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AUTHORS
Brendon May
To access a customizable version of this book, as well as other
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David Gabel
Jen Kershaw
Raja Almukahhal
Larame Spence
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Kaitlyn Spong
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textbooks).
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Mark Spong
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Printed: January 27, 2020

iv
www.ck12.org Contents

Contents

1 Introduction to Functions 1
1.1 Functions and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Domain and Range of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Function Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Function Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Vertical and Horizontal Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7 Stretching and Reflecting Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.8 Combining Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9 Introduction to Functions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

2 Algebraic Expressions 33
2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 Multiplying Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Factoring Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Simplifying Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.7 Algebraic Expressions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3 Quadratic Functions 66
3.1 Properties of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 Vertex Form of a Quadratic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.3 Inverse of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4 Simplifying Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.5 Methods for Solving Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6 Families of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.7 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.8 Linear-Quadratic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.9 Quadratic Functions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

4 Exponential Functions 98
4.1 Product Rules for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.2 Quotient Rules for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3 Power Rule for Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4 Zero and Negative Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5 Fractional Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.6 Exponential Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.7 Graphs of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

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Contents www.ck12.org

4.8 Graphing Transformed Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

4.9 Applications of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.10 Exponential Functions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

5 Trigonometric Functions and Applications 124

5.1 Sine, Cosine, Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2 Solving Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3 Special Right Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4 Reference Angles and Angles in the Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.5 Domain, Range, and Signs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.6 Trigonometric Ratios on the Unit Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.7 Introduction to Trig Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.8 Laws of Sines and Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.9 Ambiguity and 3D Trigonometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.10 Sinusoidal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.11 Transforming Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
5.12 Modelling Sinusoidal Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.13 Trigonometric Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.14 Trigonometric Functions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

6 Discrete Functions 176

6.1 Arithmetic Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.2 Geometric Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.3 Simple and Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
6.4 Annuities (Future Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.5 Annuities (Present Value) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6 Discrete Functions - Review of Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

C HAPTER
1 Introduction to Functions
Chapter Outline
1.1 F UNCTIONS AND R ELATIONS
1.2 D OMAIN AND R ANGE OF A F UNCTION
1.3 F UNCTION FAMILIES
1.4 F UNCTION N OTATION
1.5 I NVERSE F UNCTIONS
1.6 V ERTICAL AND H ORIZONTAL T RANSLATIONS
1.7 S TRETCHING AND R EFLECTING T RANSFORMATIONS
1.8 C OMBINING T RANSFORMATIONS
1.9 I NTRODUCTION TO F UNCTIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
1.10 R EFERENCES

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1.1. Functions and Relations www.ck12.org

1.1 Functions and Relations

Review

1. What is the definition of a function?

2. Can a function definition be written in the form x = 3y instead of y = 3x?
3. Is it mandatory for a function to have both an input and an output?
4. Can a statement be a function if there is only one input and output?
5. Give an example of a relation that is not a function, and explain why it is not a function.

For #6-14, identify each relation as either a function, or not a function:

6. (2, 4)(4, 6)(6, 8)(3, 4)(5, 7)(8, 2)

7. (−1, 6)(0, 4)(−4, 0)(−1, −6)(−3, −8)

8.

9.
10. (Jim, Kitty) (Joe, Betty) (Brian, Alice) (Jesus, Anissa) (Ken, Kelli)
11. (Jim, Alice) (Joe, Alice) (Brian, Betty) (Jim, Kitty) (Ken, Anissa)

12.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

13.

14.
15. At a Prom dance, each boy pins a corsage on his date. Is this an example of a function?
16. Later, at the same dance, Cory shows up with two dates, does this change the answer?

Review (Answers)

1. A function is a relationship between a set of allowed input values (of the independent variable) and a set of output
values (of the dependent variable) with the characteristic that each input value is related to exactly one output value.
2. A function definition can be written in the form instead of , as long as the relationship satisfies the definition of a
function.
3. Yes
4. Yes. There is no requirement on the number of values for the input set.
5. The following is a relation that is not a function: (0,2), (1,4), (2,6), (2,8), (3,10). The input value 2 is associated
with two output values (6 and 8) contrary to the definition of a function.
6. Function
7. Not a function
8. Not a function
9. Function
10. Function
11. Not a function
12. Not a function
13. Function

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1.1. Functions and Relations www.ck12.org

14. Function
15. Function, as long as each boy has only one date.
16. Not a function, since Cory (as input) has two assignments (outputs).

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

1.2 Domain and Range of a Function

Learning Objectives

In this concept, you will learn to identify the domain and range of a simple linear function.
Review
Identify whether the set of ordered pairs could represent a function or not.

1. {(1, 3)(2, 6)(2, 5)(3, 7)}

2. {(2, 5)(3, 6)(4, 7)(5, 8)}
3. {(6, 1)(7, 2)(8, 3)}
4. {(5, 2)(5, 3)(5, 4)(5, 5)}
5. {(81, 19)(75, 18)(76, 18)(77, 19)}

For problems 6-10, state the domain of the function in numbers 1-5.
For problems 11-15, state the range of the function in numbers 1-5.

Review (Answers)

1. No
2. Yes
3. Yes
4. No
5. No
6. {1, 2, 2, 3}
7. {2, 3, 4, 5}
8. {6, 7, 8}
9. {5}
10. {81, 75, 76, 77}
11. {3, 6, 5, 7}
12. {5, 6, 7, 8}
13. {1, 2, 3}
14. {2, 3, 4, 5}
15. {19, 18}

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1.3. Function Families www.ck12.org

1.3 Function Families

Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about evaluating more complex functions involving powers and roots by identifying the ’family’
each function belongs to in order to simplify the general form of the function’s graph.
Review

1. Explain what a square function is:

2. What is a cube function?
3. Describe the rate of growth of a cubic function related to the growth of a squared function
4. For square root functions we have to define the function value as the positive root, also known as what?
5. Why are reciprocal functions asymptotic to the x-axis?

Identify the parent function within each set of squared functions. Graph each set of functions using a graphing
calculator. Identify similarities and differences of each set.
Set 1:

TABLE 1.1:
f (x) = x2 − 10 f (x) = x2 − 1 f (x) = x2
f (x) = x2 + 3 f (x) = x2 + 9

6. Set 1:

a. Parent Function:
b. Similarities:
c. Differences:

Set 2:

TABLE 1.2:
f (x) = (x + 10)2 f (x) = (x + 4)2 f (x) = x2
f (x) = (x − 2)2 f (x) = (x − 5)2

7. Set 2:

a. Parent Function:
b. Similarities:
c. Differences:

Set 3:

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

TABLE 1.3:
f (x) = −x2 f (x) = x2

8. Set 3:

a. Parent Function:
b. Similarities:
c. Differences:

Use the above information and the vertex form of a quadratic equation: f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k to help you answer the
following questions:

9. How does the a value affect the graph?

10. How does the h value affect the graph?
11. How does the k value affect the graph?
12. How are domain values similar/different?
13. How are range values similar/different?
14. Does the a, h, and/or k value affect the domain?
15. Does the a, h, and/or k value affect the range?

Cubic Functions:
Circle the parent function within each set of cubic functions. Graph each set of functions using a graphing calculator.
Identify similarities and differences of each set.
Set 4:

TABLE 1.4:
f (x) = x3 − 5 f (x) = x3 − 3 f (x) = x3
f (x) = x3 + 1 f (x) = x3 + 6

16. Set 4:

a. Parent Function:
b. Similarities:
c. Differences:

Set 5:

TABLE 1.5:
f (x) = −x3 f (x) = x3

17. Set 5:

a. Parent Function:
b. Similarities:
c. Differences:

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1.3. Function Families www.ck12.org

Review (Answers)

1. A Square Function is any function that has a second degree equation, meaning it has an x 2 term and no greater
powers of x.
2. A Cube function is a third degree equation, meaning it has an x 3 term, and no greater powers of x.
3. A cubed function grows faster than a squared function by a multiple of x
4. principal root
5. Because y = 0 is excluded from the range.
6. The graph of these functions is here: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/bckp9w1fmt Similarities: width,
direction, end behavior, domain, degree Differences: x-intercept, y-intercept, range
7. The graph of this set of functions is here: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/1n9hrhtviq Similarities: direction,
end behavior, range, increasing/decreasing intervals, x-intercept, degree Differences: domain, width, y-intercept,
8. The graph of these functions is here: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/ob9szkhnz3 Similarities: domain, x and
y-intercept, end behavior, degree, width Differences: direction, range
9. The value of a determines the width (if 0 < a < 1 then the graph is wide, if a > 1 the graph is narrow) and direction
(if a < 0 then the graph is reflected down)
10. The value of h determines the left/right location: if h > 0 then the graph shifts left.
11. The value of k determines the up/down location: if k < 0 then the graph shifts down.
12. All domains are or All Real Numbers.
13. If a > 0 then the range is [#, +∞) or y > #; if a < 0 then the range is (−∞,#]
14. None of the values affect the domain.
15. a and k affect the range.
16. The graphs are: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/uxsbkzydiq
Similarities: end behavior, increasing/ decreasing intervals, domain, range, degree, width, direction Differences:
y-intercept, x-intercepts
17. The graphs are: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/jtagvq8ha1
Similarities: y-intercept, x-intercept, domain, end behavior, range, degree, width Differences: increasing/decreasing
interval

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

1.4 Function Notation

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to use function notation when working with functions.
Review
If g(x) = 4x2 − 3x + 2, find expressions for the following:

1. g(a)
2. g(a − 1)
3. g(a + 2)
4. g(2a)
5. g(−a)

If f (y) = 5y − 3, determine the value of ‘y’ when:

6. f (y) = 7
7. f (y) = −1
8. f (y) = −3
9. f (y) = 6
10. f (y) = −8

The value of a Bobby Orr rookie card n years after its purchase is V (n) = 520 + 28n.

11. Determine the value of V (6) and explain what the solution means.
12. Determine the value of n when V (n) = 744 and explain what this situation represents.
13. Determine the original price of the card.

3x
Let f (x) = x+2 .

14. When is f (x) undefined?

15. For what value of x does f (x) = 2.4?

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1.4. Function Notation www.ck12.org

Review (Answers)

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

1.5 Inverse Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to find the inverse of a relation and function.
Review
Write the inverses of the following functions. State whether or not the inverse is a function.

1. (2, 3), (−4, 8), (−5, 9), (1, 1)

2. (9, −6), (8, −5), (7, 3), (4, 3)

Find the inverses of the following functions algebraically. Note any restrictions to the domain of the inverse
functions.

3. f (x) = 6x − 9
1
4. f (x) = 4x+3
√
5. f (x) = x + 7
6. f (x) = x2 + 5
7. f (x) = x√3 − 11
5
8. f (x) = x + 16

Find the inverses of the following functions algebraically. Note any restrictions to the domain of the inverse
functions. These problems are a little trickier as you will need to factor out the y variable to solve. Use the example
below as a guide.
3x+13
f (x) = 2x−11
Example:

• x = 3y+13
2y−11 First, switch x and y
• 2xy − 11x = 3y + 13 Multiply both sides by 2y − 11 to eliminate the fraction
• 2xy − 3y = 11x + 13 Now rearrange the terms to get both terms with y in them on one side and everything else
on the other side
• y(2x − 3) = 11x + 13 Factor out the y
• y = 11x+13
2x−3 Finally, Divide both sides by 2x − 3 to isolate y.

So, the inverse of f (x) = 3x+13

2x−11 , x 6= 11
2 is f −1 (x) = 11x+13
2x−3 , x 6= 32 .

x+7
13. f (x) = x ,x 6= 0
x
14. f (x) = x−8 , x 6= 8

Multi-step problem

15. In many countries, the temperature is measured in degrees Celsius. In the US we typically use degrees
Fahrenheit. For travelers, it is helpful to be able to convert from one unit of measure to another. The following
problem will help you learn to do this using an inverse function.

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1.5. Inverse Functions www.ck12.org

a. The temperature at which water freezes will give us one point on a line in which x represents the degrees
in Celsius and y represents the degrees in Fahrenheit. Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius and 32 degrees
Fahrenheit so the first point is (0, 32). The temperature at which water boils gives us the second point
(100, 212), because water boils at 100 degrees Celsius or 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Use this information
to show that the equation to convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit is y = 95 x + 32 or F = 95 C + 32.
b. Find the inverse of the equation above by solving for C to derive a formula that will allow us to convert
from Fahrenheit to Celsius.
c. Show that your inverse is correct by showing that the composition of the two functions simplifies to
either F or C (depending on which one you put into the other.)

Answers for Review Problems

1.(3, 2), (8, -4), (9, -5), (1, 1); yes

2.(-6, 9), (-5, 8), (3, 7), (3, 4)

9. yes
10. no
11. no
12. yes

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

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1.6. Vertical and Horizontal Translations www.ck12.org

1.6 Vertical and Horizontal Translations

Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about graphing more complex types of functions easily by applying horizontal and vertical shifts
to the graphs of parent functions. If you are not familiar with parent functions or function families, it would be a
good idea to review the lessons on those topics before proceeding.
Review

1. Graph the function f (x) = 2|x − 1|−3 without a calculator.

2. What is the vertex of the graph and how do you know?
3. Does it open up or down and how do you know?
4. For the function: f (x) = |x|+c if c is positive, the graph shifts in what direction?
5. For the function: f (x) = |x|+c if c is negative, the graph shifts in what direction?
6. The function g(x) = |x − a| represents a shift to the right or the left?
7. The function h(x) = |x + a| represents a shift to the right or the left?
8. If a graph is in the form a · f (x). What is the effect of changing the a?

Describe the transformation that has taken place for the parent function f (x) = |x|.

9. f (x) = |x|−5
10. f (x) = 5|x + 7|

Write an equation that reflects the transformation that has taken place for the parent function g(x) = 1x , for it to move
in the following ways:

11. Move two spaces up

12. Move four spaces to the right
13. Stretch it by 2 in the y-direction

Write an equation for each described transformation.

14. a V-shape shifted down 4 units.

15. a V-shape shifted left 6 units
16. a V-shape shifted right 2 units and up 1 unit.

The following graphs are transformations of the parent function f (x) = |x| in the form of f (x) = a|x − h|= k. Graph
or sketch each to observe the type of transformation.

17. f (x) = |x|+2. What happens to the graph when you add a number to the function? (i.e. f(x) + k).
18. f (x) = |x|−4. What happens to the graph when you subtract a number from the function? (i.e. f(x) - k).
19. f (x) = |x − 4|. What happens to the graph when you subtract a number in the function? (i.e. f(x - h)).
20. f (x) = |x + 2|. What happens to the graph when you add a number in the function? (i.e. f(x + h)).

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

Review (Answers)

17. The graph shifts up, and looks like a large "V" with the vertex at (0, 2).
18. The graph shifts down, and looks like a large "V" with the vertex at (0, -4).
19. The graph shifts right, and looks like a large "V" with the vertex at (4, 0)

15
1.7. Stretching and Reflecting Transformations www.ck12.org

1.7 Stretching and Reflecting Transformations

Learning Objectives

Here you will explore how to take the parent function in a function family and either stretch it horizontally or
vertically, or reflect it to change its direction. If you are not already familiar with function families, it would be a
good idea to review them first, and then return here to apply those concepts.
Review

1. If a function is multiplied by a coefficient, what will happen to the graph of the function?
2. What does multiplying x by a number greater than one create?
3. What happens when we multiply x by a number between 0 and 1?
4. In order to obtain a reflection over the y axis what do we have to do to x?
5. How do we obtain a reflection over the x-axis?
6. Write a function that will create a horizontal compression of the following: f (x) = x2 + 3
7. Write a function that will horizontally
√ stretch the following: f (x) = x2 − 6
8. Rewrite the function f (x) = − √ x to get a reflection over the x-axis.
9. Rewrite the function f (x) = x to get a reflection over the y-axis.

Graph each of the following using transformations. Identify the translations and reflections.

10. f (x) = |x|−2

√
11. h(x) = x + 3
1
12. g(x) = x+1
13. f (x) = −4x3
14. h(x) = (x + 3)3 + 1
15. f (x) = 31 (x − 3)2 + 1
√
16. f (x) = −4 x + 1 − 2
2
17. f (x) = 3(x−2) + 41

Let y = f (x) be the function defined by the line segment connecting the points (-1, 4) and (2, 5). Graph each of the
following transformations of y = f (x).

18. y= f (x) + 1
19. y= f (x + 2)
20. y= f (−x)
21. y= f (x + 3) − 2

The graph of y = x is shown below. Sketch the graph of each of the following transformations of y = x

22. y = x + 3
23. y = x − 2
24. y = −x

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Review (Answers)

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1.8. Combining Transformations www.ck12.org

1.8 Combining Transformations

Learning Objectives

Here you will learn about combining different types of transformations applied to a single graph.
Review

1. What part of the function g(x) = −( f (x) + 1) = −(x3 + 1) shifts the graph of f (x) vertically?
2. What part of the function g(x) = −( f (x) + 1) reflects the graph of f (x) across the x-axis?
3. What is different between the functions g(x) = −(x3 + 1.0) and h(x) = −x3 + 1.0 that changes the appearance
of the graph?

This example shows the effect of shifting a graph vertically and then stretching it vertically.

4. Given the function g(x) = 3.0( f (x) + 2.0) = 3.0(x2 + 2.0), what is it that shifts the graph of f (x) vertically?
a) 3.0 b)x2 c)2.0
5. Given the function g(x) = 3.0( f (x) + 2.0) = 3.0(x2 + 2.0), what is it that stretches the graph of f (x) vertically?
a) 3.0 b)x2 c)2.0
6. What part of the equation k(x) = −(x + 1)3 shifts the graph of j(x) = x3 horizontally?
7. What part of the equation k(x) = −(x + 1)3 reflects the graph of j(x) = x3 across the x-axis?
8. Given the function g(x) = 3.0( f (x) + 2.0) = 3.0(x + 2.0)3 , what is it that shifts the graph of f (x) horizontally?
9. Given the function g(x) = 3.0( f (x) + 2.0) = 3.0(x2 + 2.0)3 , what is it that stretches the graph of f (x) vertically
?
10. The graph of g(x) is f (x) reflected across the x-axis. The graph of h(x) is f (x) reflected across the y-axis. The
graph of j(x) is f (x) reflected across the x-axis and the y-axis. When graphing j(x) does the order in which
the reflections occur matter? (Does it matter which axis we reflect the graph across first?)
11. Given the function f (x) = x3 , write a function g(x) that is: f (x) reflected across the y-axis and then stretched
vertically by 8.
12. How do you transform the graph of: f (x) = x3 so that it looks like the graph of: f (x) = 4x3 + 6? a)Stretch it
by a factor of 41 and shift it up 6 units. b)Stretch it by a factor of 6 and shift it left 4 units. c)Stretch it by a
factor of 4 and shift it down 6 units. d)Stretch√it by a factor of 4 and shift it up 6 units. √
13. How do you transform the graph of: f (x) = x so that it looks like the graph of: f (x) = − x − 4? a)Reflect
it across the x-axis and shift it 4 units down. b)Reflect it across the y-axis and shift it 4 units up. c)Reflect it
across the x-axis and shift it 4 units up. d)Reflect it across the y-axis and shift it 4 units down.
14. The graph below is a transformation
√ of a common function. What is the common function that has been
transformed? a)y = |x| b)y = x c)y = x2 d)y = x3

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Introduction to Functions

15. How has the function in Q# 14 been transformed? a) Reflected across the y-axis and shifted right 3 units. b)
Stretched vertically by a factor of 3 and shifted right 1 unit. c) Reflected across the x-axis and shifted up 3
units. d)Reflected across the x-axis and shifted left 4 units.
16. Write a function g(x) whose graph looks like the graph of f (x) = |x| reflected across the x-axis and shifted up
1 unit. g(x) =?
17. Choose the function whose graph looks like the graph of f (x) = x3 shifted to the right 2 units and reflected
across the y-axis. a) f (x) = (−x − 2)3 b) f (x) = (−x + 2)3 c) f (x) = −(x − 2)3 d) f (x) = (x − 2)3

Review (Answers)

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1.9. Introduction to Functions - Review of Concepts www.ck12.org

1.9 Introduction to Functions - Review of

Concepts
Review - Part 1

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Review Part 2

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1.9. Introduction to Functions - Review of Concepts www.ck12.org

Review Part 1 - Solutions

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Review Part 2 - Solutions

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1.10. References www.ck12.org

1.10 References

1. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0

2. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
3. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
4. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
5. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
6. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
7. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
8. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
9. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
10. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
11. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
12. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
13. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
14. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
15. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
16. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
17. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
18. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
19. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
20. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
21. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Expressions

C HAPTER
2 Algebraic Expressions
Chapter Outline
2.1 A DDITION AND S UBTRACTION OF P OLYNOMIALS
2.2 M ULTIPLYING P OLYNOMIALS
2.3 FACTORING P OLYNOMIALS
2.4 S IMPLIFYING R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
2.5 M ULTIPLYING AND D IVIDING R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
2.6 A DDING AND S UBTRACTING R ATIONAL E XPRESSIONS
2.7 A LGEBRAIC E XPRESSIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
2.8 R EFERENCES

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2.1. Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials www.ck12.org

2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to add and subtract polynomials and simplify your answers. You’ll also solve real-world
problems using addition and subtraction of polynomials.

Review

Add and simplify.

1. (x + 8) + (−3x − 5)
2. (−2x2 + 4x − 12) + (7x + x2 )
3. (2a2 b − 2a + 9) + (5a2 b − 4b + 5)
4. (6.9a2 − 2.3b2
+ 2ab) + (3.1a − 2.5b 2

+ b)
3 2 1 1 2 1 1
5. 5 x − 4 x + 4 + 10 x + 2 x − 2 5

Subtract and simplify.

6. (−t + 5t 2 ) − (5t 2 + 2t − 9)
7. (−y2 + 4y − 5) − (5y2 + 2y + 7)
8. (−5m2 − m) − (3m2 + 4m − 5)
9. (2a2 b − 3ab2 + 5a2 b2 ) − (2a2 b2 + 4a2 b − 5b2 )
10. (3.5x2 y − 6xy + 4x) − (1.2x2 y − xy + 2y − 3)

Review (Answers)

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2.2 Multiplying Polynomials

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll multiply together several different types of polynomials.

Review
Find the product.

1. 5x(x2 − 6x + 8)
2. −x2 (8x3 − 11x + 20)
3. 7x3 (3x3 − x2 + 16x + 10)
4. (x2 + 4)(x − 5)
5. (3x2 − 4)(2x − 7)
6. (9 − x2 )(x + 2)
7. (x2 + 1)(x2 − 2x − 1)
8. (5x − 1)(x3 + 8x − 12)
9. (x2 − 6x − 7)(3x2 − 7x + 15)
10. (x − 1)(2x − 5)(x + 8)
11. (2x2 + 5)(x2 − 2)(x + 4)
12. (5x − 12)2
13. −x4 (2x + 11)(3x2 − 1)
14. (4x + 9)2
15. (4x3 − x2 − 3)(2x2 − x + 6)
16. (2x3 − 6x2 + x + 7)(5x2 + 2x − 4)
17. (x3 + x2 − 4x + 15)(x2 − 5x − 6)

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2.2. Multiplying Polynomials www.ck12.org

Answers for Review Problems

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Expressions

2.3 Factoring Polynomials

Factoring

Problem Set
Find the common factors of the following:

1. 2x(x − 5) + 7(x − 5)
2. 4x(x − 3) + 5(x − 3)
3. 3x2 (e + 4) − 5(e + 4)
4. 8x2 (c − 3) − 7(c − 3)
5. ax(x − b) + c(x − b)

Factor the following polynomial:

1. 7x2 + 14
2. 9c2 + 3
3. 8a2 + 4a
4. 16x2 + 24y2
5. 2x2 − 12x + 8

Factor the following polynomial:

1. 32w2 x + 16xy + 8x2

2. 12abc + 6bcd + 24acd
3. 20x2 y − 10x2 y2 + 25x2 y
4. 12a2 b − 18ab2 − 24a2 b2
5. 4s3t 2 − 16s2t 3 + 12st 2 − 24st 3

Factoring ax2 + bx + c where a = 1

Problem Set
Factor the following trinomials.

1. x2 + 5x + 4
2. x2 + 12x + 20
3. a2 + 13a + 12
4. z2 + 7z + 10
5. w2 + 8w + 15

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

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2.3. Factoring Polynomials www.ck12.org

1. x2 − 7x + 10
2. x2 − 10x + 24
3. m2 − 4m + 3
4. s2 − 6s + 7
5. y2 − 8y + 12

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

1. x2 − x − 12
2. x2 + x − 12
3. x2 − 5x − 14
4. x2 − 7x − 44
5. y2 + y − 20

Factoring ax2 + bx + c where a 6= 1

Problem Set
Factor the following trinomials

1. 3x2 + 5x + 2
2. 5x2 + 9x − 2
3. 4x2 + x − 3
4. 2x2 + 7x + 3
5. 2y2 − 15y − 8

Factor the following trinomials

1. 2x2 − 5x − 12
2. 2x2 + 11x + 12
3. 6w2 − 7w − 20
4. 12w2 + 13w − 35
5. 3w2 + 16w + 21

Factor the following trinomials

1. 16a2 − 18a − 9
2. 36a2 − 7a − 15
3. 15a2 + 26a + 8
4. 20m2 + 11m − 4
5. 3p2 + 17p − 20

Factoring the Sum and Difference of Two Squares

Problem Set
Factor the following: (Special Case 1 and 2)

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Expressions

1. s2 + 18s + 81
2. x2 + 12x + 36
3. y2 − 14y + 49
4. 4a2 + 20a + 25
5. 9s2 − 48s + 64

Factor the following: (Special Case 3)

1. s2 − 81
2. x2 − 49
3. 4t 2 − 25
4. 25w2 − 36
5. 64 − 81a2

Factor the following and identify the case:

1. y2 − 22y + 121
2. 16t 2 − 49
3. 9a2 + 30a + 25
4. 100 − 25b2
5. 4s2 − 28s + 49

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2.3 Answes

Find the common factors of the following:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5) (ax +c) + (x-b)

Factor the following polynomial:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Factor the following polynomial:

1)
2)
3)
4)
5) 4st2(s2 – 4st + 3 -6t)

Factor the following trinomials.

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

Factor the following trinomials.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Factor the following quadratic expressions.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Factor the following: (Special Case 1 and 2)

1) or
2) or
3) or
4) or
5) or

Factor the following: (Special Case 3)

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Factor the following and identify the case:

1) Case 1
2) Case 3
3) Case 1

4) or Case 2
5) Case 1
2.4. Simplifying Rational Expressions www.ck12.org

2.4 Simplifying Rational Expressions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to simplify rational expressions involving factorable polynomials.
Review

1
1. Does x−2
x−6 simplify to 3 ? Explain why or why not.
5x
2. Does 10x simplify to 12 ? Explain why or why not.
3. In your own words, explain the difference between the previous two expressions and why one simplifies and
one does not.

Simplify the following rational expressions.

4x3
4. 2x2 +3x
x3 +x2 −2x
5. x4 +4x3 −5x2
2x2 −5x−3
6. 2x2 −7x−4
5x2 +37x+14
7. 5x3 −33x2 −14x
8x2 −60x−32
8. −4x2 +26x+48
6x3 −24x2 +30x−120
9. 9x4 +36x2 −45
6x2 +5x−4
10. 6x2 −x−1
x4 +8x
11. x4 −2x3 +4x2
6x4 −3x3 −63x2
12. 12x2 −84x
x5 −3x3 −4x
13. x4 +2x3 +x2 +2x
−3x2 +25x−8
14. x3 −8x2 +x−8
−x3 +3x2 +13x−15
15. −2x3 +7x2 +20x−25

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Answers for Review Problems

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2.5. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions www.ck12.org

2.5 Multiplying and Dividing Rational

Expressions
Problem Set
Simplify each of the following and state the restrictions for each.

3x+9 x2
1. 6x × x2 −9
c2 +5c+6 c2 −1
2. c−1 × c+3
a2 +3a a2 −a−6
3. 3a−9 × 2a2 +6a
y−3 y2 −9 y2 +6y+9
4. y+3 × y+3 × y2 −6y+9
m2 −4m−5 2
5. m2 −5m
× m m−6m+5
2 −1
m
× m−5

Simplify each of the following and state the restrictions for each.

x2 −x−20
1. x2 −25
÷ 3x+12
x+5
d 2 −9 d 2 +5d+6
2. 3−3d ÷ d 2 +3d−4
4x2 −20x x−5
3. 3x+6 ÷ x2 −x−6
2
4n −9 2n2 −n−3
4. 2n3 +2n2 −4n
÷ 3n 2 −6n+3
e2 +10e+21 e2 +8e+15
5. 2e2 +7e−15
÷ e2 +10e+25

Simplify each of the following rational expressions and state the restrictions.

x2 +2x−15 x2 +2x−8 x2 −7x+12

1. · ·
x2 −6x+8 x2 −6x+9 x2 −x−30
2x2 +5x−3 3x2 +13x+12
2. 4x2 −12x+5
÷ 6x2 −7x−20
2
5m −20 2 2
3. · m +10m−11 · mm−3m−18
m2 +14m+33 m2 −8m+12 2 +m−2
2y2 +5y−12 6y2 −7y−3 y2 +3y−28
4. y2 +9y+14
÷ 3y2 +25y+8 · y2 −16
2
x −49 2 2 +2x−35
5. · x +6x−55 ÷ xx2 −12x+32
x2 +3x−88 x2 −11x+28

Answers
Simplify each of the following...

3x+9 2
1. 6x × x2x−9

3x + 9 → GCF = 3 → 3(x + 3)
√ √
x2 − 9 Difference of squares x2 = x and 9 = 3
= (x + 3)(x − 3)

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3(x + 3) x2
×
6x (x + 3)(x − 3)
3(x + 3)(x2 )
6x(x + 3)(x − 3)
x
(x
3
 + 3) x2


(x
6

x  + (x − 3)
3)
2
x
2(x − 3)

The restrictions are:

6x = 0
6
x 0
=
6
6
x = 0 0 would make the factor (6x) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 0

x+3 = 0
x+3−3 = 0−3
x = −3 − 3 would make the factor (x + 3) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −3

x−3 = 0
x−3+3 = 0+3
x=3 3 would make the factor (x − 3) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 3

The solution is:

x
= ; x 6= 0; x 6= −3; x 6= 3
2(x − 3)

a2 +3a 2
3. 3a−9 × a2a−a−6
2 +6a

a2 + 3a → GCF = a → a(a + 3)
3a − 9 → GCF = 3 → 3(a − 3)
a2 − a − 6 TEST → (−3)(2) = −6 and (−3) + (2) = −1
= (a − 3)(a + 2)
2a2 + 6a → GCF = 2a → 2a(a + 3)

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2.5. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions www.ck12.org

a(a + 3) (a − 3)(a + 2)
×
3(a − 3) 2a(a + 3)
a(a + 3)(a − 3)(a + 2)
3(a − 3)2a(a + 3)
(a+  − 3)(a + 2)
a
 (a
3) 

3 −
(a  a(a
3)2
 + 3)

a+2
6
The restrictions are:

2a = 0
2
a 0
=
2
2
a = 0 0 would make the factor (2a) = 0. Therefore,
a 6= 0

a−3 = 0
a−3+3 = 0+3
a=3 3 would make the factor (a − 3) = 0. Therefore,
a 6= 3

a+3 = 0
a+3−3 = 0−3
a = −3 − 3 would make the factor (a + 3) = 0. Therefore,
a 6= −3

The solution is:

a+2
= ; a 6= 0; a 6= 3; a 6= −3
6

m2 −4m−5 2
5. m2 −5m
× m m−6m+5
2 −1
m
× m−5

m2 − 4m − 5 TEST → (−5)(1) = −5 and (−5) + (1) = −4

= (m − 5)(m + 1)
m2 − 5m → GCF = m → m(m − 5)
m2 − 6m + 5 TEST → (−5)(−1) = 5 and (−5) + (−1) = −6
= (m − 5)(m − 1)
√ √
m2 − 1 Difference of squares m2 = m and 1 = 1
= (m + 1)(m − 1)

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(m − 5)(m + 1) (m − 5)(m − 1) m
× ×
m(m − 5) (m + 1)(m − 1) (m − 5)
(m − 5)(m + 1)(m − 5)(m − 1)m
m(m − 5)(m + 1)(m − 1)(m − 5)
1
z }| {
(m
 −(m
5) +(m
1) −(m
5) −(m)
1)

(m−5)
m

(m
 + 1) −
(m
 −
(m
1) 5)


The restrictions are:

m=0 0 would make the factor (m) = 0.

m 6= 0

m−5 = 0
m−5+5 = 0+5
m=5 5 would make the factor (m − 5) = 0. Therfore,
m 6= 5

m+1 = 0
m+1−1 = 0−1
m = −1 − 1 would make the factor (m + 1) = 0. Therfore,
m 6= −1

m−1 = 0
m−1+1 = 0+1
m=1 1 would make the factor (m − 1) = 0. Therfore,
m 6= 1

The solution is:

= 1; m 6= 0; m 6= 5; m 6= −1; m 6= 1
Simplify each of the following...

x2 −x−20
1. x2 −25
÷ 3x+12
x+5

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2.5. Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions www.ck12.org

x2 − x − 20 x+5
2
×
x − 25 3x + 12

x2 − x − 20 TEST → (−5)(4) = −20 and (−5) + (4) = −1

= (x − 5)(x + 4)
√ √
x2 − 25 Difference of squares x2 = x and 25 = 5
= (x + 5)(x − 5)
3x + 12 → GCF = 3 → 3(x + 4)

(x − 5)(x + 4) x+5
×
(x + 5)(x − 5) 3(x + 4)
(x − 5)(x + 4)(x + 5)
(x + 5)(x − 5)3(x + 4)
1
z }| {
 −
(x (x
5) +
(x
4) +5)

(x+  −
(x  (x
5) 5)3  +4)


1
3

The restrictions are:

x+5 = 0
x+5−5 = 0−5
x = −5 − 5 would make the factor (x + 5) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −5

x−5 = 0
x−5+5 = 0+5
x=5 5 would make the factor (x − 5) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 5

x+4 = 0
x+4−4 = 0−4
x = −4 − 4 would make the factor (x + 4) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −4

The solution is:

1
= ; x 6= −5; x 6= 5; x 6= −4
3

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4x2 −20x
3. 3x+6 ÷ x2x−5
−x−6

4x2 − 20x x2 − x − 6
×
3x + 6 x−5

4x2 − 20x → GCF = 4x → 4x(x − 5)

3x2 + 6 → GCF = 3 → 3(x + 2)
x2 − x − 6 TEST → (−3)(2) = −6 and (−3) + (2) = −1
= (x − 3)(x + 2)

4x(x − 5) (x − 3)(x + 2)
×
3(x + 2) x−5
4x(x − 5)(x − 3)(x + 2)
3(x + 2)(x − 5)
(x
4x − − 3)(x
5)(x  + 2)

(x+  − 5)
3 (x
2) 
4x(x − 3)
3

The restrictions are:

x+2 = 0
x+2−2 = 0−2
x = −2 − 2 would make the factor (x + 2) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −2

x−5 = 0
x−5+5 = 0+5
x=5 5 would make the factor (x − 5) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 5

The solution is:

4x(x − 3)
= ; x 6= −2; x 6= 5
3

e2 +10e+21 2 +8e+15
5. 2e2 +7e−15
÷ ee2 +10e+25

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e2 + 10e + 21 e2 + 10e + 25
× 2
2e2 + 7e − 15 e + 8e + 15

e2 + 10e + 21 TEST → (3)(7) = 21 and (3) + (7) = 10

= (e + 3)(e + 7)
TEST → (10)(−3) = −30
,
which when divided by the a value of 2 equals -15 and

(10) + (−3) = 7

2e2 + 7e − 15
(2e2 + 10e) + (−3e − 15)
2e(e + 5) + −3(e + 5)
= (2e − 3)(e + 5)

e2 + 10e + 25 TEST → (5)(5) = 25 and (5) + (5) = 10

(e + 5)(e + 5)
e2 + 8e + 15 TEST → (3)(5) = 15 and (3) + (5) = 8
= (e + 3)(e + 5)

(e + 7)(e + 3) (e + 5)(e + 5)
×
(2e − 3)(e + 5) (e + 5)(e + 3)
(e + 7)(e + 3)(e + 5)(e + 5)
(2e − 3)(e + 5)(e + 5)(e + 3)
(e + 7)
(e+(e
3) +
(e
5) + 5)

(2e − 3)(e
+ (e
5)  +
(e
5) + 3)

(e + 7)
(2e − 3)

The restrictions are:

2e − 3 = 0
2e − 3 + 3 = 0 + 3
2
e 3 3
= would make the factor (2e − 3) = 0. Therefore,
2
2 2
3
e 6=
2

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e+5 = 0
e+5−5 = 0−5
e = −5 − 5 would make the factor (e + 5) = 0. Therefore,
e 6= −5

e+3 = 0
e+3−3 = 0−3
e = −3 − 3 would make the factor (e + 3) = 0. Therefore,
e 6= −3

The solution is:

(e + 7) 3
= ; e 6= ; e 6= −5; e 6= −3
(2e − 3) 2
Simplify each of the following...
x2 +2x−15 2 2
1. x2 −6x+8
· xx2 +2x−8 · x −7x+12
−6x+9 x2 −x−30

x2 + 2x − 15 x2 + 2x − 8 x2 − 7x + 12
· ·
x2 − 6x + 8 x2 − 6x + 9 x2 − x − 30
x2 + 2x − 15 TEST → (5)(−3) = −15 and (5) + (−3) = 2
= (x + 5)(x − 3)
x2 − 6x + 8 TEST → (−4)(−2) = 8 and (−4) + (−2) = −6
= (x − 4)(x − 2)
x2 + 2x − 8 TEST → (4)(−2) = −8 and (4) + (−2) = 2
= (x + 4)(x − 2)
x2 − 6x + 9 TEST → (−3)(−3) = 9 and (−3) + (−3) = −6
= (x − 3)(x − 3)
x2 − 7x + 12 TEST → (−4)(−3) = 12 and (−4) + (−3) = −7
= (x − 4)(x − 3)
x2 − x − 30 TEST → (−6)(5) = −30 and (−6) + (5) = −1
= (x − 6)(x + 5)

(x + 5)(x − 3) (x + 4)(x − 2) (x − 4)(x − 3)

· ·
(x − 4)(x − 2) (x − 3)(x − 3) (x − 6)(x + 5)
(x+  −  −  −  −
(x
5)  (x + 4)(x
3)  (x
2) (x
4) 3)

· ·

(x
 −4) −
(x  (x
2)  −  −
(x
3)  (x − 6)(x
3)  + 5)

(x + 4)
(x − 6)

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x−4 = 0
x−4+4 = 0+4
x=4 4 would make the factor (x − 4) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 4

x−2 = 0
x−2+2 = 0+2
x=2 2 would make the factor (x − 2) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 2

x−3 = 0
x−3+3 = 0+3
x=3 3 would make the factor (x − 3) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 3

x−6 = 0
x−6+6 = 0+6
x=6 6 would make the factor (x − 6) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 6

x+5 = 0
x+5−5 = 0−5
x = −5 − 5 would make the factor (x + 5) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −5

The solution is:

(x + 4)
= ; x 6= 4; x 6= 2; x 6= 3; x 6= 6; x 6= −5
(x − 6)

5m2 −20 2 2
3. m2 +14m+33
· mm2+10m−11
−8m+12
· mm−3m−18
2 +m−2

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5m2 − 20 m2 + 10m − 11 m2 − 3m − 18
· · 2
m2 + 14m + 33 m2 − 8m + 12 m +m−2
2 2
5m − 20 → GCF = 5 → 5(m − 4)
√ √
5(m2 − 4) Difference of squares m2 = m and 4 = 2
= 5(m + 2)(m − 2)
m2 + 14m + 33 TEST → (11)(3) = 33 and (11) + (3) = 14
= (m + 11)(m + 3)
m2 + 10m − 11 TEST → (11)(−1) = −11 and (11) + (−1) = 10
= (m + 11)(m − 1)
m2 − 8m − 12 TEST → (−6)(−2) = 12 and (−6) + (−2) = −8
= (m − 6)(m − 2)
m2 − 3m − 18 TEST → (−6)(3) = −18 and (−6) + (3) = −3
= (m − 6)(m + 3)
m2 + m − 2 TEST → (2)(−1) = −2 and (2) + (−1) = 1
= (m + 2)(m − 1)

5(m + 2)(m − 2) (m + 11)(m − 1) (m − 6)(m + 3)

· ·
(m + 11)(m + 3) (m − 6)(m − 2) (m + 2)(m − 1)
5(m + 2)(m − 2)(m + 11)(m − 1)(m − 6)(m + 3)
(m + 11)(m + 3)(m − 6)(m − 2)(m + 2)(m − 1)
(m+2) − 2) (m − 1)
(m − 6)
5 (m (m +11)
   
(m + 3)

(m+ 11)
    (m− 6)
(m+ 3)
  (m− 2)
 (m−1)
(m+ 2) 

m + 11 = 0
m + 11 − 11 = 0 − 11
m = −11 − 11 would make the factor (m + 11) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= −11

m+3 = 0
m+3−3 = 0−3
m = −3 − 3 would make the factor (m + 3) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= −3

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m−6 = 0
m−6+6 = 0+6
m=6 6 would make the factor (m − 6) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= 6

m+2 = 0
m+2−2 = 0−2
m = −2 − 2 would make the factor (m + 2) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= −2

m−2 = 0
m−2+2 = 0+2
m=2 2 would make the factor (m − 2) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= 2

m−1 = 0
m−1+1 = 0+1
m=1 1 would make the factor (m − 1) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= 1

The solution is:

= 5; x 6= −11; x 6= −3; x 6= 6; x 6= −2; x 6= 2; x 6= 1

x2 −49 2 +6x−55 2 +2x−35

5. x2 +3x−88
· xx2 −11x+28 ÷ xx2 −12x+32

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x2 − 49 x2 + 6x − 55 x2 − 12x + 32
· ·
x2 + 3x − 88 x2 − 11x + 28 x2 + 2x − 35
√ √
(x2 − 9) Difference of squares x2 = x and 49 = 7
= (x + 7)(x − 7)
x2 + 3x − 88 TEST → (11)(−8) = −88 and (11) + (−8) = 3
= (x + 11)(x − 8)
x2 + 6x − 55 TEST → (11)(−5) = −55 and (11) + (−5) = 6
= (x + 11)(x − 5)
x2 − 11x + 28 TEST → (−7)(−4) = 28 and (−7) + (−4) = −11
= (x − 7)(x − 4)
x2 − 12x + 32 TEST → (−4)(−8) = 32 and (−4) + (−8) = −12
= (x − 4)(x − 8)
x2 + 2x − 35 TEST → (7)(−5) = −35 and (7) + (−5) = 2
= (x + 7)(x − 5)

(x + 7)(x − 7) (x + 11)(x − 5) (x − 8)(x − 4)

· ·
(x + 11)(x − 8) (x − 7)(x − 4) (x + 7)(x − 5)
(x + 7)(x − 7)(x + 11)(x − 5)(x − 8)(x − 4)
(x + 11)(x − 8)(x − 7)(x − 4)(x + 7)(x − 5)
1
z }| {
(x
+  − −  −  −
(x (x
 + 11)
 7) 7) (x (x
5) (x
8) 4)

(x
+  −  −  −  −
(x (x (x (x
 +
11) 8) 7) 4) (x
7) 5)


1

x + 11 = 0
x + 11 − 11 = 0 − 11
x = −11 − 11 would make the factor (x + 11) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −11

x−8 = 0
x−8+8 = 0+8
x=8 8 would make the factor (x − 8) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 8

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x−7 = 0
x−7+7 = 0+7
x=7 7 would make the factor (x − 7) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 7

x−4 = 0
x−4+4 = 0+4
x=4 4 would make the factor (x − 4) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 4

x+7 = 0
x+7−7 = 0−7
x = −7 − 7 would make the factor (x + 7) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −7

x−5 = 0
x−5+5 = 0+5
x=5 5 would make the factor (x − 5) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 5

The solution is:

= 1; x 6= −11; x 6= 8; x 6= 7; x 6= 4; x 6= −7; x 6= 5

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2.6 Adding and Subtracting Rational

Expressions
Problem Set
For each of the following rational expressions, determine the LCD.

2a−3 3a−1 a−5

1. 4 + 5 − 2
5 1
2. 3x2
− 2x + 5x33
x y
3. a2 b
− ab2 + 3az3 b2
2w 3w
4. w2 −6w+5
− w2 −11w+30
1 2 3
5. y2 +5y
− y2 +12y+35 − y3 +7y2

For each of the following rational expressions, state the restrictions.

3 4
1. x2 −5x+4
+ x2 −16
5 2
2. a2 +a
− a2 +3a+2
6 7
3. m2 −5m
+ m2 −4m−5
3n 4n
4. n2 +2n−3
− n2 +n−6
6 4
5. y2 −4
+ y2 +4y+4

Simplify each of the following rational expressions and state the restrictions.

2a−3 3a−1 a−5

1. 4 + 5 − 2
5 1
2. 3x2
− 2x + 5x33
x y
3. a2 b
− ab2 + 3az3 b2
2w 3w
4. w2 −6w+5
− w2 −11w+30
1 2 3
5. y2 +5y
− y2 +12y+35 − y3 +7y2

Answers
For each of the following rational expressions...

2a−3
1. 4 + 3a−1 a−5
5 − 2

To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

4 = 2×2
5 = 5×1
2 = 2×1

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.
The LCD is 2 × 2 × 5 or 20

3. x
a2 b
− aby 2 + 3az3 b2

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To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

a2 b = a · a · b
a2 b = a · a · b
3a3 b2 = 3 · a · a · a · b · b

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.

The LCD is 3 · a · a · a · b · b or 3a3 b2

1 2 3
5. y2 +5y
− y2 +12y+35 − y3 +7y2

To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

y2 + 5y → GCF = (y) = y(y + 5)

y2 + 12y + 35 TEST → (7)(5) = 35 and (7) + (5) = 12

= (y + 7)(y + 5)

y3 + 7y2 → GCF = (y2 ) = y2 (y + 7)

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.

The LCD is y2 (y + 7)(y + 5)

For each of the following rational expressions...

3 4
1. x2 −5x+4
+ x2 −16

To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

x2 − 5x + 4 TEST → (−4)(−1) = 4 and (−4) + (−1) = −5

= (x − 4)(x − 1)
√ √
x2 − 16 Difference of squares x2 = x and 16 = 4
= (x + 4)(x − 4)

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.
The LCD is (x + 4)(x − 4)(x − 1)
Identify the restrictions.

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Expressions

x+4 = 0
x+4−4 = 0−4
x = −4 − 4 would make the factor (x + 4) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= −4

x−4 = 0
x−4+4 = 0+4
x = 4 4 would make the factor (x − 4) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 4

x−1 = 0
x−1+1 = 0+1
x = 1 1 would make the factor (x − 1) = 0. Therefore,
x 6= 1

The restrictions are:

x 6= −4; x 6= 4; x 6= 1

6 7
3. m2 −5m
+ m2 −4m−5

To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

m2 − 5m → GCF = (m) = m(m − 5)

m2 − 4m − 5 TEST → (−5)(1) = −5 and (−5) + (1) = −4

= (m − 5)(m + 1)

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.
The LCD is m(m − 5)(m + 1)
Identify the restrictions.

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m=0
0 would make the factor (m) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= 0

m−5 = 0
m−5+5 = 0+5
m = 5 5 would make the factor (m − 5) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= 5

m+1 = 0
m+1−1 = 0−1
m = −1 − 1 would make the factor (m + 1) = 0. Therefore,
m 6= −1

The restrictions are:

m 6= 0; m 6= 5; m 6= −1

6 4
5. y2 −4
+ y2 +4y+4

To determine the LCD, begin by factoring the denominators.

p √
y2 − 4 Difference of squares y2 = y and 4 = 2
= (y + 2)(y − 2)
y2 + 4y + 4 TEST → (2)(2) = 4 and (2) + (2) = 4
= (y + 2)(y + 2)

The LCD must consist of one of each factor unless a factor is repeated in a single denominator.
The LCD is (y + 2)(y + 2)(y − 2)
Identify the restrictions.

y+2 = 0
y+2−2 = 0−2
y = −2 − 2 would make the factor (y + 2) = 0. Therefore,
y 6= −2

y−2 = 0
y−2+2 = 0+2
y = 2 2 would make the factor (y − 2) = 0. Therefore,
y 6= 2

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www.ck12.org Chapter 2. Algebraic Expressions

The restrictions are:

y 6= −2; y 6= 2
Simplify each of the following rational expressions...
2a−3
1. 4 + 3a−1 a−5
5 − 2

The LCD is 2 × 2 × 5 or 20 .

     
5 2a − 3 4 3a − 1 10 a − 5
+ −
5 4 4 5 10 2
     
10a − 15 12a − 4 10a − 50
+ −
20 20 20
10a − 15 + 12a − 4 − 10a + 50
20
12a + 31
= There are no restrictions on the denominator.
20

3. x
a2 b
− aby 2 + 3az3 b2

The LCD is 3 · a · a · a · b · b or 3a3 b2

x y z
2
− 2+ 3 2
a b ab 3a b
3ab  x  3a2  y  z
2
− 2 2
+ 3 2
3ab a b 3a ab 3a b
3a2 y
 
3abx z
− + 3 2
3a3 b2 3a3 b2 3a b
3abx − 3a2 y + z
=
3a3 b2

Identify the restrictions.

a3 = 0
√3 √
3
a3 = 0
a = 0 0 would make the factor (3a3 b2 ) = 0. Therefore,
a 6= 0

b2 = 0
√ √
b2 = 0
b = 0 0 would make the factor (3a3 b2 ) = 0. Therefore,
b 6= 0

The restrictions are:

a 6= 0; b 6= 0

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1 2 3
5. y2 +5y
− y2 +12y+35 − y3 +7y2

The LCD is y2 (y + 7)(y + 5)

1 2 3
− − 2
y(y + 5) (y + 7)(y + 5) y (y + 7)
y2
     
y(y + 7) 1 2 (y + 5) 3
− 2 −
y(y + 7) y(y + 5) y (y + 7)(y + 5) (y + 5) y2 (y + 7)
y2 + 7y 2y2
     
3y + 15
− 2 − 2
y2 (y + 7)(y + 5) y (y + 7)(y + 5) y (y + 7)(y + 5)
2 2
y + 7y − 2y − 3y − 15
y2 (y + 7)(y + 5)
−y2 + 4y − 15
=
y2 (y + 7)(y + 5)

Identify the restrictions.

y2 = 0
p √
y2 = 0
y = 0 0 would make the factor (y2 ) = 0. Therefore,
y 6= 0

y+7 = 0
y+7−7 = 0−7
y = −7 − 7 would make the factor (y + 7) = 0. Therefore,
y 6= −7

y+5 = 0
y+5−5 = 0−5
y = −5 − 5 would make the factor (y + 5) = 0. Therefore,
y 6= −5

The restrictions are:

y 6= 0; y 6= −7; y 6= −5

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2.7 Algebraic Expressions - Review of

Concepts
Review - Part 1

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Review - Part 2

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Review Solutions

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2.8 References

1. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

2. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
3. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
4. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
5. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
6. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
7. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
8. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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C HAPTER
3 Quadratic Functions
Chapter Outline
3.1 P ROPERTIES OF Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS
3.2 V ERTEX F ORM OF A Q UADRATIC E QUATION
3.3 I NVERSE OF Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS
3.4 S IMPLIFYING S QUARE R OOTS
3.5 M ETHODS FOR S OLVING Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS
3.6 FAMILIES OF Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS
3.7 T HE D ISCRIMINANT
3.8 L INEAR -Q UADRATIC S YSTEMS
3.9 Q UADRATIC F UNCTIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
3.10 R EFERENCES

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3.1 Properties of Quadratic Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you will explore different methods of graphing quadratic functions. You have likely been exposed to one or
all of these methods in the past, so pay particular attention to any that remain confusing or difficult. Being skilled
at graphing quadratic functions can save a lot of time on more complex problems, particularly when only a good
approximate answer is needed.
Review

1. What is the U-Shaped graph of a quadratic function called?

2. Which direction does a parabola open if the leading coefficient (a) is positive?
3. For y2 = x If the coefficient of y is positive, which way does the parabola open?
4. What is the name of the lowest point of a parabola that opens up and the highest point of a parabola that opens
down.
5. What is the name of the line passing through the vertex that divides the parabola into two symmetric parts?
6. Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 3
7. Sketch the graph of y = −x2 + 4x − 4
8. Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 + 8x
9. Consider the following quadratic function: y = −x2 − 2x + 1 a) Which direction does it open? b) What is the
vertex? c) Is it stretched in any way?
10. Consider the quadratic functions: y = 2x2 y = 4x2 y = 6x2 Which quadratic function would you expect to have
the narrowest parabola? Explain your answer.

Sketch the graph of each function:

11. y = −x2
12. y = 3x2 + 6x + 1
13. y = 21 x2 + 2x + 4
14. y = (x − 3)2 + 4
15. y = −x2 − 8x − 17

The quadratic function y = −0.05x2 + 1.5x can be used to represent the path of a football kicked 30 yards down the
field. The variable x represents the distance, in yards, the ball has traveled down the field. The height, in yards, of
the football in the air is represented by the variable (y).
Use the quadratic function to calculate the height of the ball as it travels down the field. Round your answers to the
nearest hundredth of a yard.

TABLE 3.1:
Distance Down the Field (yds) Height in the Air (yds)
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0

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TABLE 3.1: (continued)

Distance Down the Field (yds) Height in the Air (yds)
25.0
30.0

16. What is the maximum height of the football during the kick?
17. How far down the field has the football traveled when it reaches its maximum height?
18. Use the information in the table to graph the path of the football kick.
19. If you were shown only the graph of this quadratic function, how could you determine the maximum height of
the football during the kick and how far down the field the football has traveled when it reaches its maximum
height?

Review (Answers)

1. The graph of a quadratic is a parabola

2. A parabola opens up if is positive
3. If the coefficient of is positive in , the parabola opens right
4. The vertex is the extreme point of a parabola
5. The line of symmetry divides a parabola in two symmetrical parts
6. The graph is a parabola with the vertex at (0, 3)
7. The parabola opens down, with the vertex at (2, 0)
8. The parabola opens up, is narrower than the reference, and has a vertex at (-2, -8)
9. a) The parabola opens down b) The vertex is at (-1, 2) c) It is not stretched
10. y = 6x2 is the narrowest, since it has been vertically stretched the most.

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3.2 Vertex Form of a Quadratic Equation

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to use the vertex form of a quadratic equation in order to find the vertex by completing the
square.
Review

1. Using the equation from the arrow in Example 2:

a. How high will an arrow be four seconds after being shot? After eight seconds?
b. At what time will the arrow hit the ground again?

Write the equation for the parabola with the given information.

2. a = a, vertex = (h, k)
3. a = 31 , vertex = (1, 1)
4. a = −2, vertex = (−5, 0)
5. Containing (5, 2) and vertex (1, -2)
6. a = 1, vertex = (−3, 6)

Rewrite each quadratic function in vertex form.

7. y = x2 − 6x
8. y + 1 = −2x2 − x
9. y = 9x2 + 3x − 10
10. y = 32x2 + 60x + 10

For each parabola, find:

a. The vertex
b. x−intercepts
c. y−intercept
d. If it opens up or down
e. The graph the parabola

11. y − 4 = x2 + 8x
12. y = −4x2 + 20x − 24
13. y = 3x2 + 15x
14. y + 6 = −x2 + x
15. x2 − 10x + 25 = 9
16. x2 + 18x + 81 = 1
17. 4x2 − 12x + 9 = 16
18. x2 + 14x + 49 = 3
19. 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 9
20. x2 + 8x + 16 = 25

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21. Sam throws an egg straight down from a height of 25 feet. The initial velocity of the egg is 16 ft/sec. How
long does it take the egg to reach the ground?
22. Amanda and Dolvin leave their house at the same time. Amanda walks south and Dolvin bikes east. Half an
hour later they are 5.5 miles away from each other and Dolvin has covered three miles more than the distance
that Amanda covered. How far did Amanda walk and how far did Dolvin bike?
23. Two cars leave an intersection. One car travels north; the other travels east. When the car traveling north had
gone 30 miles, the distance between the cars was 10 miles more than twice the distance traveled by the car
heading east. Find the distance between the cars at that time.

Review (Answers)

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3.3 Inverse of Quadratic Functions

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Review Solutions

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3.4 Simplifying Square Roots

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll simplify, add, subtract and multiply square roots.

Review
Find the square root of each number by using the calculator. Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.

1. 56
2. 12
3. 92

Simplify the following radicals. If it cannot be simplified further, write "cannot be simplified".

√
4. √18
5. √75
6. √605
7. √48 √
8. √50 · √2
9. 4√ 3 ·√ 21
10.  6√· 202
11. 4 5
√ √
12. √24 · 27 √
13. √16 + 2√ 8
14. √+ √
28 7
15. −8
√ 3 −√ 12
16. √72 − √50 √
17. 6 + 7 6 − 54

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Answers for Review Problems

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3.5 Methods for Solving Quadratic Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you will review multiple methods of solving quadratic functions for the x intercepts. This is a far-reaching
lesson with concepts such as: applying the quadratic formula, completing the square, and solving by factoring, that
you will be returning to time and again as you progress further into your mathematics studies.
Review

1. List three ways to write a quadratic function.

Solve with the quadratic formula:

2. m2 − 5m − 14 = 0
3. b2 − 4b + 4 = 0
4. 4b2 + 8b + 7 = 0
5. 2m2 − 7m − 13 = −10
6. 5r2 = 80
7. k2 − 31 − 2k = −6 − 3k2 − 2k

8. If you have an equation with a power of 4, explain how you could solve it using the quadratic formula.

Solve by completing the square:

9. 2x2 − 12x + 26 = 10
10. x2 − 12x + 29 = −3
11. 7x2 − 14x − 64 = −8

Solve by the most efficient method:

12. x4 + 13x2 + 36 = 0
13. x4 + 16x2 − 225 = 0
14. 41 x2 − 13 x + 1 = 0
15. 72 c2 − 21 c − 14
3
=0

In the quadratic formula b2 − 4ac is called the discriminant. The values of the discriminant tell us the nature of the
solutions or roots of a quadratic equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0

16. What value(s) of the discriminant result in two unique real solutions?
17. What value(s) of the discriminant result in one unique real solutions?
18. What value(s) of the discriminant result in two unique imaginary solutions?

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Review (Answers)

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3.6 Families of Quadratic Functions

Review Solutions

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3.7 The Discriminant

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn what the discriminant is and how to use it to help you to describe the roots and graph of a quadratic
function.
Review
If the discriminant of a quadratic equation has the value shown below, describe the nature of the solutions.

1. -14
2. 11
3. 0
4. -0.25
5. 124

State the nature of the solutions for each of the following quadratic equations.

6. 2x2 + 7x − 1 = 0
7. 3x2 + 2x = −7
8. −9x2 − 7 = 4x
9. x2 − 8x + 16 = 0
10. 4 + 2x2 = 11x

Determine the value(s) of ‘m’ that will produce the indicated solution for each of the following:

11. y2 + (m + 2)y + 2m = 0; 1 real solution of multiplicity 2

12. g2 + (m − 1)g + 1 = 0; 2 real solutions
13. 3mx2 − 3x + 1 = 0; 2 complex solutions
14. x2 + 4mx + 1 = 0; 1 real solution of multiplicity 2
15. p2 + mp + 16 = 0; 2 real solutions

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Review (Answers)

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3.8 Linear-Quadratic Systems

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Review Solutions

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3.9 Quadratic Functions - Review of Concepts

Review Questions

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Review Solutions

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3.10 References

1. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

2. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
3. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
4. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
5. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
6. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
7. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
8. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
9. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
10. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
11. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
12. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
13. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
14. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
15. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
16. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
17. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
18. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
19. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
20. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
21. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
22. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
23. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
24. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
25. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
26. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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C HAPTER
4 Exponential Functions
Chapter Outline
4.1 P RODUCT R ULES FOR E XPONENTS
4.2 Q UOTIENT R ULES FOR E XPONENTS
4.3 P OWER R ULE FOR E XPONENTS
4.4 Z ERO AND N EGATIVE E XPONENTS
4.5 F RACTIONAL E XPONENTS
4.6 E XPONENTIAL E XPRESSIONS
4.7 G RAPHS OF E XPONENTIAL F UNCTIONS
4.8 G RAPHING T RANSFORMED E XPONENTIAL F UNCTIONS
4.9 A PPLICATIONS OF E XPONENTIAL F UNCTIONS
4.10 E XPONENTIAL F UNCTIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
4.11 R EFERENCES

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4.1 Product Rules for Exponents

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to multiply two terms with the same base and how to find the power of a product.
Review
Simplify each of the following expressions, if possible.

1. 42 × 4 4
2. x4 · x12
3. (3x2 y4 )(9xy5 z)
4. (2xy)2 (4x2 y3 )
5. (3x)5 (2x)2 (3x4 )
6. x3 y2 z · 4xy2 z7
7. x2 y3 + xy2
8. (0.1xy)4
9. (xyz)6
10. 2x4 (x2 − y2 )
11. 3x5 − x2
12. 3x8 (x2 − y4 )

Expand and then simplify each of the following expressions.

13. (x5 )3
14. (x6 )8
15. (xa )b Hint: Look for a pattern in the previous two problems.

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Review (Answers)

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4.2 Quotient Rules for Exponents

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to divide two terms with the same base and find the power of a quotient.
Review
Simplify each of the following expressions, if possible.

2 6


1. 5
4 3


2. 7
 4
x
3. y
20x4 y5
4. 5x2 y4
42x2 y8 z2
5. 4
6xyz3
3x
6. 4y
72x2 y4
7. 8x2 y3
x 5


8. 4
24x14 y8
9. 3x5 y7
72x3 y9
10. 6
24xy3
7
11. y
20x12
12. −5x8

23
13. Simplify using the laws of exponents: 25
23
14. Evaluate the numerator and denominator separately and then simplify the fraction: 25
3
15. Use your result from the previous problem to determine the value of a: 225 = 1
2a
16. Use your results from the previous three problems to help you evaluate 2−4 .

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Review (Answers)

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4.3 Power Rule for Exponents

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to find the power of a power.

Review
Simplify each of the following expressions.

 4 5
x
1. y3
(5x2 y4 )5
2. (5xy2 )3
x 8 y9
3. (x2 y)3
4. (x2 y4 )3
5. (3x2 )2 · (4xy4 )2
6. (2x3 y5 )(5x2 y)3
7. (x4 y6 z2 )2 (3xyz)3
 2 4
x
8. 2y 3

(4xy3 )4
9. (2xy2 )3
10. True or false: (x2 + y3 )2 = x4 + y6
11. True or false: (x2 y3 )2 = x4 y6
12. Write 64 as a power of 4.
13. Write (16)3 as a power of 2.
14. Write (94 )2 as a power of 3.
15. Write (81)2 as a power of 3.
16. Write (253 )4 as a power of 5.

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Review (Answers)

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4.4 Zero and Negative Exponents

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to work with zero and negative exponents.

Review

Evaluate each of the following expressions:

2 0


1. − 3

−2
2. − 25
3. (−3)−3

−2
4. 6 × 12
5. 7−4 × 74

Simplify the following:

6. (2−1 − 2−2 )2
7. (40 + 4−1 )−1
8. (3−1 − 2−1 )−2
9. (x−1 + y−1 )2
1 1 −1


10. 60
− 6−1

Rewrite the following using positive exponents only. Simplify where possible.

11. (4wx−2 y3 z−4 )3

2 3 −2
12. da−2bbcc −6
13. (x2 − 1)(x−2 + 2)
14. m4 (m2 + m − 5m−2 )
−2 −y−2
15. xx−1 +y −1

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4.5 Fractional Exponents

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to work with exponents that are fractions.
Practice
Express each of the following as a radical and if possible, simplify.
1
1. x2
3
2. 54
3
3. 22
1
4. 2− 2
1
5. 9− 5

Express each of the following using exponents:

√
6. √ 26
3
7. √52

5
8. √6 a
9. 4 m
 √ 2
3
10. 7

Evaluate each of the following using the laws of exponents:

2 3
11. 35 ×35
12. (60.4 )5
1 3
13. 27 ×47

1
64 − 2
14. 125
1
15. (81−1 )− 4

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4.6 Exponential Expressions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to use all of the laws of exponents to simplify and evaluate exponential expressions.
Practice
Simplify each expression.

1. (x10 )(x10 )
2. (7x3 )(3x7 )
3. (x3 y2 )(xy3 )(x5 y)
3 2)
4. (x(x)(x
4)

x2
5. x−3
x 6 y8
6. x4 y−2
7. (2x12 )3
8. (x5 y10 )7
 10 3
9. 2x3y20

Express each of the following as a power of 3. Do not evaluate.

10. (33 )5
11. (39 )(33 )
12. (9)(37 )
13. 94
14. (9)(272 )

Apply the laws of exponents to evaluate each of the following without using a calculator.

15. (23 )(22 )

16. 66 ÷ 65
17. −(32 )3
18. (12 )3 + (13 )2
1 6

8
÷ 13


19. 3

Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following.

20. (4x)2
21. (−3x)3
22. (x3 )4
23. (3x)(x7 )
24. (5x)(4x4 )
25. (−3x2 )(−6x3 )
26. (10x8 ) ÷ (2x4 )

Simplify each of the following using the laws of exponents.

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1 1
27. 5 2 × 5 3
28. (d 4 8 12 14
se f )
1 √
4 y2 xy
29. 2
x3
1
30. (32a b−15 ) 5
20
2
31. (729x12 y−6 ) 3

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4.7 Graphs of Exponential Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to graph exponential functions and how to compare the graphs of exponential functions on the
same coordinate axes. Review
Graph the following exponential functions by making a table of values.

1. y = 3x
2. y = 5 · 3x
3. y = 40 · 4x
4. y = 3 · 10x

Graph the following exponential functions.

x
5. y = 51

x
6. y = 4 · 23
7. y = 3−x
8. y = 43 · 6−x
9. Which two of the eight graphs above are mirror images of each other?
10. What function would produce a graph that is the mirror image of the one in problem 4?
11. How else might you write the exponential function in problem 5?
12. How else might you write the function in problem 6?

Solve the following problems.

13. A chain letter is sent out to 10 people telling everyone to make 10 copies of the letter and send each one to a
new person.

a. Assume that everyone who receives the letter sends it to ten new people and that each cycle takes a week.
How many people receive the letter on the sixth week?
b. What if everyone only sends the letter to 9 new people? How many people will then get letters on the
sixth week?

14. Nadia received $200 for her 10th birthday. If she saves it in a bank account with 7.5% interest compounded
yearly, how much money will she have in the bank by her 21st birthday?

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Review (Answers)

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4.8 Graphing Transformed Exponential

Functions
Objective
To analyze and use exponential growth and decay functions.
Review Queue
Simplify the following expressions. Your final answer should have only positive exponents.
1. 2x2 · 6x4
5xy−1
2. 15x3 y3

3. (3x2 y5 )3
4. Solve for x: 2x = 32

Exponential Growth Function

Problem Set
Graph the following exponential functions. Give the y-intercept, the equation of the asymptote and the domain and
range for each function.

1. y = 4x
2. y = (−1)(5)x
3. y = 3x − 2
4. y = 2x + 1
5. y = 6x+3
6. y = − 41 (2)x + 3
7. y = 7x+3 − 5
8. y = −(3)x−4 + 2
9. y = 3(2)x+1 − 5
10. An investment grows according the function A = P(1.05)t where P represents the initial investment, A repre-
sents the value of the investment and t represents the number of years of investment. If $10,000 was the initial
investment, how much would the value of the investment be after 10 years to the nearest dollar?

Exponential Decay Function

Problem Set
Determine which of the following functions are exponential growth, exponential decay or neither.

2 x


1. y = − +5

3
4 x−4
2. y = 3
3. y = 5x − 2

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Graph the following exponential functions. Give the y-intercept, the equation of the asymptote and the domain and
range for each function.

x
4. y = 12
5. y = (0.8)x+2

x−1
6. y = 4 23 −5
5 x


7. y = − 7 + 3

x+5
8. y = 89 −2
9. y = (0.75)x−2 + 4
10. A discount retailer advertises that items will be marked down at a rate of 10% per week until sold. The initial
price of one item is $50.
a. Write an exponential decay function to model the price of the item x weeks after it is first put on the rack.
b. What will the price be after the item has been on display for 5 weeks?
c. After how many weeks will the item be half its original price?

Using Exponential Growth and Decay Models

Problem Set
Use an exponential growth or exponential decay function to model the following scenarios and answer the questions.

1. Sonya’s salary increases at a rate of 4% per year. Her starting salary is $45,000. What is her annual salary, to
the nearest $100, after 8 years of service?
2. The value of Sam’s car depreciates at a rate of 8% per year. The initial value was $22,000. What will his car
be worth after 12 years to the nearest dollar?
3. Rebecca is training for a marathon. Her weekly long run is currently 5 miles. If she increase her mileage each
week by 10%, will she complete a 20 mile training run within 15 weeks?
4. An investment grows at a rate of 6% per year. How much, to the nearest $100, should Noel invest if he wants
to have $100,000 at the end of 20 years?
5. Charlie purchases a 7 year old used RV for $54,000. If the rate of depreciation was 13% per year during those
7 years, how much was the RV worth when it was new? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.
6. The value of homes in a neighborhood increase in value an average of 3% per year. What will a home
purchased for $180,000 be worth in 25 years to the nearest one thousand dollars?
7. The population of school age children in a community is decreasing at a rate of 2% per year. The current
population is $152,000. How many children were there 5 years ago?
8. The value of a particular piece of land worth $40,000 is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. Assuming the
rate of appreciation continues, how long will the owner need to wait to sell the land if he hopes to get $50,000
for it? Give your answer to the nearest year.

nt
For problems 9-12, use the formula for compound interest: A = P 1 + nr .

9. If $12,000 is invested at 4% annual interest compounded monthly, how much will the investment be worth in
10 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
10. If $8,000 is invested at 5% annual interest compounded semiannually, how much will the investment be worth
in 6 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
11. If $20,000 is invested at 6% annual interested compounded quarterly, how much will the investment be worth
in 12 years. Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
12. How much of an initial investment is required to insure an accumulated amount of at least $25,000 at the end
of 8 years at an annual interest rate of 3.75% compounded monthly. Give your answer to the nearest one
hundred dollars.

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4.9 Applications of Exponential Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll use different exponential functions in real-life situations.

Review
Use an exponential growth or exponential decay function to model the following scenarios and answer the questions.

1. Sonya’s salary increases at a rate of 4% per year. Her starting salary is $45,000. What is her annual salary, to
the nearest $100, after 8 years of service?
2. The value of Sam’s car depreciates at a rate of 8% per year. The initial value was $22,000. What will his car
be worth after 12 years to the nearest dollar?
3. Rebecca is training for a marathon. Her weekly long run is currently 5 miles. If she increase her mileage each
week by 10%, will she complete a 20 mile training run within 15 weeks?
4. An investment grows at a rate of 6% per year. How much, to the nearest $100, should Noel invest if he wants
to have $100,000 at the end of 20 years?
5. Charlie purchases a 7 year old used RV for $54,000. If the rate of depreciation was 13% per year during those
7 years, how much was the RV worth when it was new? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.
6. The value of homes in a neighborhood increase in value an average of 3% per year. What will a home
purchased for $180,000 be worth in 25 years to the nearest one thousand dollars?
7. The population of a community is decreasing at a rate of 2% per year. The current population is 152,000. How
many people lived in the town 5 years ago?
8. The value of a particular piece of land worth $40,000 is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per year. Assuming the
rate of appreciation continues, how long will the owner need to wait to sell the land if he hopes to get $50,000
for it? Give your answer to the nearest year.

nt
For problems 9-15, use the formula for compound interest: A = P 1 + nr .

9. If $12,000 is invested at 4% annual interest compounded monthly, how much will the investment be worth in
10 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
10. If $8,000 is invested at 5% annual interest compounded semiannually, how much will the investment be worth
in 6 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
11. If $20,000 is invested at 6% annual interested compounded quarterly, how much will the investment be worth
in 12 years. Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
12. If $5,000 is invested at 8% annual interest compounded quarterly, how much will the investment be worth in
15 years? Give your answer to the nearest dollar.
13. How much of an initial investment is required to insure an accumulated amount of at least $25,000 at the end
of 8 years at an annual interest rate of 3.75% compounded monthly? Give your answer to the nearest one
hundred dollars.
14. How much of an initial investment is required to insure an accumulated amount of at least $10,000 at the
end of 5 years at an annual interest rate of 5% compounded quarterly? Give your answer to the nearest one
hundred dollars.
15. Your initial investment of $20,000 doubles after 10 years. If the bank compounds interest quarterly, what is
your interest rate?

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Answers for Review Problems

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4.10 Exponential Functions - Review of

Concepts

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Review Solutions

119
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121
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4.11 References

1. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain

2. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
3. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
4. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
5. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
6. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
7. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
8. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
9. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
10. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
11. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
12. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
13. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
14. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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C HAPTER
5 Trigonometric Functions
and Applications
Chapter Outline
5.1 S INE , C OSINE , TANGENT
5.2 S OLVING R IGHT T RIANGLES
5.3 S PECIAL R IGHT T RIANGLES
5.4 R EFERENCE A NGLES AND A NGLES IN THE U NIT C IRCLE
5.5 D OMAIN , R ANGE , AND S IGNS OF T RIGONOMETRIC F UNCTIONS
5.6 T RIGONOMETRIC R ATIOS ON THE U NIT C IRCLE
5.7 I NTRODUCTION TO T RIG I DENTITIES
5.8 L AWS OF S INES AND C OSINES
5.9 A MBIGUITY AND 3D T RIGONOMETRY
5.10 S INUSOIDAL F UNCTIONS
5.11 T RANSFORMING T RIGONOMETRIC F UNCTIONS
5.12 M ODELLING S INUSOIDAL F UNCTIONS
5.13 T RIGONOMETRIC A PPLICATIONS
5.14 T RIGONOMETRIC F UNCTIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
5.15 R EFERENCES

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5.1 Sine, Cosine, Tangent

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll define and apply the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent to solve for the lengths of unknown
sides in right triangles.
Review
Use you calculator to find the following trigonometric ratios. Give answers to four decimal places.

1. sin 35◦
2. tan 72◦
3. cos 48◦
4. tan 45◦
5. sin 30◦
6. cos 88◦
7. Write the three trigonometric ratios of each of the acute angles in the triangle below.

Use trigonometric ratios to find the unknown side lengths in the triangles below. Round your answers to the nearest
hundredth.

8.

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9.

10.

For problems 11-13 use the given information about ∆ABC with right angle B to find the unknown side lengths.
Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.

11. a = 12 and m6 A = 43◦

12. m6 C = 75◦ and b = 24
13. c = 7 and m6 A = 65◦
14. A ramp needs to have an angle of elevation no greater than 10 degrees. If the door is 3 ft above the sidewalk
level, what is the minimum possible ramp length to the nearest tenth of a foot?

15. A ship, Sea Dancer, is 10 km due East of a lighthouse. A second ship, Nelly, is due north of the lighthouse. A
spotter on the Sea Dancer measures the angle between the Nelly and the lighthouse to be 38◦ . How far apart
are the two ships to the nearest tenth of a kilometer?

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Answers for Review Problems

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5.2 Solving Right Triangles

Review Questions

1. Solve the triangle.

2. Two friends are writing practice problems to study for a trigonometry test. Sam writes the following problem
for his friend Anna to solve: In right triangle ABC, the measure of angle C is 90 degrees, and the length of
side c is 8 inches. Solve the triangle. Anna tells Sam that the triangle cannot be solved. Sam says that she is
wrong. Who is right? Explain your thinking.
3. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to verify the sides of the triangle in example 2.
4. Estimate the measure of angle B in the triangle below using the fact that sin B = 35 and sin 30◦ = 12 . Use a
calculator to find sine values. Estimate B to the nearest degree.
5. The angle of elevation from the ground to the top of a flagpole is measured to be 53◦ . If the measurement was
taken from 15 feet away, how tall is the flagpole?
6. From the top of a hill, the angle of depression to a house is measured to be 14◦ . If the hill is 30 feet tall, how
far away is the house?
7. A surveyor is measuring the width of a pond. She chooses a landmark on the opposite side of the pond, and
measures the angle to this landmark from a point 50 feet away from the original point. How wide is the pond?

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8. Find the length of side x:

9. A deck measuring 10 feet by 16 feet will require laying boards with one board running along the diagonal
and the remaining boards running parallel to that board. The boards meeting the side of the house must be cut
prior to being nailed down. At what angle should the boards be cut?

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Review Answers

1.

6 A = 50◦
b ≈ 5.83
a ≈ 9.33

2. Anna is correct. There is not enough information to solve the triangle. That is, there are infinitely many right
triangles with hypotenuse 8. For example:

3. 62 + 5.032 = 36 + 25.3009 = 61.3009 = 7.832 .

4. 6 B ≈37◦
5. About 19.9 feet tall
6. About 120.3 feet
7. About 41.95 feet
8. About 7.44
9.
opposite
tan θ =
ad jacent
tan θ = 0.625
θ = 32◦

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5.3 Special Right Triangles

Learning Objectives

Here you will review properties of 30-60-90 and 45-45-90 right triangles.
Review
For 1-4, find the missing sides of the 45-45-90 triangle based on the information given in each row.

TABLE 5.1:
Problem Number Side Opposite 45◦ Side Opposite 45◦ Side Opposite 90◦
1. 3
2. 7.2
3. √ 16
4. 5 2

For 5-8, find the missing sides of the 30-60-90 triangle based on the information given in each row.

TABLE 5.2:
Problem Number Side ◦ Side Opposite 60◦ Side Opposite 90◦
√ Opposite 30
5. 3 2
6. 4
7. 15 √
8. 12 3

Use the picture below for 9-11.

9. Which angle corresponds to the side that is 12 units?

10. Which side corresponds to the right angle?
11. Which angle corresponds to the side that is 5 units?
π
12. A right triangle has an angle of 6 radians and a hypotenuse of 20 inches. What are the lengths of the other two
sides of the triangle?
π
13. A triangle has two angles that measure 4 radians. The longest side is 3 inches long. What are the lengths of the
other two sides?

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For 14-19, verify the Pythagorean Number Triple using the Pythagorean Theorem.
14. 3, 4, 5
15. 5, 12, 13
16. 7, 24, 25
17. 8, 15, 17
18. 9, 40, 41
19. 6, 8, 10
20. Find another Pythagorean Number Triple using the method explained for finding “11, 60, 61”.

Review (Answers)

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5.4 Reference Angles and Angles in the Unit

Circle

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn the definition of reference angles and how to express angles on the unit circle.
Review

1. Graph 100◦ and identify its reference angle.

2. Graph 200◦ and identify its reference angle.
3. Graph 290◦ and identify its reference angle.

Calculate each value using the unit circle and special right triangles.

4. sin 120◦
5. cos 120◦
6. csc 120◦
7. cos 135◦
8. sin 135◦
9. tan 135◦
10. sin 210◦
11. cos 210◦
12. cot 210◦
13. sin 225◦
14. cos 225◦
15. sec 225◦

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Review (Answers)

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5.5 Domain, Range, and Signs of

Trigonometric Functions

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn the domain and range, as well as the sign in different quadrants, for six trig functions. Review

1. In what quadrants is the sine function positive?

2. In what quadrants is the cotangent function negative?
3. In what quadrants is the cosine function negative?
4. In what quadrants is the tangent function positive?
5. For what angles is the cosecant function undefined?
6. State the sign of sin 510◦ .
7. State the sign of cos 315◦ .
8. State the sign of tan 135◦ .
9. State the sign of cot 220◦ .
10. State the sign of csc 40◦ .
11. State the sign of cos 330◦ .
12. State the sign of sin 60◦ .
13. State the sign of sec −45◦ .
14. Explain why the cosecant function is never equal to 0.
15. Using your knowledge of domain and range, make a possible sketch for y = sin x.

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Review (Answers)

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5.6 Trigonometric Ratios on the Unit Circle

Here you’ll learn how to determine exact value of trigonometric ratios for multiples of

0◦ , 30◦ and

45◦ (or

0, π6 , π4 radians).
Review
Find the exact values for the following trigonometric functions.

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1. sin 135
2. cos 270
3. tan 300◦
4. sin 150◦
5. cos 225
6. tan 180
7. cos −675
8. sin 225◦
9. tan 210
10. sin 315◦
11. cos 450◦
12. sin −630◦
13. cos 510◦
14. tan 270◦
15. sin(−210◦ )

Answers for Review Problems

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5.7 Introduction to Trig Identities

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn about the basic trigonometric identities and how to use them.
Review

1. Show that cot θ = cos θ

sin θ .
sec θ
2. Show that tan θ = csc θ .
3. Show that 1 + cot2 θ = csc 2

θ.
π
4. Explain why cos 2 − θ = sin θ by using the graphs of the two functions.
5. Show that sec(−θ) = sec θ.
6. Explain why tan(−θ) = − tan θ is true, using the Tangent Identity and the other Negative Angle Identities.

Verify the following identities.

7. cot θ sec θ = csc θ

cos θ tan θ
8. cot θ = sec θ
9. sin θ csc θ = 1
10. cot(−θ) = − cot θ
11. tan2 x csc x cos x = 1
sin (−x)
12. tan2 x
= cos2 x

Show that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 is true for the following values of θ.

13. π4
14. 2π
3
15. − 7π
6
16. Recall that a function is odd if f (−x) = − f (x) and even if f (−x) = f (x). Which of the six trigonometric
functions are odd? Which are even?

Answers for Review Problems

1. Student needs to show proof.

2. Student needs to show proof.
3. Student needs to show proof.
4. The graphs overlap.
5. Student needs to show proof.
6. Hint: Sine is odd and cosine is even.
7. Hint: Change everything to sine and cosine.
8. Hint: Change everything to sine and cosine.
9. Hint: Change cosecant using the Reciprocal Identity.

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10. Hint: Change cotangent to tangent using the Reciprocal Identity.

11. Hint: Change everything to sine and cosine.
12. Hint: Use the Negative Angle Identity for sine.
13. Hint: Plug in value for θ into the Pythagorean Identity.
14. Hint: Plug in value for θ into the Pythagorean Identity.
15. Hint: Plug in value for θ into the Pythagorean Identity.
16. Odd: Sine, Tangent, Cosecant, Cotangent. Even: Cosine, Secant.

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5.8 Laws of Sines and Cosines

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to solve for missing sides and angles in non-right triangles using the Laws of Sines and
Cosines.

Review

Use the Law of Sines or Cosines to solve 4ABC. If you are not given a picture, draw one. Round all decimal
answers to the nearest tenth.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

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6.

7.

8.

9.
10. m6A= 74◦ , m6 B = 11◦ , BC = 16
11. m6 A = 64◦ , AB = 29, AC = 34
12. m6 C = 133◦ , m6 B = 25◦ , AB = 48

Use the Law of Sines to solve 4ABC below.

13. m6 A = 20◦ , AB = 12, BC = 5

Recall that when we learned how to prove that triangles were congruent we determined that SSA (two sides and an
angle not included) did not determine a unique triangle. When we are using the Law of Sines to solve a triangle and
we are given two sides and the angle not included, we may have two possible triangles. Problem 14 illustrates this.

14. Let’s say we have 4ABC as we did in problem 13. In problem 13 you were given two sides and the not
included angle. This time, you have two angles and the side between them (ASA). Solve the triangle given
that m6 A = 20◦ , m6 C = 125◦ , AC = 8.4
15. Does the triangle that you found in problem 14 meet the requirements of the given information in problem
13? How are the two different m6 C related? Draw the two possible triangles overlapping to visualize this
relationship.

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Review (Answers)

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5.9 Ambiguity and 3D Trigonometry

Review Questions - Part 1

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Review Part 1 - Solutions

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Review Questions - Part 2

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Review Part 2 - Solutions

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5.10 Sinusoidal Functions

Review - Part 1

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Review - Part 1 - Solutions

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Review - Part 2

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Review - Part 2 - Solutions

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5.11 Transforming Trigonometric Functions

Review - Part 1

Review - Part 1 - Solutions

Review - Part 2

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Review - Part 2 - Solutions

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5.12 Modelling Sinusoidal Functions

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Solutions

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5.13 Trigonometric Applications

Review Questions

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Solutions

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5.14 Trigonometric Functions - Review of

Concepts
Review - Part 1

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Review - Part 1 - Solutions

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Review - Part 2

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Review - Part 2 - Solutions

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5.15 References

1. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain

2. CK-12 Foundation. . CCSA
3. CK-12. CK-12 . CC BY-NC 3.0
4. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
5. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
6. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
7. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
8. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain
9. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
10. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
11. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
12. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
13. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
14. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
15. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
16. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
17. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
18. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
19. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
20. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
21. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
22. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
23. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
24. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
25. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
26. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
27. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
28. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY
29. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
30. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
31. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
32. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
33. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
34. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
35. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
36. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
37. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
38. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
39. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
40. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
41. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
42. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
43. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
44. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
45. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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46. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

47. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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C HAPTER
6 Discrete Functions
Chapter Outline
6.1 A RITHMETIC S EQUENCES AND S ERIES
6.2 G EOMETRIC S EQUENCES AND S ERIES
6.3 S IMPLE AND C OMPOUND I NTEREST
6.4 A NNUITIES (F UTURE VALUE )
6.5 A NNUITIES (P RESENT VALUE )
6.6 D ISCRETE F UNCTIONS - R EVIEW OF C ONCEPTS
6.7 R EFERENCES

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6.1 Arithmetic Sequences and Series

Arithmetic Sequences and Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common
Difference and a Term

Problem Set 1
Identify which of the following sequences is arithmetic. If the sequence is arithmetic find the nth term rule.

1. 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
2. 6, 2, −1, −3, . . .
3. 5, 0, −5, −10, . . .
4. 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .
5. 0, 3, 6, 9, . . .
6. 13, 12, 11, 10, . . .

Write the nth term rule for each arithmetic sequence with the given term and common difference.

7. a1 = 15 and d = −8
8. a1 = −10 and d = 21
9. a3 = 24 and d = −2
10. a5 = −3 and d = 3
11. a10 = −15 and d = −11
12. a7 = 32 and d = 7

Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given Two Terms

Problem Set 2
Use the two given terms to find an nth term rule for the sequence.

1. a7 = −17 and a25 = −71

2. a11 = 23 and a42 = 85
3. a3 = −6 and a12 = −3
4. a8 = 24 and a2 = 9
5. a6 = −27 and a10 = −47
6. a4 = 37 and a12 = 85
7. a13 = −20 and a30 = −54
8. a3 = 23 and a9 = 65
9. a30 = −31 and a45 = −46
10. a5 = 25 and a11 = 73
11. a10 = −2 and a25 = −14
12. a16 = 14 and a28 = 23

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Finding the Sum of a Finite Arithmetic Series

Problem Set 3
Find the sums of the following arithmetic series.

1. −6 + −1 + 4 + . . . + 119
2. 72 + 60 + 48 + . . . + −84
3. 3 + 5 + 7 + . . . + 99
4. 25 + 21 + 17 + . . . + −23
5. Find the sum of the first 25 terms of the series 215 + 200 + 185 + . . .
6. Find the sum of the first 14 terms in the series 3 + 12 + 21 + . . .
7. Find the sum of the first 32 terms in the series −70 + −65 + −60 + . . .
8. Find the sum of the first 200 terms in −50 + −49 + −48 + . . .

Evaluate the following summations.

10
9. ∑ (5i − 22)
i=4
25
10. ∑ (−3i + 37)
i=2
48
11. ∑ (i − 20)
i=11
40
12. ∑ (50 − 2i)
i=5

Find the sum of the series bounded by the terms given. Include these terms in the sum.

13. a7 = 39 and a23 = 103

14. a8 = 1 and a30 = −43
15. a4 = −15 and a17 = 24
16. How many cans are needed to make a triangular arrangement of cans if the bottom row has 35 cans and
successive row has one less can than the row below it?
17. Thomas gets a weekly allowance. The first week it is one dollar, the second week it is two dollars, the third
week it is three dollars and so on. If Thomas puts all of his allowance in the bank, how much will he have at
the end of one year?

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6.2 Geometric Sequences and Series

Geometric Sequences and Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common
Ratio and the First Term

Problem Set 1
Identify which of the following sequences are arithmetic, geometric or neither.

1. 2, 4, 6, 8, . . .
1 3 9 27
2. 2, 2, 2, 2 ,...
3. 1, 2, 4, 7, . . .
4. 24, −16, 32 64
3 ,− 9 ,...
5. 10, 5, 0, −5, . . .
6. 3, 4, 7, 11, . . .

Given the first term and common ratio, write the nth term rule and use the calculator to generate the first five terms
in each sequence.

7. a1 = 32 and r = 23
8. a1 = −81 and r = − 13
9. a1 = 7 and r = 2
8
10. a1 = 125 and r = − 25

Find the nth term rule for each of the following geometric sequences.

11. 162, 108, 72, . . .

12. −625, −375, −225, . . .
9 3
13. 4 , − 2 , 1, . . .
14. 3, 15, 75, . . .
15. 5, 10, 20, . . .
1
16. 2 , −2, 8, . . .

Use a geometric sequence to solve the following word problems.

17. Rebecca inherited some land worth $50,000 that has increased in value by an average of 5% per year for the
last 5 years. If this rate of appreciation continues, about how much will the land be worth in another 10 years?
18. A farmer buys a new tractor for $75,000. If the tractor depreciates in value by about 6% per year, how much
will it be worth after 15 years?

Finding the N[U+1D57]h Term Given the Common Ratio and any Term or Two
Terms

Problem Set 2

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Use the given information to find the nth term rule for each geometric sequence.

1. r = 23 and a8 = 256
81
2. r = − 34 and a5 = 405
8
3. r = 65 and a4 = 3
4. r = − 21 and a7 = 5
5. a1 = 118 and a7 = 88
6. a1 = 24 and a4 = 81
7. a1 = 36 and a4 = 43
8. a1 = 343
216 and a5 = 7
6

9. a6 = 486 and a10 = 39366

10. a5 = 648 and a10 = 196834
11. a3 = 23 and a5 = 23
12. a5 = 43 and a9 = − 1283

Use a geometric sequence to solve the following word problems.

13. Ricardo’s parents want to have $100,000 saved up to pay for college by the time Ricardo graduates from high
school (16 years from now). If the investment vehicle they choose to invest in claims to yield 7% growth per
year, how much should they invest today? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.
14. If a piece of machinery depreciates (loses value) at a rate of 6% per year, what was its initial value if it is 10
years old and worth $50,000? Give your answer to the nearest one thousand dollars.

Finding the Sum of a Finite Geometric Series

Problem Set 3
Use the formula for the sum of a geometric series to find the sum of the first five terms in each series.

n−1
1. an = 36 23
2. an = 9(−2)n−1
3. an = 5(−1)n−1
8 5 n−1


4. an = 25 2

Find the indicated sums using the formula and then check your answers with the calculator.

4
1 n−1


5. ∑ (−1) 2
n=1
8
1 n−1


6. ∑ (128) 4
n=2
7
125 4 n−1


7. ∑ 64 5
n=2
11
1 n−1
8. ∑ 32 (−2)
n=5

Given the sum and the common ratio, find the nth term rule for the series.

6
9. ∑ an = −63 and r = −2
n=1

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4
5
10. ∑ an = 671 and r = 6
n=1
5
11. ∑ an = 122 and r = −3
n=1
7
12. ∑ an = − 63 1
2 and r = − 2
n=2

Solve the following word problems using the formula for the sum of a geometric series.

13. Sapna’s grandparents deposit $1200 into a college savings account on her 5th birthday. They continue to make
this birthday deposit each year until making the final deposit on her 18th birthday. If the account earns 5%
interest annually, how much is there after the final deposit?
14. Jeremy wants to have save $10,000 in five years. If he makes annual deposits on the first of each year and the
account earns 4.5% interest annually, how much should he deposit each year in order to have $10,000 in the
account after the final deposit on the first of the 6th year. Round your answer to the nearest $100.

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6.3 Simple and Compound Interest

Learning Objectives

Here you will explore the difference between simple interest, interest compounded on a specific schedule, and
continuously compounded interest.
Review

1. What is the formula for figuring simple interest?

2. What is the formula for figuring compound interest?
3. If someone invested $4500.00, how much would they have earned after 4 years, at a simple interest rate of
2%?
4. Kyle opened up a savings account in July. He deposited $900.00. The bank pays a simple interest rate of 5%
annually. What is Kyle’s balance at the end of 4 years?
5. After having an account for 6 years, how much money does Roberta have in the account, if her original deposit
was $11,000, and her bank’s yearly simple interest rate is 8.4%?
6. Tom called his bank today to check on his savings account balance. he was surprised to find a balance of
$6600, when he started the account with just $5000.00 8 years ago. Based on this data, what percentage rate
has the bank been paying on the account?
7. Julie opened a 4% interest account with a bank that compounds the interest quarterly. If Julie were to deposit
$3000.00 into the account at the beginning of the year, how much could she expect to have at the end of the
year?
8. Susan has had a saving account for a few years now. The bank has been paying her simple interest at a rate of
5%. She has earned $45.00 on her initial deposit of $300.00. How long has she had the account?
9. What is the balance on a deposit of $818.00 earning 5% interest compounded semiannually for 5 years?
10. Karen made a decent investment. After 4 years she had $3250.00 in her account and expects to have $16,250,
after another 4 years. Her savings account is a compounding interest account. How much was her original
deposit?
11. What is the yearly simple interest rate that Ken earns, if after only three months he earned $16.00 on an initial
$800.00 deposit?
12. Write an expression that correctly represents the balance on an account after 7 years, if the account was
compounded yearly at a rate of 5%, with an initial balance of $1000.00
13. Caryl gives each of his three kids $3000.00 each, and they each use it to open up saving accounts at three
different banks. Georgia, his oldest, is earning 3% annually at her bank. Kirk earns 7% annually at his bank.
Lottie’s bank is paying her an annual rate of 4%. At the end of 6 years show much will each of them have in
their respective accounts.
14. Kathy receives an inheritance check for $3000.00 and decides to put it in a saving account so she can send her
daughter to college when she gets older. After looking she finds an account that pays compounding interest
annually at a rate of $14%. The balance on the account can be represented by a function, where x is the time
in years. Write a function, and then use it to determine how much will be in the account at the end of 7 years.
15. Stan is late on his car payment. The finance company charges 3% interest per month it is late. His monthly
payment is $300.00. What is the total amount he will owe if he pays the August first bill October first?
(assuming he was able to make his September bill on - time)

Today, you get your first credit card. It charges 12.49% interest on all purchases and compounds that interest
monthly. Within one day you max out the credit limit of $1,200.00.

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16. If you pay the monthly accrued interest plus $50.00 towards the initial $1,200 amount every month, how much
will you still owe at the end of the first 12 months?
17. How much will you have paid in total at the end of the year?

You are preparing for retirement. You invest $10,000 for 5 years, in an account that compounds monthly at 12% per
year. However, unless this money is in an IRA or other tax-free vehicle, with zero inflation, you also have an annual
tax payment of 30% on the earned interest.

18. How much will you have in 5 years?

19. Now take into account that the money loses 3% spending value per year due to inflation, how much is what
you have saved really worth at the end of the 5 years?

Review (Answers)

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6.4 Annuities (Future Value)

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to compute future values of periodic payments.

Review
1. At the end of each month, Rose makes a $400 deposit into a mutual fund. If her investment earns 6.1% interest
compounded monthly, what will her annuity be worth in 30 years?
2. What interest rate compounded quarterly is required to grow a $40 quarterly payment to $1000 in 5 years?
3. How many years will it take to save $10,000 if Sal saves $50 every month at a 2% monthly interest rate?
4. How much will Bob need to save each month if he wants to buy a $33,000 car with cash in 5 years? He can earn
a nominal interest rate of 12% compounded monthly.
5. What will the future value of his IRA be if Cal saves $5,000 a year at the end of each year for 35 years at an
interest rate of 8%?
6. How long does Kathy need to save if she wants to retire with four million dollars and saves $10,000 a year at 8%
interest?
7. What interest rate compounded monthly is required to grow a $416 monthly payment to $80,000 in 10 years?
8. Every six months, Shanice makes a $1000 deposit into a mutual fund. If her investment earns 5% interest
compounded semi-annually, what will her annuity be worth in 25 years?
9. How much will Jen need to save each month if she wants to put $60,000 down on a house in 5 years? She can
earn a nominal interest rate of 8% compounded monthly.
10. How long does Adrian need to save if she wants to retire with three million dollars and saves $5,000 a year at
10% interest?
11. What will the future value of her IRA be if Vanessa saves $3,000 a year at the end of each year for 40 years at
an interest rate of 6.7%?
12. At the end of each quarter, Justin makes a $1,500 deposit into a mutual fund. If his investment earns 4.5%
interest compounded quarterly, what will her annuity be worth in 35 years?
13. What will the future value of his IRA be if Ted saves $3,500 a year at the end of each year for 25 years at an
interest rate of 5.8%?
14. What interest rate compounded monthly is required to grow a $300 monthly payment to $1,000,000 in 35 years?
15. How much will Katie need to save each month if she wants to put $55,000 down in cash on a house in 2 years?
She can earn a nominal interest rate of 6% compounded monthly.

Review (Answers)

1. $409578.18
2. 9.14%
3. 6.77 years

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4. $404.07
5. $861584.02
6. 45.4 years
7. 8.89%
8. $97484.35
9. $816.58
10. 43.13 years
11. $554494.84
12. $505126.50
13. $186703.40
14. 9.493%
15. $2162.63

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6.5 Annuities (Present Value)

Learning Objectives

Here you’ll learn how to compute present values of equal periodic payments.
Review
For problems 1-10, find the missing value in each row using the present value for annuities formula.

TABLE 6.1:
Problem Num- PV R n (years) i (annual) Periods
ber per year
1. $4,000 7 1.5% 1
2. $15,575 5 5% 4
3. $4,500 $300 3% 12
4. $1,000 12 2% 1
5. $16,670 10 10% 4
6. $400 4 2% 12
7. $315,000 $1,800 5% 12
8. $500 30 8% 12
9. $1,000 40 6% 4
10. $10,000 6 7% 12

11. Charese obtains a 15 year student loan for $200,000 with 6.8% interest. What will her yearly payments be?
12. How long will it take Tyler to pay off a $5,000 credit card bill with 21.9% APR if he pays $300 per month?
Note: APR in this case means nominal rate convertible monthly.
13. What will the monthly payments be on a credit card debt of $5,000 with 24.99% APR if it is paid off over 3
years?
14. What is the monthly payment of a $300,000 house loan over 30 years with a nominal interest rate of 2%
convertible monthly?
15. What is the monthly payment of a $270,000 house loan over 30 years with a nominal interest rate of 3%
convertible monthly?

Review (Answers)

1. $26392.86
2. $884.98
3. 1.276 years
4. $10,575.34
5. $664.07
6. $18437.32

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7. 26.18 years
8. $68,141.75
9. $60,510.05
10. $170.49
11. $21,682.35
12. About 20 months or 1.67 years
13. $198.77
14. $1108.86
15. $1138.33

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6.6 Discrete Functions - Review of Concepts

Review - Part 1

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Review - Part 1 - Solutions

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Review - Part 2

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Review - Part 2 - Solutions

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6.7 References

1. CK-12. CK-12 . publicdomain

2. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
3. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
4. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
5. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
6. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
7. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
8. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA
9. Nelson. Nelson . CC-BY-SA

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