculate each successive y value as follow:
𝑦=𝑚∗𝑥+𝑏
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 1) + 𝑏
In general 𝑦𝑘 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘) + 𝑏 , &
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏
Now write this equation in form:
𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 = (𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏) – (𝑚 ∗ (𝑥 + 𝑘) + 𝑏)
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 + 𝑚
So that it is computed fast in computer as addition is fast compare to multiplication.
2
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
In above equation 𝑘 takes integer values starting from 1 and increase by 1 until the final endpoint is
reached.
As 𝑚 can be any real number between 0 and 1, the calculated 𝑦 values must be rounded to the nearest
integer.
Consider a case for a line with a positive slope greater than 1:
We change the role of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that is sample at unit 𝑦 intervals (∆𝑦 = 1) and calculate each succeeding
𝑥 value as:
𝑥 = (𝑦 − 𝑏)/𝑚
𝑥1 = ((𝑦 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚
In general 𝑥𝑘 = ((𝑦 + 𝑘) − 𝑏)/𝑚, &
𝑥𝑘+1 = ((𝑦 + 𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚
Now write this equation in form:
𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘 = (((𝑦 + 𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏)/𝑚) – (((𝑦 + 𝑘) − 𝑏)/𝑚)
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1/𝑚
Above both equations are based on the assumption that lines are to be processed from left endpoint to
the right endpoint.
If we processed line from right endpoint to left endpoint than:
If ∆𝑥 = −1 equation become:
𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 – 𝑚
If ∆𝑦 = −1 equation become:
𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 − 1/𝑚
Above calculated equations also used to calculate pixel position along a line with negative slope.
Procedure for DDA line algorithm.
Void lineDDA (int xa, int ya, int xb, int yb)
{
int dx = xb – xa, dy = yb – ya, steps, k;
float xincrement, yincrement, x = xa, y = ya;
if (abs(dx)>abs(dy))
{
Steps = abs (dx);
}
else
{
Steps = abs (dy);
}
xincrement = dx/(float) steps;
yincrement = dy/(float) steps;
3
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Advantages of DDA algorithm
It is faster algorithm.
It is simple algorithm.
Specified
13 50
line path
Specified
12 49
line path
11 48
10 47
10 11 12 13 14 15 50 51 52 53 54 55
Fig. 2.4: - Section of a display screen where a Fig. 2.5: - Section of a display screen where a
straight line segment is to be plotted, starting negative slope line segment is to be plotted,
from the pixel at column 10 on scan line 11. starting from the pixel at column 50 on scan
line 50.
The vertical axes show scan-line positions and the horizontal axes identify pixel column.
Sampling at unit 𝑥 intervals in these examples, we need to decide which of two possible pixel position is
closer to the line path at each sample step.
To illustrate bresenham’s approach, we first consider the scan-conversion process for lines with positive
slope less than 1.
Pixel positions along a line path are then determined by sampling at unit 𝑥 intervals.
Starting from left endpoint (𝑥0, 𝑦0) of a given line, we step to each successive column and plot the pixel
whose scan-line 𝑦 values is closest to the line path.
Assuming we have determined that the pixel at (𝑥𝑘, 𝑦𝑘) is to be displayed, we next need to decide which
pixel to plot in column 𝑥𝑘 + 1.
Our choices are the pixels at positions (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘) and (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 + 1).
Let’s see mathematical calculation used to decide which pixel position is light up.
We know that equation of line is:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Now for position 𝑥𝑘 + 1.
𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏
Now calculate distance bet actual line’s 𝑦 value and lower pixel as 𝑑1 and distance bet actual line’s 𝑦
value and upper pixel as 𝑑2.
𝑑 1 = 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑘
4
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
d1 = m(xk + 1) + b − yk .............................................................................................................................................................. (1)
𝑑2 = (𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑦
𝑑2 = (𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏..…………………………………………………………………………………………………………(2)
Now calculate 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 from equation (1) and (2).
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = (𝑦 – 𝑦𝑘) – ((𝑦𝑘 + 1) – 𝑦)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = {𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑘} − {(𝑦𝑘 + 1) − 𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑏}
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = {𝑚𝑥𝑘 + 𝑚 + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑘} − {𝑦𝑘 + 1 − 𝑚𝑥𝑘 − 𝑚 − 𝑏}
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2𝑚(𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1……………………………………………………………………………….……………..(3)
Now substitute 𝑚 = ∆𝑦/∆𝑥 in equation (3)
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 2 (∆𝑦∆𝑥) (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 − 1 ….………………………………….………………………………………………….(4)
Now we have decision parameter 𝑝𝑘 for 𝑘𝑡ℎ step in the line algorithm is given by:
𝑝𝑘 = ∆𝑥(𝑑1 − 𝑑2)
𝑝𝑘 = ∆𝑥(2∆𝑦/∆𝑥(𝑥𝑘 + 1) – 2𝑦𝑘 + 2𝑏 – 1)
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥 ……………………………………………………….………………………(5)
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 𝐶 (𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶 = 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥) .................................................... (6)
The sign of 𝑝𝑘 is the same as the sign of 𝑑1 − 𝑑2, since ∆𝑥 > 0 for our example.
Parameter 𝑐 is constant which is independent of pixel position and will eliminate in the recursive
calculation for 𝑝𝑘.
Now if 𝑝𝑘 is negative then we plot the lower pixel otherwise we plot the upper pixel.
So successive decision parameters using incremental integer calculation as:
𝑝𝑘+1 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘+1 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘+1 + C
Now Subtract 𝑝𝑘 from 𝑝𝑘+1
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦(𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘) -2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘+1 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘+1 + C − 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 + 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 − C
But 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1, so that (𝑥𝑘+1 − 𝑥𝑘) = 1
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥(𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘)
Where the terms 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘 is either 0 or 1, depends on the sign of parameter 𝑝𝑘.
This recursive calculation of decision parameters is performed at each integer 𝑥 position starting at the
left coordinate endpoint of the line.
The first decision parameter 𝑝0 is calculated using equation (5) as first time we need to take constant
part into account so:
𝑝𝑘 = 2∆𝑦𝑥𝑘 − 2∆𝑥𝑦𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑏 − ∆𝑥
Now 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑦0 – 𝑚𝑥0
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥(𝑦0 − 𝑚𝑥0) − ∆x
Now Substitute 𝑚 = ∆𝑦/𝛥𝑥
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥(𝑦0 − (∆𝑦/∆𝑥)𝑥0) − ∆x
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − 2∆𝑥𝑦0 + 2∆𝑦 + 2∆𝑥𝑦0 − 2∆𝑦𝑥0 − ∆x
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦 − ∆x
Let’s see Bresenham’s line drawing algorithm for |𝑚| < 1
1. Input the two line endpoints and store the left endpoint in (𝑥0, 𝑦0).
2. Load (𝑥0, 𝑦0) into the frame buffer; that is, plot the first point.
3. Calculate constants ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦, 2∆𝑦, and 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥, and obtain the starting value for the decision
parameter as
5
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
𝑝0 = 2∆𝑦 − ∆𝑥
4. At each 𝑥𝑘 along the line, starting at 𝑘 = 0, perform the following test:
If 𝑝𝑘 < 0, the next point to plot is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘) and
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦
Otherwise, the next point to plot is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 + 1) and
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2∆𝑦 − 2∆𝑥
5. Repeat step-4 ∆𝑥 times.
Bresenham’s algorithm is generalized to lines with arbitrary slope by considering symmetry between the
various octants and quadrants of the 𝑥𝑦 plane.
For lines with positive slope greater than 1 we interchange the roles of the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions.
Also we can revise algorithm to draw line from right endpoint to left endpoint, both 𝑥 and 𝑦 decrease as
we step from right to left.
When 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 0 we choose either lower or upper pixel but once we choose lower than for all such
case for that line choose lower and if we choose upper the for all such case choose upper.
For the negative slope the procedure are similar except that now one coordinate decreases as the other
increases.
The special case handle separately. Horizontal line (∆𝑦 = 0), vertical line (∆𝑥 = 0) and diagonal line
with |∆𝑥| = |∆𝑦| each can be loaded directly into the frame buffer without processing them through
the line plotting algorithm.
Y2
Δy
Y1
Δx
X1 X2
Fig. 2.6: - Bounding box for a line with coordinate extents ∆x and ∆y.
Another way to set up parallel algorithms on raster system is to assign each processor to a particular
group of screen pixels.
With sufficient number of processor we can assign each processor to one pixel within some screen
region.
This approach can be adapted to line display by assigning one processor to each of the pixels within the
limit of the bounding rectangle and calculating pixel distance from the line path.
The number of pixels within the bounding rectangle of a line is ∆𝑥 × ∆𝑦.
Perpendicular distance 𝑑 from line to a particular pixel is calculated by:
𝑑 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶
Where
𝐴 = −∆𝑦/𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐵 = −∆𝑥/𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐶 = (𝑥0∆𝑦 − 𝑦0∆𝑥)/𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
With
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = √∆𝑥2 + ∆𝑦2
Once the constant 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 have been evaluated for the line each processors need to perform two
multiplications and two additions to compute the pixel distance 𝑑.
A pixel is plotted if d is less than a specified line thickness parameter.
Instead of partitioning the screen into single pixels, we can assign to each processor either a scan line or
a column a column of pixels depending on the line slope.
7
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Each processor calculates line intersection with horizontal row or vertical column of pixels assigned to
that processor.
If vertical column is assign to processor then 𝑥 is fix and it will calculate 𝑦 and similarly is horizontal row
is assign to processor then 𝑦 is fix and 𝑥 will be calculated.
Such direct methods are slow in sequential machine but we can perform very efficiently using multiple
processors.
Circle
Yc
Xc
Fig. 2.7: - Circle with center coordinates (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) and radius 𝑟.
A circle is defined as the set of points that are all at a given distance r from a center position say (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐).
Properties of Circle
The distance relationship is expressed by the Pythagorean theorem in Cartesian coordinates as:
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2
We could use this equation to calculate circular boundary points by incrementing 1 in 𝑥 direction in
every steps from 𝑥𝑐 – 𝑟 to 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑟 and calculate corresponding 𝑦 values at each position as:
(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2
(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐)2 = 𝑟2 − (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐)2
(𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐) = ±√𝑟2 − (𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥)2
Fig. 2.8: - Positive half of circle showing non uniform spacing bet calculated pixel positions.
8
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
We can adjust spacing by stepping through 𝑦 values and calculating 𝑥 values whenever the absolute
value of the slop of the circle is greater than 1. But it will increases computation processing requirement.
Another way to eliminate the non-uniform spacing is to draw circle using polar coordinates ‘𝑟’ and ‘ ’.
Calculating circle boundary using polar equation is given by pair of equations which is as follows.
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑟 cos
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑟 sin
When display is produce using these equations using fixed angular step size circle is plotted with uniform
spacing.
The step size ‘ ’ is chosen according to application and display device.
For a more continuous boundary on a raster display we can set the step size at 1/𝑟. This plot pixel
position that are approximately one unit apart.
Computation can be reduced by considering symmetry city property of circles. The shape of circle is
similar in each quadrant.
We can obtain pixel position in second quadrant from first quadrant using reflection about 𝑦 axis and
similarly for third and fourth quadrant from second and first respectively using reflection about 𝑥 axis.
We can take one step further and note that there is also symmetry between octants. Circle sections in
adjacent octant within one quadrant are symmetric with respect to the 450 line dividing the two
octants.
This symmetry condition is shown in figure below where point (𝑥, 𝑦) on one circle sector is mapped in
other seven sector of circle.
(-Y, X) (Y, X)
45O
(-X, Y)
(X, Y)
9
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
A method for direct distance comparison to test the midpoint between two pixels to determine if this
midpoint is inside or outside the circle boundary.
This method is easily applied to other conics also.
Midpoint approach generates same pixel position as generated by bresenham’s circle algorithm.
The error involve in locating pixel positions along any conic section using midpoint test is limited to one-
half the pixel separation.
𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒚 𝟐 − 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟎
𝒚𝒌 Midpoint
𝒚𝒌 − 𝟏
𝒙𝒌 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟏 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟐
Fig. 2.10: - Midpoint between candidate pixel at sampling position 𝑥𝑘 + 1 along circle path.
Assuming we have just plotted the pixel at (𝑥𝑘, 𝑦𝑘) and next we need to determine whether the pixel at
position ‘(𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘)’ or the one at position’ (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − 1)’ is closer to circle boundary.
So for finding which pixel is more closer using decision parameter evaluated at the midpoint between
two candidate pixels as below:
𝑝𝑘 = 𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − 1) 2
( )2 1 2 2
𝑝𝑘 = 𝑥𝑘 + 1 + (𝑦𝑘 − ) − 𝑟
2
If 𝑝𝑘 < 0 this midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel on the scan line 𝑦𝑘 is closer to circle boundary.
Otherwise the midpoint is outside or on the boundary and we select the scan line 𝑦𝑘 − 1.
Successive decision parameters are obtain using incremental calculations as follows:
10
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
1
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (𝑥𝑘+1 + 1, 𝑦𝑘+1 − )
2
𝑝 = [(𝑥 + 1) + 1]2 + (𝑦 1 2 2
𝑘+1 𝑘
𝑘+1 − 2
) −𝑟
Now we can obtain recursive calculation using2 equation of 𝑝𝑘+1 and 𝑝𝑘 as follow.
𝑝 − 𝑝 = ([(𝑥 + 1) + 1]2 + (𝑦 1 2 ( )2 1 2 2
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘+1 − 2)
− 𝑟 ) − ( 𝑥 𝑘 + 1 + (𝑦𝑘 − 2) − 𝑟 )
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = (𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 + 2(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 1 + 𝑦𝑘+12 − 𝑦𝑘+1 + 1 − 𝑟2 − (𝑥𝑘 + 1)2 − 𝑦𝑘2 + 𝑦𝑘 − 1 + 𝑟2
4 4
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 1 + 𝑦𝑘+12 − 𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘2 + 𝑦𝑘
𝑝𝑘+1 − 𝑝𝑘 = 2(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + (𝑦𝑘+12 − 𝑦𝑘2) − (𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘) + 1
𝑝𝑘+1 = 𝑝𝑘 + 2(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + (𝑦𝑘+12 − 𝑦𝑘2) − (𝑦𝑘+1 − 𝑦𝑘) + 1
In above equation 𝑦𝑘+1 is either 𝑦𝑘 or 𝑦𝑘 − 1 depending on the sign of the 𝑝𝑘.
Now we can put 2𝑥𝑘+1 = 2𝑥𝑘 + 2 and when we select 𝑦𝑘+1 = 𝑦𝑘 − 1 we can obtain 2𝑦𝑘+1 = 2𝑦𝑘 − 2.
The initial decision parameter is obtained by evaluating the circle function at the start position
(𝑥0, 𝑦0) = (0, 𝑟) as follows.
𝑝0 = 𝑓𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 (0 + 1, 𝑟 − 1)2
2 1 2 2
𝑝0 = 1 + (𝑟 − 2) − 𝑟
𝑝0= 1 + 𝑟2 − 𝑟 + 1 − 𝑟2
4
𝑝0= − 𝑟
5
4
11
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Ellipse
Properties of Ellipse
If we labeled distance from two foci to any point on ellipse boundary as 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 then the general
equation of an ellipse can be written as follow.
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Expressing distance in terms of focal coordinates 𝑓1 = (𝑥1, 𝑦1) and 𝑓2 = (𝑥2, 𝑦2) we have
√(𝑥 − 𝑥1)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦1)2 + √(𝑥 − 𝑥2)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦2)2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
An interactive method for specifying an ellipse in an arbitrary orientation is to input two foci and a point
on the ellipse boundary.
With this three coordinates we can evaluate constant in equation:
√(𝑥 − 𝑥1)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦1)2 + √(𝑥 − 𝑥2)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦2)2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
We can also write this equation in the form
𝐴𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐶𝑥𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0
Where the coefficients 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, and 𝐹 are evaluated in terms of the focal coordinates and the
dimensions of the major and minor axes of the ellipse.
Major axis of an ellipse is straight line segment passing through both foci and extends up to boundary on
both sides.
The minor axis spans shortest dimension of ellipse, it bisect the major axis at right angle in two equal
half.
Then coefficient in 𝐴𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐶𝑥𝑦 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 can be evaluated and used to generate pixels
along the elliptical path.
Ellipse equation are greatly simplified if we align major and minor axis with coordinate axes i.e. 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
We can say ellipse is in standard position if their major and minor axes are parallel to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑦 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 which is shown in below figure.
12
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Fig. 2.12: - Ellipse centered at (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) with semi major axis 𝑟𝑥 and semi minor axis 𝑟𝑦 are parallel to
coordinate axis.
Equation of ellipse shown in figure 2.12 can be written in terms of the ellipse center coordinates and
parameters 𝑟𝑥 and 𝑟𝑦 as.
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑐 2 𝑦 − 𝑦𝑐 2
( ) +( )=1
𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
Using the polar coordinates 𝑟 and 𝜃, we can also describe the ellipse in standard position with the
parametric equations:
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 + 𝑟𝑥 cos θ
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑐 + 𝑟𝑦 sin θ
Symmetry considerations can be used to further reduced computations.
An ellipse in standard position is symmetric between quadrants but unlike a circle it is not symmetric
between octant.
Thus we must calculate boundary point for one quadrant and then other three quadrants point can be
obtained by symmetry as shown in figure below.
(−𝑥, 𝑦) (𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑟𝑦
𝑟𝑥
(𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐)
(−𝑥, − 𝑦) (𝑥, − 𝑦)
13
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
The advantage of this modified method is that only addition operations are required in the program
loops.
This leads to simple and fast implementation in all processors.
Given parameters 𝑟𝑥, 𝑟𝑦 and (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) we determine points (𝑥, 𝑦) for an ellipse in standard position
centered on the origin, and then we shift the points so the ellipse is centered at (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐).
If we want to display the ellipse in nonstandard position then we rotate the ellipse about its center to
align with required direction.
For the present we consider only the standard position.
In this method we divide first quadrant into two parts according to the slope of an ellipse as shown in
figure below.
Fig. 2.14: - Ellipse processing regions. Over the region 1 the magnitude of ellipse slope is < 1 and over
the region 2 the magnitude of ellipse slope > 1.
We take unit step in 𝑥 direction if magnitude of slope is less than 1 in that region otherwise we take unit
step in 𝑦 direction.
Boundary divides region at 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −1.
With 𝑟𝑥 < 𝑟𝑦 we process this quadrant by taking unit steps in 𝑥 direction in region 1 and unit steps in 𝑦
direction in region 2.
Region 1 and 2 can be processed in various ways.
We can start from (0, 𝑟𝑦) and step clockwise along the elliptical path in the first quadrant shifting from
unit step in 𝑥 to unit step in 𝑦 when slope becomes less than -1.
Alternatively, we could start at (𝑟𝑥, 0) and select points in a counterclockwise order, shifting from unit
steps in 𝑦 to unit steps in 𝑥 when the slope becomes greater than -1.
With parallel processors, we could calculate pixel positions in the two regions simultaneously.
Here we consider sequential implementation of midpoint algorithm. We take the start position at (0, 𝑟𝑦)
and steps along the elliptical path in clockwise order through the first quadrant.
We define ellipse function for center of ellipse at (0, 0) as follows.
𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑟𝑦2𝑥2 + 𝑟𝑥2𝑦2 − 𝑟 2𝑟 2
𝑦 𝑥
Which has the following properties:
< 0 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑓𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) {= 0 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
> 0 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
Thus the ellipse function serves as the decision parameter in the midpoint ellipse algorithm.
At each sampling position we select the next pixel from two candidate pixel.
14
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Starting at (0, 𝑟𝑦) we take unit step in 𝑥 direction until we reach the boundary between region 1 and 2
then we switch to unit steps in 𝑦 direction in remaining portion on ellipse in first quadrant.
At each step we need to test the value of the slope of the curve for deciding the end point of the region-
1.
The ellipse slope is calculated using following equation.
𝑑𝑦 2𝑟𝑦2𝑥
=− 2
𝑑𝑥 2𝑟𝑥 𝑦
At boundary between region 1 and 2 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −1 and equation become.
2𝑟𝑦2𝑥 = 2𝑟𝑥2𝑦
Therefore we move out of region 1 whenever following equation is false
2𝑟𝑦2𝑥 ≤ 2𝑟𝑥2𝑦
Following figure shows the midpoint between the two candidate pixels at sampling position 𝑥𝑘 + 1 in
the first region.
𝒚𝒌 Midpoint
𝒚𝒌 − 𝟏
𝒙𝒌 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟏 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟐
Fig. 2.15: - Midpoint between candidate pixels at sampling position 𝑥𝑘 + 1 along an elliptical path.
Assume we are at (𝑥𝑘 , 𝑦𝑘) position and we determine the next position along the ellipse path by
evaluating decision parameter 1 at midpoint between two candidate pixels.
𝑝1 = 𝑓
𝑘 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − )
2 1 2 22
2 2 2
𝑝1𝑘 = 𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑟𝑥
(𝑦𝑘 − ) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
2
If 𝑝1𝑘 < 0, the midpoint is inside the ellipse and the pixel on scan line 𝑦𝑘 is closer to ellipse boundary
otherwise the midpoint is outside or on the ellipse boundary and we select the pixel 𝑦𝑘 − 1.
At the next sampling position decision 1 parameter for region 1 is evaluated as.
𝑝1 =𝑓 (𝑥 + 1, 𝑦
𝑘+1 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝑘+1
𝑘+1 − ) 1 2
2 2 22
2 2
𝑝1𝑘+1 = 𝑟𝑦 [(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 1] + 𝑟𝑥 − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
(𝑦𝑘+1 − )
2
Now subtract 𝑝1𝑘 from 𝑝1𝑘+1
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
12
2 2 2
𝑝1𝑘+1 − 𝑝1𝑘 = 𝑟𝑦 [(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 1] + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘+1 − ) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 − 𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘 − )
+ 𝑟 2𝑟 2 2 2
𝑥𝑦 2 2
2 2
1 2 2 2
1
2
𝑝1𝑘+1 − 𝑝1𝑘 = 𝑟𝑦 [(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 1] + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘+1 − ) − 𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘 − )
22 2 2 22 2
12
2 2 2 2 1
𝑝1𝑘+1 − 𝑝1𝑘 = 𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 2𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑟𝑦 + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘+1 − ) − 𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) − 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘 − )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1
𝑝1𝑘+1 − 𝑝1𝑘 = 2𝑟𝑦 (𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑟𝑦 + 𝑟𝑥
[(𝑦𝑘+1 − ) − (𝑦𝑘 − ) ]
2 2
Now making 𝑝1𝑘+1 as subject.
15
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
2 2
(𝑥𝑘 + 1) + 𝑟𝑦 + 𝑟𝑥
21 2 12
𝑝1𝑘+1 = 𝑝1𝑘 + 2𝑟𝑦
[(𝑦𝑘+1 − ) − (𝑦𝑘 − ) ]
2 2
Here 𝑦𝑘+1 is either 𝑦𝑘 or 𝑦𝑘 − 1, depends on the sign of 𝑝1𝑘
Now we calculate the initial1decision parameter 𝑝10 by putting (𝑥0, 𝑦0) = (0, 𝑟𝑦) as follow.
𝑝1 = 𝑓
0 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 (0 + 1, 𝑟𝑦− ) 2
21 22
2 2 2
𝑝10 = 𝑟𝑦
(1) + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑟𝑦 − 2) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
2 2
12 22
𝑝10 = 𝑟𝑦
+ 𝑟𝑥 (𝑟𝑦 − ) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
12
𝑝10 = 𝑟𝑦2 − 𝑟𝑥 2𝑟𝑦 + 𝑟𝑥 2
4
Now we similarly calculate over region 2 by unit stepping in negative 𝑦 direction and the midpoint is now
taken between horizontal pixels at each step as shown in figure below.
𝒚𝒌 Midpoint
𝒚𝒌 − 𝟏
𝒙𝒌 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟏 𝒙𝒌 + 𝟐
Fig. 2.16: - Midpoint between candidate pixels at sampling position 𝑦𝑘 − 1 along an elliptical path.
For this region, the decision
1 parameter is evaluated as follows.
𝑝2 = 𝑓
𝑘 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 (𝑥𝑘 + , 𝑦𝑘 − 1)
2
2 1 2 2 2 22
𝑝2𝑘 = 𝑟𝑦
(𝑥𝑘 + ) + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦𝑘 − 1) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
2
If 𝑝2𝑘 > 0 the midpoint is outside the ellipse boundary, and we select the pixel at 𝑥𝑘.
If 𝑝2𝑘 ≤ 0 the midpoint is inside or on the ellipse boundary and we select 𝑥𝑘 + 1.
At the next sampling position 1 decision parameter for region 2 is evaluated as.
𝑝2 =𝑓 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑘+1 + , 𝑦𝑘+1
𝑘+1
𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
2
2
2 1 2 2 22
𝑝2𝑘+1 = 𝑟𝑦
(𝑥𝑘+1 + ) + 𝑟𝑥 [(𝑦𝑘 − 1) − 1] − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
2
Now subtract 𝑝2𝑘 from 𝑝2𝑘+1
1 2
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
16
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Here 𝑥𝑘+1 is either 𝑥𝑘 or 𝑥𝑘 + 1, depends on the sign of 𝑝2𝑘.
In region 2 initial position is selected which is last position of region one and the initial decision
parameter is calculated 1 as follows.
𝑝2 = 𝑓
0 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒 (𝑥0 + , 𝑦0 − 1)
2
2 1 2 2 2 22
𝑝20 = 𝑟𝑦
(𝑥0 + ) + 𝑟𝑥 (𝑦0 − 1) − 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦
2
For simplify calculation of 𝑝20 we could select pixel position in counterclockwise order starting at (𝑟𝑥, 0).
In above case we take unit step in the positive 𝑦 direction up to the last point selected in region 1.
If 𝑝1𝑘 < 0, the next point along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is (𝑥𝑘+1, 𝑦𝑘) and
𝑝1𝑘+1 = 𝑝1𝑘 + 2𝑟𝑦2𝑥𝑘+1 + 𝑟𝑦2
If 𝑝2𝑘 > 0, the next point along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is (𝑥𝑘, 𝑦𝑘 − 1) and
𝑝2𝑘+1 = 𝑝2𝑘 − 2𝑟𝑥2𝑦𝑘+1 + 𝑟𝑥2
Otherwise, the next point along the ellipse is (𝑥𝑘 + 1, 𝑦𝑘 − 1) and
𝑝2𝑘+1 = 𝑝2𝑘 − 2𝑟𝑥2𝑦𝑘+1 + 𝑟𝑥2 + 2𝑟𝑦2𝑥𝑘+1
Using the same incremental calculations for 𝑥 and 𝑦 as in region 1.
6. Determine symmetry points in the other three quadrants.
7. Move each calculated pixel position (𝑥, 𝑦) onto the elliptical path centered on (𝑥𝑐, 𝑦𝑐) and plot the
coordinate values:
𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑐
𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐
Repeat the steps for region 2 until 𝑦𝑘 ≥ 0.
Filled-Area Primitives
In practical we often use polygon which are filled with some color or pattern inside it.
17
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
There are two basic approaches to area filling on raster systems.
One way to fill an area is to determine the overlap intervals for scan line that cross the area.
Another method is to fill the area is to start from a given interior position and paint out wards from this
point until we encounter boundary.
Fig. 2.17: - Interior pixels along a scan line passing through a polygon area.
For each scan-line crossing a polygon, the algorithm locates the intersection points are of scan line with
the polygon edges.
This intersection points are stored from left to right.
Frame buffer positions between each pair of intersection point are set to specified fill color.
Some scan line intersects at vertex position they are required special handling.
For vertex we must look at the other endpoints of the two line segments of the polygon which meet at
this vertex.
If these points lie on the same (up or down) side of the scan line, then that point is counts as two
intersection points.
If they lie on opposite sides of the scan line, then the point is counted as single intersection.
This is illustrated in figure below
Fig. 2.18: - Intersection points along the scan line that intersect polygon vertices.
As shown in the Fig. 2.18, each scan line intersects the vertex or vertices of the polygon. For scan line 1,
the other end points (B and D) of the two line segments of the polygon lie on the same side of the scan
18
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
line, hence there are two intersections resulting two pairs: 1 -2 and 3 - 4. Intersections points 2 and 3 are
actually same Points. For scan line 2 the other endpoints (D and F) of the two line segments of the
Polygon lie on the opposite sides of the scan line, hence there is a single intersection resulting two pairs:
l - 2 and 3 - 4. For scan line 3, two vertices are the intersection points"
For vertex F the other end points E and G of the two line segments of the polygon lie on the same side of
the scan line whereas for vertex H, the other endpoints G and I of the two line segments of the polygon
lie on the opposite side of the scan line. Therefore, at vertex F there are two intersections and at vertex
H there is only one intersection. This results two pairs: 1 - 2 and 3 - 4 and points 2 and 3 are actually
same points.
Coherence methods often involve incremental calculations applied along a single scan line or between
successive scan lines.
In determining edge intersections, we can set up incremental coordinate calculations along any edge by
exploiting the fact that the slope of the edge is constant from one scan line to the next.
Figure below shows three successive scan-lines crossing the left edge of polygon.
19
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Using this equation we can perform integer evaluation of 𝑥 intercept by initializing a counter to 0, then
incrementing counter by the value of ∆𝑥 each time we move up to a new scan line.
When the counter value becomes equal to or greater than ∆𝑦, we increment the current 𝑥 intersection
value by 1 and decrease the counter by the value ∆𝑦.
This procedure is seen by following figure.
Decerement 0
4
Decerement 1
5
Decerement 2
6
3
Y0 0 Y0
X0 X0
∆𝑥
Fig. 2.19: - line with slope 7/3 and its integer calculation using equation 𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑥𝑘 + ∆𝑦.
Steps for above procedure
1. Suppose m = 7/3
2. Initially, set counter to 0, and increment to 3 (which is 𝛥𝑥).
3. When move to next scan line, increment counter by adding ∆𝑥
4. When counter is equal or greater than 7 (which is 𝛥𝑦), increment the x-intercept (in other words, the 𝑥-
intercept for this scan line is one more than the previous scan line), and decrement counter by 7(which
is ∆𝑦).
To efficiently perform a polygon fill, we can first store the polygon boundary in a sorted edge table that
contains all the information necessary to process the scan lines efficiently.
We use bucket sort to store the edge sorted on the smallest 𝑦 value of each edge in the correct scan line
positions.
Only the non-horizontal edges are entered into the sorted edge table.
Figure below shows one example of storing edge table.
20
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Scan-
Line
Number
Yc Yb Xc 1/mcb
B
Yd Yc Xd 1/mdb Ye Xd 1/mde
C Scan Line Yc
Ya Yb Xc 1/mcb Yb Xa 1/mab
C’ E .
Scan Line Yd .
.
Scan Line Ya D 1
0
A
Inside-Outside Tests
In area filling and other graphics operation often required to find particular point is inside or outside the
polygon.
For finding which region is inside or which region is outside most graphics package use either odd even
rule or the nonzero winding number rule.
21
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Fig. 2.21: - Identifying interior and exterior region for a self-intersecting polygon.
22
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Seed
2
(a)
1
2
1
3
(b)
1
3
1
5 6 6
4 5
(c)
1
4
1
24
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
4
(d) 5
1
4
1
Fig. 2.24: - Boundary fill across pixel spans for a 4-connected area.
Flood-Fill Algorithm
Sometimes it is required to fill in an area that is not defined within a single color boundary.
In such cases we can fill areas by replacing a specified interior color instead of searching for a boundary
color.
This approach is called a flood-fill algorithm. Like boundary fill algorithm, here we start with some seed
and examine the neighbouring pixels.
However, here pixels are checked for a specified interior color instead of boundary color and they are
replaced by new color.
Using either a 4-connected or 8-connected approach, we can step through pixel positions until all
interior point have been filled.
The following procedure illustrates the recursive method for filling 4-connected region using flood-fill
algorithm.
Procedure :
flood-fill4(x, y, new-color, old-color)
{
if(getpixel (x,y) = = old-color)
{
putpixel (x, y, new-color)
flood-fill4 (x + 1, y, new-color, old -color);
flood-fill4 (x, y + 1, new -color, old -color);
flood-fill4 (x - 1, y, new -color, old -color);
flood-fill4 (x, y - l, new -color, old-color);
}
}
Note: 'getpixel' function gives the color of .specified pixel and 'putpixel' function draws the pixel with
specified color.
Character Generation
We can display letters and numbers in variety of size and style.
The overall design style for the set of character is called typeface.
Today large numbers of typefaces are available for computer application for example Helvetica, New
York platino etc.
Originally, the term font referred to a set of cast metal character forms in a particular size and format,
such as 10-point Courier Italic or 12- point Palatino Bold. Now, the terms font and typeface are often
used interchangeably, since printing is no longer done with cast metal forms.
Two different representations are used for storing computer fonts.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Bitmap Font/ Bitmapped Font
A simple method for representing the character shapes in a particular typeface is to use rectangular grid
patterns.
Figure below shows pattern for particular letter.
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Outline Font
In this method character is generated using curve section and straight line as combine assembly.
Figure below shows how it is generated.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Stroke Method
Start
Starbust Method
03 04 03 04
13 14 13 14
02 23 05 02 23 05
17 18 17
18
01 06 01 06
21 21
12 22 07 12 22 07
20 20
24 19 24 19
11 08 11 08
16 15 16 15
10 09 10 09
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.28: - (a) Starbust Method. (b) Letter V using starbust method
In this method a fix pattern of line segments are used to generate characters.
As shown in figure 2.28 there are 24 line segments.
We highlight those lines which are necessary to draw a particular character.
Pattern for particular character is stored in the form of 24 bit code. In which each bit represents
corresponding line having that number.
That code contains 0 or 1 based on line segment need to highlight. We put bit value 1 for highlighted line
and 0 for other line.
Code for letter V is
110011100001001100000000
This technique is not used now a days because:
1. It requires more memory to store 24 bit code for single character.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
2. It requires conversion from code to character.
3. It doesn’t provide curve shapes.
Line Attributes
Basic attributes of a straight line segment are its type, its dimension, and its color. In some graphics
packages, lines can also be displayed using selected pen or brush option.
Line Type
Possible selection for the line-type attribute includes solid lines, dashed lines, and dotted lines etc.
We modify a line –drawing algorithm to generate such lines by setting the length and spacing of
displayed solid sections along the line path.
A dashed line could be displayed by generating an inter dash spacing that is equal to the length of the
solid sections. Both the length of the dashes and the inter dash spacing are often specified as user
options.
To set line type attributes in a PHIGS application program, a user invokes the function:
setLinetype(It)
Where parameter lt is assigned a positive integer value of 1, 2, 3, 4… etc. to generate lines that are,
respectively solid, dashed, dotted, or dash-dotted etc.
Other values for the line-type parameter It could be used to display variations in the dot-dash patterns.
Once the line-type parameter has been set in a PHIGS application program, all subsequent line-drawing
commands produce lines with this Line type.
Raster graphics generates these types by plotting some pixel and some pixel is off along the line path.
We can generate different patterns by specifying 1 for on pixel and 0 for off pixel then we can generate
1010101 patter as a dotted line.
It is used in many application for example comparing data in graphical form.
Line Width
Implementation of line-width options depends on the capabilities of the output device.
A heavy line on a video monitor could be displayed as adjacent parallel lines, while a pen plotter might
require pen changes.
To set line width attributes in a PHIGS application program, a user invokes the function:
setLinewidthScalFactor (lw)
Line-width parameter lw is assigned a positive number to indicate the relative width of the line to be
displayed.
Values greater than 1 produce lines thicker than the standard line width and values less than the 1
produce line thinner than the standard line width.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
In raster graphics we generate thick line by plotting above and below pixel of line path when slope
|𝑚| < 1 and by plotting left and right pixel of line path when slope |𝑚| > 1 which is illustrated in below
figure.
Fig. 2.30: - Double-wide raster line with slope |𝑚| < 1 generated with vertical pixel spans.
Fig. 2.31: - Raster line with slope |𝑚| > 1 and line-width parameter 𝑙𝑤 = 4 plotted with horizontal pixel
spans.
As we change width of the line we can also change line end which are shown below which illustrate all
three types of ends.
Fig. 2.32: - Thick lines drew with (a) butt caps, (b) projecting square caps, and (c) round caps.
Similarly we generates join of two lines of modified width are shown in figure below which illustrate all
three type of joins.
Fig. 2.33: - Thick lines segments connected with (a) miter join, (b) round join, and (c) bevel join.
Line Color
The name itself suggests that it is defining color of line displayed on the screen.
By default system produce line with current color but we can change this color by following function in
PHIGS package as follows:
setPolylineColorIndex (lc)
In this lc is constant specifying particular color to be set.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Pen and Brush Options
In some graphics packages line is displayed with pen and brush selections.
Options in this category include shape, size, and pattern.
Some possible pen or brush are shown in below figure.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Color Lookup Table
Color values of 24 bit is stored in lookup table and in frame buffer we store only 8 bit index which gives
index of required color stored into lookup table. So that size of frame buffer is reduced and we can
display more color.
When we display picture using this technique on output screen we look into frame buffer where index of
the color is stored and take 24 bit color value from look up table corresponding to frame buffer index
value and display that color on particular pixel.
Color
Lookup
Frame Buffer Table
0 To Red Gun
To Green Gun
To Blue Gun
255
Greyscale
With monitors that have no color capability, color function can be used in an application program to set
the shades of grey, or greyscale for display primitives.
Numeric values between 0-to-1 can be used to specify greyscale levels.
This numeric values is converted in binary code for store in raster system.
Table below shows specification for intensity codes for a four level greyscale system.
Area-Fill Attributes
For filling any area we have choice between solid colors or pattern to fill all these are include in area fill
attributes.
Area can be painted by various burses and style.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Fill Styles
Area are generally displayed with three basic style hollow with color border, filled with solid color, or
filled with some design.
In PHIGS package fill style is selected by following function.
setInteriorStyle (fs)
Value of fs include hollow, solid, pattern etc.
Another values for fill style is hatch, which is patterns of line like parallel line or crossed line.
Figure bellow shows different style of filling area.
Pattern Fill
We select the pattern with
setInteriorStyleIndex (pi)
Where pattern index parameter pi specifies position in pattern table entry.
Figure below shows pattern table.
Index(pi) Pattern(cp)
1 40
[ ]
04
2 2 12
[1 2 1]
2 12
Table 2.2: - Pattern table.
For example, the following set of statements would fill the area defined in the fillArea command with
the second pattern type stored in the pattern table:
SetInteriorStyle( pattern ) ;
setInteriorStyleIndex ( 2 ) ;
fillArea (n, points);
Separate table can be maintain for hatch pattern and we can generate our own table with required
pattern.
Other function used for setting other style as follows
setpatternsize (dx, dy)
setPaternReferencePoint (positicn)
We can create our own pattern by setting and resetting group of pixel and then map it into the color
matrix.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Soft Fill
Soft fill is modified boundary fill and flood fill algorithm in which we are fill layer of color on back ground
color so that we can obtain the combination of both color.
It is used to recolor or repaint so that we can obtain layer of multiple color and get new color
combination.
One use of this algorithm is soften the fill at boundary so that blurred effect will reduce the aliasing
effect.
For example if we fill t amount of foreground color then pixel color is obtain as:
𝑝 = 𝑡𝐹 + (1 − 𝑡)𝐵
Where F is foreground color and B is background color
If we see this color in RGB component then:
𝑝 = (𝑝𝑟, 𝑝𝑔, 𝑝𝑏) 𝑓 = (𝑓𝑟,𝑓𝑔, 𝑓𝑏) 𝑏 = (𝑏𝑟, 𝑏𝑔, 𝑏𝑏)
Then we can calculate 𝑡 as follows:
𝑃𝑘 − 𝐵𝑘
𝑡 =
𝐹𝑘 − 𝐵𝑘
If we use more than two color say three at that time equation becomes as follow:
𝑝 = 𝑡0𝐹 + 𝑡1𝐵1 + (1 − 𝑡0 − 𝑡1)𝐵2
Where the sum of coefficient 𝑡0, 𝑡1, and (1 − 𝑡0 − 𝑡1) is 1.
Character Attributes
The appearance of displayed characters is controlled by attributes such as font, size, color, and
orientation.
Attributes can be set for entire string or may be individually.
Text Attributes
In text we are having so many style and design like italic fonts, bold fonts etc.
For setting the font style in PHIGS package we have one function which is:
setTextFont (tf)
Where tf is used to specify text font
It will set specified font as a current character.
For setting color of character in PHIGS we have function:
setTextColorIndex (tc)
Where text color parameter tc specifies an allowable color code.
For setting the size of the text we use function.
setCharacterheight (ch)
For scaling the character we use function.
setCharacterExpansionFacter (cw)
Where character width parameter cw is set to a positive real number that scale the character body
width.
Spacing between character is controlled by function
setCharacterSpacing (cs)
Where character spacing parameter cs can be assigned any real value.
The orientation for a displayed character string is set according to the direction of the character up
vector:
setCharacterUpVector (upvect)
Parameter upvect in this function is assigned two values that specify the 𝑥 and 𝑦 vector components.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Text is then displayed so that the orientation of characters from baseline to cap line is in the direction of
the up vector.
For setting the path of the character we use function:
setTextPath (tp)
Where the text path parameter tp can be assigned the value: right, left, up, or down.
It will set the direction in which we are writing.
For setting the alignment of the text we use function.
setTextAlignment (h, v)
Where parameter h and v control horizontal and vertical alignment respectively.
For specifying precision for text display is given with function.
setTextPrecision (tpr)
Where text precision parameter tpr is assigned one of the values: string, char, or stroke.
The highest-quality text is produced when the parameter is set to the value stroke.
Marker Attributes
A marker symbol display single character in different color and in different sizes.
For marker attributes implementation by procedure that load the chosen character into the raster at
defined position with the specified color and size.
We select marker type using function.
setMarkerType (mt)
Where marker type parameter mt is set to an integer code.
Typical codes for marker type are the integers 1 through 5, specifying, respectively, a dot (.), a vertical
cross (+), an asterisk (*), a circle (o), and a diagonal cross (x). Displayed marker types are centred on the
marker coordinates.
We set the marker size with function.
SetMarkerSizeScaleFactor (ms)
Where parameter marker size ms assigned a positive number according to need for scaling.
For setting marker color we use function.
setPolymarkerColorIndex (mc)
Where parameter mc specify the color of the marker symbol.
Aliasing
In signal processing and related disciplines, aliasing is an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when sampled. It also refers to the distortion or artifact that results
when the signal reconstructed from samples is different from the original continuous signal.
Aliasing can occur in signals sampled in time, for instance digital audio, and is referred to as temporal
aliasing. Aliasing can also occur in spatially sampled signals, for instance moiré patterns in digital images.
Aliasing in spatially sampled signals is called spatial aliasing.
Aliasing is generally avoided by applying low pass filters or anti-aliasing filters to the input signal before
sampling. Suitable reconstruction filters should then be used when restoring the sampled signal to the
continuous domain.
Antialiasing methods were developed to combat the effects of aliasing.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
As aliasing problem is due to low resolution, one easy solution is to increase the resolution , causing sample
points to occur more frequently. This increases the cost of image production.
The image is created at high resolution and then digitally filtered. This method is called supersampling or
postfiltering and eliminates high frequencies which are the source of aliases.
The image can be calculated by considering the intensities over a particular region. This is called
prefiltering.
Prefiltering.
Prefiltering methods treat a pixel as an area, and compute pixel color based on the overlap of the scene's objects
with a pixel's area. These techniques compute the shades of gray based on how much of a pixel's area is covered
by a object.
For example, a modification to Bresenham's algorithm was developed by Pitteway and Watkinson. In this
algorithm, each pixel is given an intensity depending on the area of overlap of the pixel and the line. So, due to
the blurring effect along the line edges, the effect of antialiasing is not very prominent, although it still exists.
Prefiltering thus amounts to sampling the shape of the object very densely within a pixel region. For shapes
other than polygons, this can be very computationally intensive.
Original Image
Prefiltered image
.
Along the character's border, the colors are a mixture of the foreground and background colors.
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Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
Postfiltering.
Supersampling or postfiltering is the process by which aliasing effects in graphics are reduced by increasing
the frequency of the sampling grid and then averaging the results down. This process means calculating a
virtual image at a higher spatial resolution than the frame store resolution and then averaging down to the final
resolution. It is called postfiltering as the filtering is carried out after sampling.
The drawback is that there is a technical and economic limit for increasing the resolution of the virtual
image.
Since the frequency of images can extend to infinity, it just reduces aliasing by raising the Nyquist limit -
shift the effect of the frequency spectrum.
A continuous image I(x,y) is sampled at n times the final resolution. The image is calculated at n times the
frame resolution. This is a virtual image.
To generate the origial image, we need to consider a region in the virtual image. The extent of that region
determines the regions involved in the lowpass operation. This process is called convolution.
After we obtain the virtual image which is at a higher resolution, the pixels of the final image are located
over superpixels in the virtual image. To calculate the value of the final image at (Si,Sj), we place the filter over
36
Unit-2 – Graphics Primitives
the superimage and compute the sum of the filter weights and the surrounding pixels. An adjacent pixel of the
final image is calculated by moving the filter S superpixels to the right. Thus the step size is same as the scale
factor between the real and the virtual image.
Filters combine samples to compute a pixel's color. The weighted filter shown on the slide combines nine
samples taken from inside a pixel's boundary. Each sample is multiplied by its corresponding weight and the
products are summed to produce a weighted average, which is used as the pixel color. In this filter, the center
sample has the most influence. The other type of filter is an unweighted filter. In an unweighted filter, each
sample has equal influence in determining the pixel's color. In other words, an unweighted filter computes an
unweighted average.
The spatial extent of the filter determines the cutoff frequency. The wider the filter, the lower is the cutoff
frequency and the more blurred is the image.
The value of S - scaling factor between the virtual and the real images.
As far the first factor is concerned, higher the value, the better the result is going to be. The compromise to be
made is the high storage cost.
Disadvantages
It is not a context sensitive technique and thereby results in a lot of wasteful computations .
37