Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007

Compressible Flows

Brass bullet in supersonic flight

through air. This photograph,
visualized by the Schlieren
method, was made by Ernst Mach
in Prague in the winter of 1888.
From “An Album of Fluid
Motion”, Van Dyke, The Parabolic
Press

The oblique lines are the shock waves, the vertical white lines are fixed wires
1
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Scope of studies

1. Define compressibility and appreciate subsonic and supersonic flows

2. Appreciate the applications and flow situations where compressibility is
important
3. Revision of thermodynamics
4. Define and derive the speed of sound expression
5. Define and derive expressions for stagnation conditions
6. Understand one-dimensional isentropic duct flows
7. Introduce Plane shock waves and two-dimensional shock wave propagation
8. Understand and apply to nozzle designs and choked flow conditions

2
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Introduction

- Speed of a fluid approaches velocity comparable to its speed of sound

- Density of a gas changes significantly along a streamline
- most common in gas → gas dynamics
- Definition of compressibility → the fractional change in volume of the fluid
element per unit change in pressure
p p + dp

p v p p + dp v - dv p + dp

p p + dp 3
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Mach Number

- Dominant parameter in compressible flow analysis

M < 0.3 Subsonic & incompressible

0.3 < M < 0.8 Subsonic & compressible
0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic flow – shock waves appear mixed subsonic and sonic
flow regime
1.2 < M < 3.0 Supersonic – shock waves are present but NO subsonic flow
M > 3.0 Hypersonic Flow, shock waves and other flow changes are very
strong
4
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Characteristics

- Significant changes in velocity and pressure result in density variations

throughout a flow field
- Large Temperature variations result in density variations
- As a result we now have two new variables we must solve for T & ρ, we need
2 new equations: mass, linear momentum, energy and an equation of state.

5
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Important Effects

1. Choked Flow – a flow rate in a duct is limited by the sonic condition,

downstream variations don’t affect the flow
2. Sound Wave/Pressure Waves – rise and fall of pressure during the passage of
an acoustic/sound wave. The magnitude of the pressure change is very small.
3. Shock Waves – nearly discontinuous property changes in supersonic flow.
(Explosions, high speed flight, gun firing, nuclear explosion)
4. A pressure ratio of 2:1 will cause sonic flow

6
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Applications

1. Nozzles and Diffusers and converging diverging nozzles

2. Turbines, fans & pumps
3. Throttles – flow regulators, an obstruction in a duct that controls pressure drop.
4. One Dimensional Isentropic Flow – compressible pipe flow
5. Die-casting, injection moulding – where air is expelled very rapidly
6. high-speed projectiles

7
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Approach

- Control volume approach

- Steady, One-dimension, Uniform Flow
- Additional Thermodynamics Concepts are needed
- Restrict our analysis to ideal gases

8
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Thermodynamics – Ideal Gas Law

- Equation of state – ideal gas law

𝑝 = 𝜌 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇

- Temperature is absolute

- Specific volume

9
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Thermodynamics – Internal Energy and Enthalpy
- Internal Energy – individual particle kinetic energy. Summation of molecular
vibrational and rotational energy

- For an ideal gas

or

- Recall integral form of the Energy Equation for Enthalpy of an ideal gas:

or
10
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Thermodynamics – Internal Energy and Enthalpy

- Substituting and

- Define the ratio of specific heats:

- Then and

- e.g. for air, cp = 1004 J/kg·K and k = 1.4 11

Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Thermodynamics – 2nd Law and Isentropic Processes
- We define entropy by
- Combining the 1st and 2nd Laws gives us Gibb’s equation

- For an isentropic process (adiabatic and reversible), we get the following

power law relationship:
12
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

Subsurface Bursts - shows the condensation cloud formed after a shallow

underwater explosion. You can see the effect of the shockwave on the
13
water's surface.
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Control volume analysis of a finite-strength pressure wave
Stationary wave
Moving wave of frontal area A Reference frame moving with A
c 1 2
p P + Δp p P + Δp
ρ ρ + Δρ ρ ρ + Δρ
T T + ΔT T T + ΔT
V=0 ΔV V=c V = c – ΔV
- Steady state continuity equation (solved for the induced velocity ΔV):

Equation A

The speed of sound (c) is the rate of propagation of a pressure wave on infinitesimal strength through a still fluid14
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Control volume analysis of a finite-strength pressure wave

- Steady state momentum equations (Find Δp and c):

𝑝 𝐴 − 𝑝 + ∆𝑝 𝐴 = 𝜌 𝑐 𝐴 (𝑐 − ∆𝑉 − 𝑐)

Equation B

- Now combine equations A & B and solve for the speed of sound:

- Small amplitude moderate frequency waves are isentropic and →

15
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Control volume analysis of a finite-strength pressure wave

- Calculating the speed of sound for an ideal gas:

When adiabatic conditions hold (which is true because there are no temperature
gradients inside the wave itself), the Poisson equation can be used for
evaluating ∂p/ ∂ρ i.e.

Where K is a constant and k = cp/cv .The derivation is then

Hence and

16
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 1: speed of sound calculation

- Determine the speed of sound in Argon (Ar) at 120oC. MAr = 40 kg/kmol and
k ≈ 1.668:

369 𝑚/𝑠

17
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 2: speed of sound calculation

- Calculate the speed of sound in air at ground level and at 6000 m using data in
the table below for standard atmosphere.

http://www.braeunig.us/space/atmos.htm
18
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 2: speed of sound calculation

At ground level temperature is 288.15 K

Rair = 287 J/kg K

g = 1.4 c= 𝛾 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇 = 1.4 ∙ 287 ∙ 288.15 = 340.3 m/s

At 6000 m temperature is 249.2 K

Rair = 287 J/kg K

g = 1.4 c= 𝛾 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑇 = 1.4 ∙ 287 ∙ 249.2 = 316.6 m/s

19
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 3: Steam is injected in a turbine with a velocity of 100 m/s. Steam
conditions are: 400 deg C, 0.1 Mpa, and cp = 1930 J/kg K. Estimate the
Mach number.
We need to find Rsteam .
v (specific volume) = 3.1027 m3/kg
𝑃𝑣
P v = 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑇 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 =
𝑇
We need to find g .
𝑐𝑝
𝛾= but 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐𝑝 − 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑐𝑣

c= 𝛾 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑇
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚
𝑀𝑎 =
𝑐
20
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Steady isentropic flow – control volume analysis

Applications where the assumptions of steady, uniform, isentropic flow are

reasonable:
- Exhaust gases passing through the blades of a turbine
- Diffuser near the front of a jet engine
- Nozzles on a rocket engine
- A broken natural gas line

21
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
2
Steady isentropic flow 1
h h + Δh

V ρ ρ + Δρ V + ΔV
T T + ΔT
p p + Δp

dx
Steady state energy equation inlet 1 & exit 2:

Neglecting potential energy and recalling

Assuming ideal gas: 22

Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
2
Steady isentropic flow 1
h h + Δh

V ρ ρ + Δρ V + ΔV
T T + ΔT
p p + Δp

dx
Steady state energy equation inlet 1 & exit 2, neglecting potential energy &
assuming isentropic duct flow:

Assuming ideal gas:

or
23
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Stagnation conditions 2
Insulated walls
1

Assume area A2 is so big V2 ~ 0, then

stagnation enthalpy

Similarly, as we adiabatically bring a fluid parcel to zero velocity there is a

corresponding increase in temperature

stagnation temperature
24
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

Stagnation conditions – maximum velocity

If the temperature, T is taken down to absolute zero, then the equation

above can be solved for the maximum velocity:

No higher velocity is possible unless energy is added to the flow

through heat transfer or work

25
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Stagnation conditions – Mach number relations
Recall that the Mach number is defined as:

For ideal gases:

26
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Stagnation conditions – Isentropic pressure and density relationships

27
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Critical values: conditions when M = 1
For Air, k = 1.4

In all isentropic flow, all critical values are constant (Sonic or critical conditions
are denoted by *)
28
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Critical values: conditions when M = 1
Critical velocity: the speed of sound c*

Substitute

29
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 4: Stagnation conditions
Air flows adiabatically through a duct. At point 1 the velocity is 240 m/s, with T1
= 320 K and p1 = 170 kPa. Compute

(a) To

𝑇𝑜 349
(b) Ma 𝑀1 = 5 −1 = 5 − 1 = 0.67
𝑇1 320

(c) po

(d) r0

(e) Vmax

(f) V*
30
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 5: Stagnation conditions
Air leaving the tyre exhausts to atmosphere where the pressure is 1.04 bar and the
temperature is 22°C. By treating the flow through the system as one-dimensional
isentropic, and neglecting all friction losses, calculate the maximum pressure
inside the tyre for which the exit flow will be subsonic. Treat air as a perfect gas
for which g is 1.4 and R=287.1 J/kgK.

Answer: P0 < 1.97 bar

31
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 6: Stagnation conditions
The floating airship shown is filled entirely with 4000 m3 of helium.

Helium leaks through a nozzle to a pressure of 0.99 bar. By treating the flow as
one-dimensional isentropic, and neglecting all friction losses, calculate the Mach
number of the helium at the nozzle if the stagnation pressure of helium in the
airship is 1.2 bar. Take g to be 1.66 and Rhelium = 2077 J/kgK

32
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 6: Stagnation conditions

33
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Steady isentropic flow 2
1
h h + Δh

V ρ ρ + Δρ V + ΔV
T T + ΔT
p p + Δp
Steady state continuity equation:
dx

0 0 0 0

- Only retain 1st order differential terms and divide by ρVA 34

Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Steady isentropic duct flow with area change
Recall for steady isentropic flow continuity:

Equation C

For compressible, isentropic flow the momentum equation is:

Bernoulli’s equation
Equation D
neglecting gravity

Substitute equation D into C:

35
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Steady isentropic duct flow with area changes

Recall that the speed of sound is:

Substituting the Mach number:

Describes how the pressure

behaves in nozzles and
diffusers under various flow
conditions
36
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Nozzle flow characteristics – pressure variation

1. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dP < 0:

Indicating a decrease in pressure in a P P
converging channel
2. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dP > 0:
Indicating an increase in pressure in a P P
converging channel
3. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dP > 0:
Indicating an increase in pressure in a diverging P P
channel
4. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA > 0, then dP < 0:
Indicating a decrease in pressure in a diverging P P

channel 37
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Steady isentropic duct flow – nozzles
Diffusers and Converging-Diverging nozzles

Recall the momentum equation here is:

Now substitute into the top equation:

or

38
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Nozzle flow characteristics – velocity variation

1. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA < 0, then dV > 0:

Indicating an accelerating flow in a converging
channel
2. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA < 0, then dV < 0:
Indicating a decelerating flow in a converging
channel
3. Subsonic Flow: M < 1 and dA > 0, then dV < 0:
Indicating a decelerating flow in a diverging
channel
4. Supersonic Flow: M > 1 and dA > 0, then dV > 0:
Indicating an accelerating flow in a diverging
channel 39
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Converging-Diverging Nozzles
Amin
Subsonic Supersonic
M=1

Fluid flow through a throat can accelerate

smoothly through sonic to supersonic flow

Amax

M<1
Subsonic Subsonic
Supersonic
Supersonic M>1

Flow through a bulge cannot be sonic 40

Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Area change – critical ratio

Both terms on RHS are functions only of Mach number for isentropic flows:

Combining, hence the critical area ratio is:

For k = 1.4, the numerical form is

41
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Choked Flow
The maximum possible mass flow through a duct occurs when its throat is at
sonic conditions
Consider a convergent nozzle:
receiver
po pr
To pe
ρo Ve
plenum

Mass flow rate (ideal gas):

Recall:

42
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Choked Flow
Recall stagnation pressure and temperature ratio and substitute:

If the critical area (A*) is where M = 1, this will result in maximum mass flow

For k = 1.4 this reduces to

43
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 7

Air is to be expanded from po=200kPa and To= 500K through a circular cross-
section sonic convergent-divergent nozzle to an exit Mach number of 2.5. The
desired mass flow is 3kg/s. Assuming isentropic flow with g=1.4 calculate the
throat diameter, the exit pressure, exit temperature, exit velocity and exit
diameter.

Answer: 0.103m, 11.7kPa, 222K, 747 m/s, 0.167m

44
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
For there to be supersonic exit the flow at the throat must be sonic

And

Hence d = 0.103m

45
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

The flow is isentropic and so po and To do not vary through the flow.
We get the exit pressure from

46
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Exit temperature obtained from

At exit

As Ma=2.5

Using continuity

And d=0.167m
47
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

Shock wave in front of a blunt object (moving from right to left) in a

wind tunnel during an experiment at NASA Ames Research Centre 48
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Movement of a sound source and wave propagation

- Sources move to the right at a speed V

Limiting
Mach
cΔt cΔt wave

V<c V=c

V=0 V Δt
V Δt

49
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Shock waves
• A shock wave is a strong pressure wave, marking the boundary between
supersonic and subsonic flow
• Occurs in internal or external flow
• Wave forms normal to the flow
• Across the wave there is a discontinuous change in properties.
• Usually shock waves are very thin.
• The flow upstream and downstream of the shock wave can be isentropic
but the wave itself represents an irreversibility within the flow
Consider a duct flow with a stationary shock wave in it, as before we put a
CV around the wave

50
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Normal Shock Wave
A common irreversibility occurring in supersonic internal or external flows is the
normal shock wave Fixed
normal
shock

Isentropic
1 2
Isentropic downstream
upstream s = s 2 > s1
s = s1 M1 > 1 M2 < 1
A2 * > A 1 *
ρ2 > ρ1
Thin control
volume
A1 ≈ A 2
- Discontinuous change in flow properties
- It is a strong pressure wave 51
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Normal Shock Wave – Mach number relations
For a perfect gas all the property ratios across the normal shock are unique
functions of k and the upstream mach number M1.

We can see for any k, p2 > p1 only if M1 > 1. Therefore for flow through a normal
shock wave, the upstream Mach number must be supersonic

For the downstream Mach number

Since M1 must be supersonic, this equation predicts for k > 1, M2 must be subsonic.

Thus a normal shock wave decelerates a flow almost discontinuously from

supersonic to subsonic. 52
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Normal Shock Wave – Mach number relations

Summarizing:

Ma, V, p0 decreases across a normal shock wave

p, T, r, A*, s increases across a normal shock wave

T0 remains constant (no heat or work added to the fluid)

53
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Normal Shock Wave – moving control volume

• Before the control volume was put around the stationary shock wave.
• If the shock wave is moving at the upstream speed v1 (= speed of sound)
then we can make the control volume move at v1 (= speed of sound) to
the left with the upstream fluid stationary and the downstream fluid
moving at (v1-v2).
• The equations derived for the fixed shock are therefore still applicable.

54
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Normal Shock Wave – moving control volume
Control volume moving at c (speed of sound)

(1) (2)

Isentropic upstream flow, before Isentropic downstream flow, after the

the shock wave passes shock wave passes

s1 s2 > s 1

v1 ; Ma1 > 1 v2 ; Ma2 < 1

Before the shock wave air is not After the shock wave air is moving at
moving, v = 0 m/s
v = v1 – v2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKvMQ958wLg
55
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 8:

A racing bicycle tyre is filled with air at 5.5 bar. A large puncture occurs on
the tyre and a shock wave might result. Conduct a calculation to estimate the
speed of this shock wave.
Outside the shock wave p = 1.04 bar and T=295.15K.

Answer: Ma1 = 2.16; v1 = 744 m/s

56
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

Water vapour outlines a shock wave as an F-18 jet breaks the sound barrier.
57
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Movement of a sound source and wave propagation

- Sources move to the right at a speed V

cΔt

V<c Zone of silence

Supersonic V=0
Mach wave
α
forms a Mach
Cone
V>c
V Δt Limiting
Mach
cΔt wave
Zone of action
V=c

V Δt V Δt

58
V Δt
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 9: Wave propagation calculation
A needle-nosed projectile travelling at a speed of M = 3 passes 200 m above
an observer. Find the projectile’s velocity and determine how far beyond the
observer the projectile will first be heard. Assume T = 300K and R = 287.

M=3

200 m

59
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 9: Wave propagation calculation
A needle-nosed projectile travelling at a speed of M = 3 passes 200 m above
an observer. Find the projectile’s velocity and determine how far beyond the
observer the projectile will first be heard.

60
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 10:

An aircraft flies at an altitude of 5000 m where the air temperature is -18°C

and the pressure is 47 kPa. The stagnation temperature is 281K.
1) Calculate the Mach number and the stagnation pressure.
2) If a thermocouple were mounted on the leading edge of the aircraft
wing, what temperature would be indicated.

𝑇𝑜 2
𝛾−1
= 1 + 𝑀𝑎
𝑇 2

𝛾
𝑝𝑜 2
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
= 1 + 𝑀𝑎
𝑝 2

Answer: Ma = 0.71; P0 = 65.8 kPa ; Stagnation temperature

61
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows
Example 10:

The aircraft now flies at a constant, supersonic speed of Ma=1.5 at the same
altitude. An observer standing at sea-level sees the aircraft as it passes
overhead. Perform a calculation to estimate how many seconds later will he
hear the sound of the aircraft?
𝑎= 𝛾𝑅𝑇

𝑉 = 𝑴𝒂 ∙ 𝑎

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 =
𝑀𝑎

5000
tan𝜶 =
𝑉𝑡

Answer: a = 320.4 m/s; V = 480.5 m/s ; t = 11.6 s

62
Thermofluids 2 – MMME2007
Compressible Flows

While the compression of the airflow in gas turbines is achieved by blades, in

scramjet propulsion systems the airstream is compressed by oblique shock
waves in the supersonic diffuser and remains in the supersonic regime. In this
Schlieren photograph of a supersonic flow (M = 2) in a diffuser using
gaseous hydrogen injected into a preheated supersonic airflow (stagnation
temperature: up to 1400 K, mass flow: 300 g/s)
63