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I. Leadership
a. Definition of Leadership?
 Leveriza: “The essence of leadership is influencing the actions of others, wherein
the essential quality of the leader is that he is convinced something must be done,
he persuades others to HELP him get it done. When no effort is made to influence
the thoughts and actions of others, there is a default of leadership. It is further
surmised that being a leader means to lead; without penalties, lethargy occurs.”
 The process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be
done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective
efforts to accomplish shared objectives” Gary Yukl (2006)
b. Theories of Leadership
The leader must learn to adapt his leadership style to the psychological makeup of his
subordinates. The theories mentioned corroborate with Argyris, Herzberg, and Dubin.
Trait Theory: Argue that effective leaders share a number of common personality
characteristics, or "traits." Early trait theories said that leadership is an innate, instinctive quality
that you do or don't have. Thankfully, we've moved on from this idea, and we're learning more
about what we can do to develop leadership qualities within ourselves and others. Trait theories
help us identify traits and qualities (for example, integrity, empathy, assertiveness, good
decision-making skills, and likability) that are helpful when leading others.
Contingency Theory: The realization that there is no one correct type of leader led to theories
that the best leadership style depends on the situation. These theories try to predict which style is
best in which circumstance. For instance, when you need to make quick decisions, which style is
best? When you need the full support of your team, is there a more effective way to lead? Should
a leader be more people-oriented or task-oriented? These are all questions that contingency
leadership theories try to address.
Behavioral Theory: Behavioral theories focus on how leaders behave. How leaders behave
affects their performance. Researchers have realized, though, that many of these leadership
behaviors are appropriate at different times. The best leaders are those who can use many
different behavioral styles, and choose the right style for each situation.
c. Types of Leadership?
The Democratic Leadership style : actively involves the people being led. It encourages
conversation and participation in the decision-making process and it also contain a leader that
listen to everyone’s opinion that practice social equality.
Authoritarian leadership: is a style of leadership in which the leader exercises control over
decision-making and often expects strict compliance from his/her people
Laissez-faire leadership: is a management style characterized by a hands-off approach, where

leaders provide minimal guidance and intervention, allowing employees to have a high degree of
autonomy and decision-making authority.
d. Characteristics of a Good Leader

1. Judgment. It is the power of the mind to weigh various Factors and arrive at a sound
decision.
2. Unselfishness. It is the avoidance of providing for one's own comfort or advantage at the
expense of others.
3. Decisiveness. It is the ability to make decisions promptly and express them clearly.
4. Enthusiasm. It is the display of sincere interest in the performance of all duties.
5. Loyalty. It is the quality of faithfulness to superiors, subordinates and the organization
where the leader belongs
6. Dependability. It is the certainty of power performance of duty with loyalty to superiors and
subordinates.
7. Integrity. It is the uprightness of moral character and the quality of honesty and
truthfulness.
8. Courage. It is the mental quality which recognizes but enables. the individual to accept or
meet challenges with calmness and fearlessness.
9. Knowledge. It is the acquired knowledge of the profession not only on the job, but also on
the subordinates.
10. Bearing. It is the act of creating a favorable impression in personal conduct at all times.
11. Tact. It is the ability to deal with others without giving offense.
12. Endurance. It is the leader's mental and physical stamina moved by the ability to stand pain
or hardships.
13. Justice. It is the ability to be impartial and consistent in dealing with subordinates.
II. Decision Making
A. What is Decision Making?

 According to Leveriza, the hardest part in decision-making is understanding the problem
itself. And along with the organization’s goals and objectives, one needs to realize the
implications of the organizational structure because this too affects the capabilities of
decision-makers in deciding a course of action.
 A decision is a course/are courses of action with which you are accounted to a number of
alternatives, while decision-making entails a single course of action from a lot of
alternatives.
B. Program and Non Program

 A decision is a course/are courses of action with which you are accounted to a number of
alternatives, while decision-making entails a single course of action from a lot of
alternatives.
 Programmed decisions are those that are repeated over time and for which an existing set
of rules can be developed to guide the process. These decisions might be simple, or they
could be fairly complex, but the criteria that go into making the decision are all known or
can at least be estimated with a reasonable degree of accuracy. contrast, nonprogrammed
decisions are novel, unstructured decisions that are generally based on criteria that are not
well-defined. With nonprogrammed decisions, information is more likely to be
ambiguous or incomplete, and the decision maker may need to exercise some thoughtful
judgment and creative thinking to reach a good solution. These are also sometimes
referred to as non-routine decisions or as high-involvement decisions because they
require greater involvement and thought on the part of the decision maker.
C. Steps in Decision Making
As per the “rational-comprehensive approach,” decision-making is a progression of logical steps:

1. Recognition and accurate diagnosis of the problem
2. Determination of all possible alternatives
3. Thorough investigation and analysis of facts relating to each alternative
4. Comparison of the consequences of each alternative
5. Selection of the best possible solution for the problem
Drucker recommends that decision-making is composed of five distinct phases, which are:
1. Defining the problem
2. Analyzing the problem
3. Developing alternative solutions
4. Deciding on the best solution
5. Converting decisions into effective action
III. Communication
A. What is Communication?
 The word “communication” has been derived from the Latin word “communis” which
means “common”
 Harold Koontz and Cyril O'Donnell who define communication as “transfer of
information from one person to another, whether or not it elicits confidence." Chester
Barnard who interpret communication as the people being linked together in an
organization to achieve a central purpose. Communication is a primary social process that
attempts to create understanding between two or more people.
 Communication is the fundamental part of any management plan and operations.
B. Elements of Communication
1. SENDER: It is the person or entity initiating the communication by encoding and
transmitting a message or information.
2. MESSAGE: It is the conent or information being communicated, which can take various
forms such as words, images, data or signals
3. MEDIUM/CHANNEL: It is the means through which the message is conveyed. It can be
verbal (spoken or written), nonverbal (body language, gestures), visual (images, videos), or
electronic (email, social media, phone calls).
4. RECEIVER: It is the individual or group intended to receive and decode the message. They
interpret the message and provide feedback or response, completing the communication
loop
C. Kinds of Communication
1. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION: Downward communication is relaying

information from the employer or higher ups to the employees, going down the hierarchy,
thus the name downward communication.
FUNCTIONS OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

a. Feedback
b. Decisions
c. Repetition
d. One way
e. Communicators
2. UPWARD COMMUNICATION: They are messages are passed from the lower levels
of the hierarchy up to the management.
FUNCTIONS OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION
a. Informed Decision Making
b. Easing Employee Stress
c. Boosting Employee Participation
d. Measuring Downward Communication Effectiveness
e. Suggesting Improvements
THE BARRIERS OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

1. Physical Distance, or inaccessibility.
2. Screening, Dilution, or Distortion at each level
3. The attitude of the Supervisor.
4. The inferior status of the Subordinate.
5. Traditional
WAYS TO ESTABLISH UPWARD

COMMUNICATION
1. Open- Door Policy
2. Committees
3. Interviews
4. Grievance System
5. Suggestion System
6. Staff Service
7. Internal Audits and Surveys
3. LATERAL COMMUNICATION: Take place at the same levels of hierarchy in an

organization is called lateral communication, communication between peers and between
managers at the same levels or between any horizontally equivalent organization member.
ADVANTAGES OF LATERAL COMMUNICATION
1. It facilitates coordination of the task

2. It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members
3. It helps in solving various organizational problems
4. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION: is casual communication between coworkers in the

workplace. It is unofficial in nature and is based in the informal, social relationships that
are formed in a workplace outside of the normal hierarchy of business structure and does
not follow any rules of predetermined policy that formal does and is the opposite of
formal communication.
Importance of Informal Communications
The importance of informal communication in organizations as a complementary counterpart to
formal channels. Informal communication bridges gaps when formal channels encounter
obstacles. It can transmit valuable information swiftly, bypassing formal protocols. However, it's
known for gossip and distortion. Types of Communication
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. rapid information flow 1. Misinformation and Rumors
2. Builds Relationships 2. Exclusions and Cliques
3. Problem Solving 3. Lack of Control
4. Feedback Mechanism 4. Distortion or information
5. Flexibility 5. Ineffectiveness of official
communication
6. Security Risks
IV. Public Relations

DEFINITION
Public relations is a strategic communication process that fosters mutually beneficial
relationships between organizations and their publics. Public relations specialists manage an
organization's public image and reputation, assisting in effective communication and fostering
positive relationships between the two (Public Relations Society of America).
It is a business that aims to distribute significant corporate news, maintain a brand image, and
portray negative events in a positive light through various methods such as press releases, news
conferences, interviews, and social media posts.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR GOVERNMENT TO HAVE A GOOD PUBLIC

RELATIONS?
In a democracy indeed, in any kind of government, it is necessary that the people be well
informed, and this is not possible unless the government tells them what it is doing and how the
citizens will be affected.
HOW IS PUBLIC RELATIONS DONE IN THE PHILIPPINES?

"After more than five decades of existence, public relations in the Philippines, a
transplanted practice from the West, has achieved tremendous progress. As this study shows, the
public relations industry sought to define its role during various stages of the country's political
and economic development and embarked on a sustained process of professionalization. It is still
a relatively young industry composed of a small but steadily growing group of practitioners. It is
male dominated, western styled, and urban concentrated." (Panol, 2000)

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POLSCI47 REVIEWER

Laissez-faire leadership: is a management style characterized by a hands-off approach, where

d. Characteristics of a Good Leader

A. What is Decision Making?

B. Program and Non Program

C. Steps in Decision Making

As per the “rational-comprehensive approach,” decision-making is a progression of logical steps:

1. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION: Downward communication is relaying

FUNCTIONS OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

THE BARRIERS OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

WAYS TO ESTABLISH UPWARD

3. LATERAL COMMUNICATION: Take place at the same levels of hierarchy in an

ADVANTAGES OF LATERAL COMMUNICATION

1. It facilitates coordination of the task

4. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION: is casual communication between coworkers in the

IV. Public Relations

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR GOVERNMENT TO HAVE A GOOD PUBLIC

HOW IS PUBLIC RELATIONS DONE IN THE PHILIPPINES?

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