Lecture 3

Psychology of Personality
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Lecture Outline
- Meaning and definitions
- Personality types: perspectives
- Stages of individuals personality development

Definitions of Personality
• Personality is a set of behavioral, emotional, and cognitive tendencies that people display
over time and across situations and that distinguish individuals from each other (Ciccarelli,
2013).
• Personality is the unique pattern of enduring thoughts, feelings and actions that characterize a
person (TBA).
• Personality is influenced by both biological and environmental factors, and it can change over
time.

Perspectives on Personality
1) The psychodynamic approach
The psychodynamic approach assumes that various unconscious psychological processes
interact to determine our thoughts, feelings, and behavior.

Sigmund Freud identified three layers of consciousness:

1. Conscious consists of the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of which you are aware.
2. Preconscious is the subjective material that you can easily bring into consciousness but are not
aware of most of the time.
3. Unconscious consists of the thoughts, feelings, and motivations that you cannot bring into
consciousness but nevertheless influence you.

Structure of Personality:
Freud claimed that personality develops from a personal struggle to meet inborn basic needs in a
world that may frustrate such efforts. Freud saw the personality as made of three basic
components: id, ego, and superego.
a) The id contains the basic inborn instincts for food, water, sex, and so on. The life instincts
underlie behaviors to satisfy needs for positive elements like love or knowledge, and
death instincts underlie aggressive and destructive behaviors. The id operates on the
pleasure principle, which seeks immediate satisfaction, regardless of society’s rules or the
rights of others.
b) The ego operates on the reality principle and organizes ways to get what a person wants
while taking into account the constraints of the real world.
c) The superego develops as one internalizes parental and societal values. The superego
houses the person’s sense of morality; the “shoulds” and “should nots” of how to behave. It
is just as unreasonable as the id in its demands.
Conflicts and Defenses

Freud saw basic needs and urges (id), reason (ego), and morality (superego) as competing with
each other, causing anxiety and intrapsychic and psychodynamic conflicts [intrapsychic conflicts are
mental struggles between opposing or incompatible forces within oneself while psychodynamic
conflicts are a mental struggle between opposing or incompatible forces within the mind)

The ego’s job is to prevent anxiety and guilt that might arise if unconscious, socially unacceptable
urges became conscious. The ego may use various problem-solving strategies to accomplish this.
The ego may also use defense mechanisms—unconscious tactics that protect against anxiety and
guilt by either person by either preventing threatening material from surfacing or disguising it
when it doe:

Defense mechanisms:
a) Repression occurs when the unconscious prevents threatening thoughts, impulses, and memories
from entering consciousness.
b) Denial involves denying threatening thoughts outright.
c) Intellectualization involves keeping threatening thoughts or emotions at arm’s length by
thinking about them rationally and logically.
d) Projection involves projecting threatening thoughts onto others.
e) Rationalization involves creating explanations to justify threatening thoughts or actions.
f) Reaction formation occurs when a person unconsciously changes an unacceptable feeling into
its opposite.
g) Sublimation involves directing threatening impulses into more socially acceptable activities.
h) displacement,
i) Compensation.

2) Trait Approach/Trait Psychology

Personality traits are tendencies that help direct how a person usually thinks and behaves. The
trait approach makes three basic assumptions: Personality traits remain relatively stable and
predictable over time; personality traits remain relatively stable across situations; and people
differ with regard to how much of a particular personality trait they possess.
The big five model OR Big five factor personality model is one of the most popular
personality trait model.
123Big Five Personality Factors/Traits claims that we describe ourselves with five main

characteristics (open, conscientious, extravert, agreeable, neurotic) OCEAN

Trait Dimension DESCRIPTION
1) Emotional ▪ Calm versus anxious
Stability/Neuroticism ▪ Secure versus insecure
/Emotionality ▪ Self-satisfied versus self-pitying

1
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2
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 2) Extraversion ▪ Sociable versus retiring
▪ Fun-loving versus sober
▪ Affectionate versus reserved
3) Openness ▪ Imaginative versus practical
▪ Preference for variety versus preference for routine
▪ Independent versus conforming
4) Agreeableness ▪ Soft-hearted versus ruthless
▪ Trusting versus suspicious
▪ Helpful versus uncooperative
5) Conscientiousness ▪ Organized versus disorganized
▪ Careful versus careless
▪ Disciplined versus impulsive

In this perspective also are Biological Trait Theories with Hans Eysenck’s research being the
reference point. He linked variations in personality characteristics to inherited differences in the
nervous system, especially the brain. In his research, he found that personality can be described
using two main factors or dimensions: 1) introversion-Extraversion and 2) Emotionality-Stability.

Eysenck argued that his theory suggests that:

• Extroverts inherit lower than ideal levels of arousal and will be constantly looking for
excitement to increase their arousal.
• Introverts inherit higher than ideal levels of arousal that lead them to try to reduce arousal.
• People who are more stable have nervous systems that are relatively insensitive to stress,
• Those who are more emotional have systems that react more strongly to stress.

3) The Social-Cognitive Approach

The social-cognitive approach or social learning approach sees personality as a full set of
behaviors that people acquire through learning and then display in particular situations. This view
expands beyond traditional behaviorism by emphasizing learned patterns of thought as guiding
actions and the fact that much of personality is learned in social situations from interacting with
and observing others.

Prominent Social-Cognitive Theories

Rotter’s Expectancy Theory
• Julian Rotter argued that learned cognitive expectancies guide behavior. Behaviors reflect
both expected outcomes and the value one places on those outcomes. Thus behavior is
determined by its rewarding or punishing consequences and by an expectation that a
particular behavior will be rewarded or punished.

• People also learn general expectancies about how rewards and punishments are controlled.
Internals expect that their own efforts will control events (“I failed the test because I did not
study”). Externals expect events to be controlled by external forces over which they have no
control (“I failed the test because it was too hard”).

Bandura and Reciprocal Determinism

• Albert Bandura argues that thought, environment, and behavior all interact; each can only be
understood relative to the other two. Personality is thus shaped by the mutual influence of
these elements, which is called reciprocal determinism.

• In Bandura’s view, one important cognitive element is perceived self-efficacy, a learned

expectation that you can perform well regardless of past failures or current obstacles.

4) The Humanistic Approach (Is Everyone Basically Good?)

The humanistic approach, or phenomenological approach, holds that personality and behavior are
guided by one’s unique perceptions and values, and by an innate drive to grow and fulfill one’s
natural potential (self-actualization).

Prominent Humanistic Theories

1. Roger’s Self Theory
• Carl Rogers thought that people have an actualizing tendency, an innate inclination
toward growth and fulfillment that motivates all human behavior. In this view, personality
is the expression of that actualizing tendency as it unfolds in each person’s uniquely
perceived reality.
• Rogers’s concept of self refers to who a person really is—preferences, abilities,
shortcomings, desires. Self-actualization requires a correct self-concept, one’s
understanding of one’s self.
• The need for positive regard—approval of the self from others—also shapes actions.
When others’ evaluations agree with one’s own, or are congruent, the person sees
him/herself as “good”; this becomes part of his/her self-concept. When the feelings
people experience or express may be negatively evaluated by others, they often are
suppressed. The socially acceptable feelings that are expressed or experienced instead
are incongruent with their true feelings and may result in psychological discomfort or
mental disorder.
• Positive regard is usually conditional, coming only when conditions of worth are met.
Conditions of worth are created whenever people, instead of behaviors, are evaluated.
Thus you may learn to believe that your worth as a person depends on showing the “right”
attitudes, behaviors, and values.

1. Maslow’s Growth Theory

• Abraham Maslow saw self-actualization as a human need, not just a capacity. He felt it
was the highest need in a hierarchy of needs that exist in life. However, people often do
not seek to meet this need, because they are focusing on lower needs in the hierarchy.
• He argued that most people have a deficiency orientation, a preoccupation with perceived
needs for material things. This tends to render life as meaningless, disappointing, and
boring.
 • Those with growth orientations focus on being satisfied with what they have, what they are,
and what they can do. Such people are more likely to have peak experiences, feelings of
joy over the mere fact of being alive, human, and utilizing their fullest potential.

Stages of Personality Development

There are many theories and perspectives. These are some of the perspectives:
1. The psychodynamic approach or Freudian perspective (Sigmund Freud) perspective
2. Erikson’s social and emotional development perspective.
3. Jean Piaget cognitive development perspective

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development

Freud believed in psychological determinism, the view that all behavior has an underlying
psychological cause. Two major drives—sex and aggression—are the primary motivating forces
of human behavior.

Freud proposed five distinct phases of development called psychosexual stages, during
childhood.
▪ In these stages, if a child does not satisfy the needs of a given stage, he or she will develop a
fixation, a state in which energy is focused on an earlier stage of development even as a
child moves on to the next stage.
▪ Fixation may result in a neurosis. Neurosis is an abnormal behavior pattern relating to a
conflict between the ego and id or superego.
▪ According to Freud, conflict between the ego and reality results in psychosis-Psychosis is a
break from reality.

The five psychosexual stages:

1. The oral stage occurs from birth to 1 year of age.
▪ The locus of pleasure during the oral stage is the mouth (sucking and biting).
▪ The developmental task during the oral stage is weaning from the mother’s breast or
bottle.
2. The anal stage occurs from 1–3 years of age.
▪ The locus of pleasure during the anal stage is the anus (retaining and expelling feces).
▪ The developmental task during the anal stage is toilet training.
3. The phallic stage occurs from 3–6 years of age.
▪ The locus of pleasure during the phallic stage is the clitoris or penis.
 ▪ The development task during the phallic stage is identification with the same-sex parent.
▪ It is during this stage that a boy experiences the Oedipus complex, in which the boy
experiences castration anxiety (e.g., as punishment for loving his mother and hating his
father, his father will cut off his penis).
- For successful resolution, a boy must renounce love for his mother and make peace with
his father, choosing to identify with him and accept his position instead of viewing the
father as a competitor.
- The boy will internalize his father’s morality as part of his superego.
▪ Girls experience the Electra complex, in which they struggle with feelings of anger and
jealousy toward the mother for not providing them with a penis and not having one (penis
envy), and for the mother’s relationship with the father.
a) Girls ambivalently identify with their mothers.
b) They remain fixated at this stage and have less well-developed superegos, less ego
strength, and less ability to negotiate between reality and the id.
4. The latency period occurs from 6 years of age to puberty.
▪ There is no particular locus of pleasure during the latency period.
▪ The developmental task during the latency period is transformation of repressed sexual
urges into socially acceptable activities.
5. The genital stage occurs from puberty onward.
▪ The locus of pleasure during the genital stage is the vagina or penis.
▪ There are two developmental tasks during this stage: formation of a mature sexual love
relationship and development of interests and talents related to productive work.

Certain features of Freud’s theory, such as the idea that childhood experiences with parents affect
later development (supported by attachment data), defense mechanisms, and the importance of
the unconscious, have been supported by empirical research.

Psycho-Social Development
Some theorists, such as Freud, believed that personality stops developing in childhood, although
psychological development continues throughout the life span.

Erik Erikson believed that there are three stages of adult psychosocial development, or effects of
maturation and learning on personality and relationships, in addition to the five stages of
childhood and adolescence.
1) Basic trust versus mistrust (0–1 year): Depending on how well they are treated by caregivers,
infants either develop a basic trust that the world is good or fail to develop such a basic trust.
2) Autonomy versus doubt (1–3 years): The child either is allowed to choose and make
independent decisions or is made to feel ashamed and full of self-doubt for wanting to do so.
3) Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years): The child either develops a sense of purpose and direction
or is overly controlled by the parents and made to feel constrained or guilty.
4) Industry versus inferiority (6–11 years): The child either develops a sense of competence and
ability to work with others or becomes beset with feelings of incompetence and inferiority.
5) Identity versus role confusion (adolescence): The adolescent either successfully grapples with
questions of identity and future roles as an adult or becomes confused about possible adult
roles.
6) Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood): The young adult either develops deep and
intimate relations with others or is socially isolated.
7) Generativity versus self-absorption (middle adulthood): The adult in the “prime of life” must
look to the future and determine what to leave behind for future generations. Failing this task
leads to a sense of meaningless in life.
8) Integrity versus despair (old age): In reflecting back on life, a person either feels that life was
worthwhile as it was lived or feels despair and fears death.

Piaget Stages In Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget identified four stages of cognitive development:
a) Sensorimotor stage (Infancy)
• In this period (which has 6 substages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity
without the use of symbols
• Knowledge of the world is limited because it is based on physical interactions/
experiences.
• Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age.
• Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual
abilities.
• Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

b) Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood)

• Intelligence demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory
and imagination are developed.
• Thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner.
• Egocentric thinking predominates.

c) Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence)

• This stage is characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass,
weight, area, and volume.
• Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols
related to concrete objects.
• Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).
• Egocentric thought diminishes.

d) Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood)

• Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical manipulation of symbols related to
abstract concepts.
• Early in this period there is a return to egocentric thought.
• Many adults never attain this stage.

Research studies:
• Piaget believed that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to
the next. Data from cross-sectional studies of children in a variety of western cultures seem to
support this assertion for the stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operations.
• However, data from similar cross-sectional studies of adolescents do not support the assertion
that all individuals will automatically move to the next cognitive stage as they biologically
mature.
• For formal operations, it appears that maturation establishes the basis, but a special
environment is required for most adolescents and adults to attain this stage.
• Although research does not support all of Piaget’s descriptive theory, it is still influential for
parent’s and educators.