EE352 Lectures:03 Spring 2023

3.1.4 Integration
 Zt 
F(s)
L ( f(τ) dτ =
0 s
The t-domain s-domain equivalence is:

f (t)
R
f˙(t) F (s) 1/s F (s)
s
t-domain s-domain

Example Using this property, we can compute the LT of the unit ramp signal t:
Z t 
1
L (t) = L us (τ) dτ = 2
0 s
Applying this recursively: we can show that:

n!
L (tn ) =
sn+1

3.1.5 Frequency shifting

L(e−at f(t))] = F(s + a)

Example Using this property, we can compute the LT of the exponential signal e−at :
1
L(e−at ) = L(e−at us (t)) =
s+a

Example Using this property, we can also compute the LT of the signal te−at :
1
L(e−at t) =
(s + a)2

3.1.6 Time scaling

1 s
L(f(at))] = F( )
a a

3.1.7 Convolution
This is a fundamental property for LTI systems:

L(f1 (t) ∗ f2 (t)) = F1 (s)F2 (s)

Example an LTI system with input x(t) and IR h(t), what is the LT of its output y(t)?

x(t) = 2us (t), h(t) = 2e3t

2 1 4
Y(s) = L(x(t) ∗ h(t)) = .2 =
s s−3 s(s − 3)

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3.1.8 Initial Value Theorem IVT

lim f(t) = lim sF(s)
t→0+ s→∞

Examples We check this property with initial values of sine and cosine functions:
s
1. lim+ cos(t) = lim s = 1(X)
t→0 s→∞ s2 +1
1
2. lim+ sin(t) = lim s = 0(X)
t→0 s→∞ s2 +1

3.1.9 Final Value Theorem FVT

Concepts of poles and zeros The Laplace transform are generally rational function (ratio of two
polynomials)

• A root of numerator is called a zeros z of Vo (s) (Vo (z) = 0)

• A root of denominator is called a pole p of Vo (s) (Vo (p) = ∞)

pole-zeros Map (pzmap) The poles and zeros of a Laplace Transform can be represented in the
s-plane (complex plane). Zeros are represented with small circles (o) whereas poles are marked
with a cross (x).

Example Consider the following LT:

(s + 1)(s + 3)
F(s) =
s(s − 1)(s2 + 2s + 2)
Zeros are −3 and −1, whereas the poles are 0,1, −1 ± j

jω
−1 + j
LHP RHP

0 σ
−3 −1 1

−1 − j

From this figure, we can also distinguish two regions:

• The Left-half plane (LHP) in green, is the region where <(s) < 0 (negative real part)

• The Right-Half plane (RHP) in orange, is the region where <(s) > 0 (positive real part).

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• s = jω is the j − ω axis or imaginary axis separate them.

Theorem 1 (final value theorem).

lim f(t) = lim sF(s)

t→∞ s→0

Provided that the limit (of limt→∞ f(t) ) exists. A sufficient condition on F(s) is that:
all poles of sF(s) have negative real parts, or are all in LHP .

Example in the previous example, where:

4
Y(s) =
s(s − 3)

4 −4
lim y(t) 6= lim sY(s) = lim = because sY(s) has a pole 3 not in LHP
t→∞ s→0 s→0 s − 3 3

3.2 Using Laplace transform to solve LCCDE

Idea given a LCCDE with input u(t)and output y(t):

1. Transform a Differential equation to an algebraic equation.

2. Solve the Algebraic equation for the output Y(s).

3. Compute the LT U(s) of u(t)

4. Compute the output y(t) using the inverse LT.

Example: Consider the 2nd order LCCDE:

v̈o (t) + 3v̇o (t) + 2vo (t) = v̇i (t) + 3vi (t)

With an initial conditions v̇o (0) = 0, vo (0) = 0

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s+3
Vo (s) = Vi (s)
s2 + 3s + 2
If vi (t) = us (t) ⇒ Vi (s) = 1/s
s+3
Vo (s) =
s(s2 + 3s + 2)

3.3 The Inverse Laplace Transform ILT

Given a Laplace transform function F(s), how to compute f(t), its Inverse Laplace Transform?

3.3.1 Inverse Laplace transform definition

: Z σ+j∞
1
f(t) = L−1 (F(s)) = F(s)est ds complex integration: in general not easy!
2πj σ−j∞

3.3.2 Using common Laplace transforms and properties

.

s
Example: Let F(s) = s+2 what is f(t)?, Using linearity and the LT of exponential signal:

s 2
f(t) = L−1 (F(s)) = L−1 ( ) = L−1 (1 − ) = δ(t) − 2e−2t t≥0
s+2 s+2

3.3.3 Partial Fraction Expansion PFE

Given a rational Laplace Transform with n (the order of its denominator) strictly smaller than m (
the order of its numerator), Expand F(s) into simple fractions:

Cp1 Cp2
F(s) = + ...
s − p1 s − p2

Where pi are the poles of F(s):

Procedure: For every pole p of F(s)

1. Let r represents the repeat-ability (multiplicity) of the p:

2. p contributes r terms in the expansion of F(s):

Crp Cr−1
p C1p
+ + . . .
(s − p)r (s − p)r−1 s−p

Where Cip called the residues are computed as:

1 di
Cpr−i = [(s − p)r F(s)]|s=p i = 0...,r − 1
i! dsi

special case if p is (non-repeated or r = 1), then p contributes only simple term:

Cp
Where Cp = (s − p)F(s)|s=p
s−p

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Example 1: compute f(t) using PFE

s+3
F(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2)2

poles are: −1 is simple, −2 is repeated (r = 2)

C−1 C2−2 C1−2

F(s) = + +
s + 1 (s + 2)2 s + 2

C−1 = (s + 1)F(s)|s=−1 = 2, C2−2 = [(s + 2)2 F(s)]|s=−2 = −1

d
C1−2 can either be computed using the residue formula C1−2 [(s + 2)2 F(s)]|s=−2 = −2
ds
s+3 2(s + 2)2 − (s + 1) + C1−2 (s + 1)(s + 2)
OR, by identification = ⇒
(s + 1)(s + 2)2 (s + 1)(s + 2)2
2s2 + C1−2 s2 = 0 ⇒ C1−2 = −2

2 −1 −2
F(s) = + 2
+ ⇒ f(t) = 2e−t − te−2t − 2e−2t t≥0
s + 1 (s + 2) s+2

Example 2: Case of complex poles

5
F(s) =
(s + 2)(s2 + 1)
Poles are −2,−j,+j

A B C 1 αs + β 1 s 2
F(s) = + + = + 2 = − 2 + 2 ⇒
s+2 s−j s+j s+2 s +1 s+2 s +1 s +1

f(t) = e−2t − cos(t) + 2sin(t) t≥0

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4 Transfer function model for LTI systems

Given an LTI system with impulse response h(t), input u(t) and output y(t) then:

y(t) = h(t) ∗ u(t) ⇒ Y(s) = H(s)U(s)

U (s) H(s) Y (s)

• The transfer function of this system H(s):

H(s) = L(h(t))

• If U(s) and Y(s) can be computed then

Y(s)
H(s) =
U(s)

• Given a LCCDE of a system at rest (initial condition are all zero)

dn y(t) dn−1 y(t) dy(t) dm u(t)

+ a n−1 + · · · + a 1 + a 0 y(t) = bm +
dtn dtn−1 dt dtm
dm−1 u(t) du(t)
bm−1 m−1
+ · · · + b1 + b0 u(t)
dt dt
Taking Laplace transform:
Y(s) bm sm + bm−1 sm−1 . . . b1 s + b0
H(s) = =
U(s) sn + an−1 sn−1 . . . a1 s + a0

• The system (or H(s)) is proper if n ≥ m. More specifically:

– The system (or H(s)) is strictly proper if n > m, high frequency gain lims→∞ H(s) = 0
– The system (or H(s)) is biproper if n = m (lims→∞ H(s) = K)
• The system (or H(s)) is improper if n < m (lims→∞ H(s) = ∞: not physically realizable)
• The DC gain, static gain, or Low-frequency gain of the system is H(0)
• If H(s) = H(0), the system is said to be static (memoryless) otherwise it is called dynamic.
• ∆(s) = sn + an−1 sn−1 . . . a1 s + a0 is called the characteristics polynomial of the system
• ∆(s) = 0 is called the characteristic equation.
• the zeros of the system are the zeros of H(s)
• the poles of the system are the roots of ∆(s), or poles of H(s)
• the zeros of Y(s) are the zeros of system + the zeros of U(s) (assuming no zero/pole cancel-
lation).
• the poles of Y(s) are the poles of system + the poles of U(s)(assuming no zero/pole cancel-
lation)

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MATLAB tips:

1. To define(create) a LT in matlab X(s), you can use either tf() or zpk() routine, (for instance if
s+1
X(s) = s2 +2s+2 )

>> X=tf([1 1],[1 2 2]) % or

>> X=zpk([-1],[-1+j -1+j],1)

2. You can then ask for its poles or zeros:

>> pole(X)
>> zero(X)

3. You can compute its dc gain:

>> dcgain(X)

4. You can check of LT is proper or not(improper):

>> isproper(X)

5. You can display in a figure it pole-zero mao p-z map:

>> pzmap(X)

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