Alker - 2008 - The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS)

The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
A case study for the research project

“Transboundary groundwater management in africa”
Marianne Alker
The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS)
Preface
I would like to thank Dr. Klaus Schelkes (BGR), Dr. Ralf Klingbeil
(BGR), Dr. A. Margane (BGR) and Dr. Ahmed Sefelnsar (University of
Halle, Germany) for their valuable comments and for sharing their knowl-
edge of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System with me.
German Development Institute 233

Contents
1 Introduction 237
2 Characteristics of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer

System 237
3 National groundwater use patterns 242

3.1 Groundwater use patterns in Libya 245
3.2 Groundwater use patterns in Egypt 247
3.3 Groundwater use patterns in Chad 248
3.4 Groundwater use patterns in Sudan 248
4 Transboundary implications 249

4.1 Pressures deriving from national use patterns 250
4.2 Cooperation problems 250
4.3 Need for cooperation 251
5 Institutional arrangements for groundwater

management and transboundary cooperation 252
5.1 National institutions 253
5.1.1 Institutions in Egypt 253
5.1.2 Institutions in Libya 255
5.1.3 Institutions in Sudan 256
5.1.4 Institutions in Chad 258
5.2 Institutions for transboundary cooperation 259
5.2.1 Cooperation over the NSAS 259
5.2.2 Other agreements concerning transboundary water
resources in the region 264

Marianne Alker
6 Prospects for transboundary cooperation, and

recommendation for German development
cooperation 265
Bibliography 271
List of Boxes
Box 1: The Great Man-Made River Project of Libya 246
Box 2: Databases of the NSAS 262
List of Figures
Figure 1: The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer and the
Post-Nubian Aquifer 241
List of Tables
Table 1: Recoverable volumes and present extraction
from the NSAS 244
236 German Development Institute

The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
Marianne Alker
1 Introduction
The study described here was one of five carried out for the research pro-
ject “transboundary groundwater management in Africa”. The Nubian
Sandstone Aquifer System (NSAS) was selected for the study because it is
one of the largest and most important transboundary aquifer systems in
Northern Africa, where dependency on groundwater is high and the man-
agement of shared groundwater is an important, politically sensitive issue
with social, economic and national security dimensions. This is so much
the case that the riparian countries have already set up an institutional
structure for information exchange and joint management of the NSAS.
The findings presented here are the result of a literary research study and
can therefore give only a limited insight into the complex modelling ac-
tivities currently being carried out in the NSAS region. However, they
make it possible to draw conclusions concerning strategic options for
German development cooperation.
This paper describes the major characteristics of the aquifer and its use
patterns in the riparian countries and analyzes the incentives for trans-
boundary cooperation in managing the NSAS. The paper then depicts
steps already taken by the riparian countries for interriparian cooperation
regarding the aquifer and ends by analyzing the challenges ahead. Finally,
it formulates conclusions and recommendations.
2 Characteristics of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer

System
Although the NSAS has been the subject of numerous studies, scientific
knowledge of this aquifer system is still limited. There exist for it no pre-
cise estimates of such characteristic values as the total volume of water
stored, the rate of groundwater flow, and total annual extraction from it (A.
Margane, personal communication 2007). Estimates of the total amount of
groundwater stored, for example, vary from 15,000 km³ (Ambroggi 1966,

Marianne Alker
24) and 135,000 km³ (Gossel / Ebraheem / Wyick 2004, 711) to as much as
457,550 km³ (CEDARE 2002, cited in: Bakhbakhi 2006, 80).
The present study is based on figures taken from the Centre for Environ-
ment and Development in the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE) (CE-
DARE 2002, cited in: Bakhbakhi 2006). At the same time, this study also
attempted to determine where uncertainties and contradicting results of
other studies have to be taken into consideration. Generally, the lack of
area-wide data concerning geological structures, porosity, and the various
thicknesses of water-bearing strata throughout the basin have led to a rela-
tively high level of uncertainty.
The NSAS is shared by Libya, Egypt, Sudan and Chad and covers approxi-
mately 2.2 million km², of which 235,000 km2 are in Chad (11 %), 828,000
km2 in Egypt (38 %), 760,000 km2 (34 %) in Libya, and 376,000 km2 in Sudan
(17 %) (CEDARE 2002 cited in: Bakhbakhi 2006, 75; Abu-Zeid s. a., 2).
The aquifer can be divided into two major parts one below the other, in-
cluding different sub-systems divided by uplifts. The older, more extended
and more important Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (NSA) underlies the Post-
Nubian Aquifer. Whereas the NSA covers the whole area of the NSAS, the
Post Nubian Aquifer (PNA) is located only in the north.46 It is separated
from the Post-Nubian Aquifer by low permeability layers47 but is
hydraulically connected to it in the form of upward leakage.
South of a line running between the 22nd and 29th parallels, the NSA is
unconfined. In the northern part, it is confined and overlaid by the PNA
(compare figure 1) (Margat 1995, cited by A. Margane in a personal com-
munication 2007; Bakhbakhi 2006, 75; Salem / Pallas 2002, 19).
46 Bakhbakhi (2006), for instance, applies different terms: instead of NAS he prefers the
term "Nubian Aquifer System", instead of Nubian Aquifer System "Nubian Sandstone
Aquifer System" and instead of Post-Nubian Aquifer "Post Nubian System". To diffe-
rentiate between the whole system and the individual aquifer layers and in order to take
geological conditions correctly into account we have chosen the terminology used by
BGR and Sefelnasr / Gossel / Wycisk (2007).
47 These low-permeability layers are of Mesozoic-Cenozoic origin (Salem / Pallas 2002, 19).

The NSA consists of continental (mainly sandstone) Palaeozoic48 and

Mesozoic49 deposits. The system is formed by different interconnected
aquifers within the geological formations (Salem / Pallas 2002, 19).50 The
most important sub-basins are the western Kufra Basin and the eastern
Dahkla Basin.51 Whereas the different uplifts subdivide the aquifer system
and thereby shape it, the two main basins do not seem to be divided by such
an uplift (Wycik 1993, cited in Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycik 2004, 699).
The northernmost boundary of the NSA is the Mediterranean Sea, with a
northwestern boundary set by a stable freshwater and saltwater interface
(Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycisk 2004, 700). The NSA is bounded in the north-
east by the Suez Canal, towards the Red Sea in the east by a mountain range,
and in the southeast by the Nile. The western border is a groundwater divide
extending from the Tibesti Mountains in the south northwards along the 19°
Meridian (Bakhbakhi 2006, 75). The definition of the western border, how-
ever, is based on models created by Thorweihe and Hrinl (1996, cited by A.
Margane, personal communication 2007) and others, so that the Nubian
Sandstone Aquifer possibly extends even farther to the west. Likewise, a
definition of the southern boundaries towards the Lake Chad Basin is still
subject to further investigation. Therefore, a flow of groundwater between
the NSA and the Lake Chad Basin cannot be ruled out at this point of time.
Within these boundaries, the NSAS reaches a maximum depth of 4,500 m.
The hydraulic head ranges from 570 m above sea level west of Darfur to –
78 m in the Qatar depression (Sefelnasr / Gossel / Wycisk 2007). CE-
DARE estimates the total volume of freshwater stored in the NSA to be
373,000 km³, of which 41.5 % are under Egyptian territory, 36.6 % in
Libya, 12.8 % in Chad, and the remaining 9 % in Sudan (CEDARE 2002
cited in: Bakhbakhi 2006, 76). Other authors, however, arrive at much
48 Palaeozoic: an era of geological history 570–244 million years ago; in this era the
earliest fish, corals, plants, insects and reptiles developed (Merriam-Webster 1998).
49 Mesozoic: an era of geological history comprising the interval between Permian and
Tertiary; 245–65 million years ago, the era of dinosaurs, earliest birds, mammals and
flowers (Merriam-Webster 1998).
50 For a detailed description of the geological history of the basin consult Zektser / Everett
(2004, 219–20).
51 For further details about the different uplifts separating the sub-basins consult Gossel /
Ebraheem / Wycik (2004, 699–700).

Marianne Alker
lower estimates (Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycisk 2004; Ambroggi 1966), as

already explained above..52
Water quality in the aquifer system varies from excellent in the southern
part, with 500 ppm total dissolved solids (TDS), to hypersaline in the
northern part. The saline part of the aquifer lies in its confined part in the
north, mainly under Libyan territory.
The PNA underlies parts of Libya in Post-Eocene53 continental deposits
(mainly sandstone) and parts of Egypt in carbonate rocks. It is bounded by
no-flow boundaries to the south and is hydraulically linked to the NSA by
upward leakage. Apart from that it shares the same borders as the NSA.
The total volume of groundwater (average formation bulk porosity of
10 %) in storage is more than 84,600 km³ (CEDARE 2002, cited in Bakh-
bakhi 2006, 78–80). A depression at latitude 30° N is marked by several
salt pans (sabkhas).54 Taking this line as a boundary, stored capacity is
estimated to be 72,767.17 km³, 54 % of which is under Libyan and 46 %
under Egyptian territory (CEDARE 2002 cited in: Bakhbakhi 2006, 78).
Here too, however, and for the reasons already outlined, a high level of
uncertainty applies.
52 It is unclear how the thickness of water-bearing strata has been estimated by Bakhbakhi.
Since geological structures are not well known everywhere in the basin, the possibility
of error is high when mean thickness values are used. In addition, Bakhbakhi’s assump-
tion of 20 % porosity everywhere in the basin is probably too high. Lithology will vary,
and other authors have assumed a porosity of 1 to 10 % for their models (A. Margane
email communication 2007).
53 Eocene: epoch in geologic time in the period of Tertiary. The Eocene was about 58 to
38 million years ago (Merriam-Webster 1998).
54 Sabkha is an Arabic name for a salt pan ordinarily found near sand dunes. These rela-
tively flat and very saline areas of sand or silt form just above the water table, where the
sand is cemented together by evaporite salts from seasonal ponds (http://www.nps.gov/
archive/grsa/resources/curriculum/glossary.htm).

Figure 1: The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer and the Post-Nubian Aquifer
Source: Bakhbakhi (2006, 76)
Since recharge is very low and the contained water is fossil water, the
NSAS is regarded as a non-renewable groundwater resource.55 Major re-
charge of the aquifer system took place in the last pluvial period of the late
Quaternary. Radiocarbon dating has indicated that the bulk mass of
groundwater in the NSAS dates from 100,000 to 1,000,000 years ago and
up to 2 million years ago in the deeper zones (Himida 1969 cited in
Zektser / Everett 2004, 221). Presently, there is inflow into the NSAS due
to seepage from the Nile, since water levels in Lake Nasser have risen
(Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycisk 2004, 712).56
55 This is based on the definition of Foster et al. that a “non-renewable groundwater

resource is a resource available for extraction of necessity over a finite period of time,
from the reserves of an aquifer which has a very low current rate of average annual re-
newal but a large storage capacity“ (Foster / Loucks 2006, 14). However, “to speak
synonymously about ‘fossil groundwater’ and ‘non-renewable groundwater resources’
is misleading, since there are many aquifer systems containing large volumes of fossil
(usually Holocene) groundwater which, if extracted, is replaced (or renewed) by more
modern recharge“ (Foster / Loucks 2006, 17).
56 The interactions between Lake Nasser and the NSAS are currently being investigated by
Sefelnasr / Gossel / Wycik (2007).

Marianne Alker
Groundwater in the NSAS generally flows from north to south. However,

regional flow across the system is very small compared to that within the
subsystems (Zektser / Everett 2004, 221).57
Climatically, the major part of the basin is hyperarid.58 Due to current
climatic conditions, there is a slow discharge of the aquifer system (Sa-
lem / Pallas 2001, 41) because natural groundwater flow transports the
water into a large and deep evaporation area between Ajdabyia (Libya)
and Cairo (Egypt). This implies a slow but permanently progressing deple-
tion of stored groundwater (Salem / Pallas 2002, 19). Natural discharge to
the Qases and the Qatara depression is due to their location (Qatara de-
pression: -50m below sea level) (A. Margane, comment per email 2007).
No estimates of the amount of water discharged are currently available.
3 National groundwater use patterns

An attempt will now be made to shed light on patterns of use of groundwa-
ter from the NSAS in the four countries which share the aquifer and, with
the help of background information, to assess the significance of the
NSAS for each riparian country.
Because water stored in the NSAS is regarded as non-renewable, its ex-
traction will inevitably lead to its eventual depletion. The agricultural and
water demands of a growing population in the riparian countries as well as
economic growth in the region have already led to a rapid increase in
demand over the last three decades, and it can be assumed that this trend
will continue (Bakhbakhi 2006, 75).59
57 “Based on estimates of the hydraulic parameters (gradient 3x10-4, hydraulic conductiv-

ity 10-5m/sec, and effective porosity 10 %), groundwater flow velocity has been
estimated at 1m/yr. Thus the groundwater needs about one million years to pass
through the system from recharge areas in the southern boundaries to the Qattara di-
scharge area.” (Zektser / Everett 2004, 221).
58 This is reflected by the following figures: average precipitation in Kharga und Dakhla:
0.3mm/a, east-central Libya <25mm/a, Ennedi Mountains in Chad 200mm/a, and in the
Tibesti Mountains 100mm/a (Zektser / Everett 2004, 221).
59 Bakhbakhi presents figures showing that groundwater extraction grew by a factor of 10
from 1970 to 2000. Whereas extraction in 1970 from the NSA was about 3.5 MCM/a
and app. 1 MCM/a from the PNA, extraction rates grew to around 21 MCM/a for the
NSA and 16 MCM/a for the PSA in the year 2000 (CEDARE 2002 cited in: Bakhbakhi
2006, 78).

Large-scale groundwater development projects are currently being carried

out in Libya and Egypt. Any assessment of the effects of these projects
will depend on estimates of the total amount of freshwater stored in the
aquifer system and on assumptions concerning the interrelationships be-
tween different parts of the aquifer system. Scientists agree that the NSAS
has been under unstable conditions since the beginning of economic de-
velopment in Egypt and Libya (Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycisk 2004, 699). It
remains unclear what impact this will have. The University of Halle, Ger-
many, is currently constructing models for calculating the impact of
Egyptian and Libyan groundwater development projects and is outlining
different management scenarios (Sefelnasr / Gossel / Wycisk 2007).
Based on the more optimistic estimates of CEDARE, present extraction
per year represents only 0.01 % of the estimated total recoverable freshwa-
ter volume stored in the NSAS (Salem / Pallas 2002, 10; compare table 1).
As discussed above, however, questions remain open about the reliability
of these estimates.

244
Table 1: Recoverable volumes and present extraction from the NSAS
Nubian Sandstone Post-Nubian Aquifer

Aquifer
Area Volume in Area Volume Volume of Total recov- Present Present Total
(km²) storage (km²) in storage freshwater erable extraction extraction present
(km³) (km³) in storage groundwater from Post- from extraction
(km³)a volume NSAS NSAS from NSAS
(km³)b (km³) (km³) (km³)
Egypt 815,670 154,720 494,040 35,867 190,587 5,367 0.306 0.200 0.506
Libya 754,088 136,550 426,480 48,746 185,296 4,850 0.264 0.567 0.831
Chad 232,980 47,810 - - 47,810 1,630 - 0.000 0.000
Sudan 373,100 33,880 - - 33,880 2,610 - 0.833c 0.833
TOTAL 2,175,838 372,960 920,520 84,613 457,573 14,457 0.570 1.600 2.170
Source: Bakhbakhi (2006, 80)
a Assuming a storativity of 10-4 for the confined part of the aquifer and a 7x10-2 for the unconfined part.
b Assuming a maximum water decline of 100 m in the unconfined aquifer areas and 200 m in the confined aquifer areas.
c Most of this water is extracted in the Nile Nubian Basin (833 ucm) which is not considered to be part of the Nubian Basin.
Marianne Alker
German Development Institute

The figures given in Table 1 indicate that only a very small share of the
groundwater stored is actually used. When adding up the extracted
amounts it is assumed that the extracation is evenly distributed in space
which is in reality not the fact. Consequently, extraction will more likely
become uneconomic as it is concentrated and thereby leading to increasing
pumping lifts in these spots.
3.1 Groundwater use patterns in Libya

More than 80 % of Libya’s population (approximately 5 million people)
live in the northern plains, particularly in the costal strip, where the soil is
suitable for producing a variety of agricultural products. Population den-
sity in this area reaches 120 persons/km², whereas in the central and south-
ern part the ratio is only 1 person/km² (Salem 2007, 106). This shows that
the areas of greatest water demand and greatest availability of high quality
groundwater are not congruent.
Libya meets 95 % of its water requirements mostly from non-renewable
groundwater.60 Groundwater accounts for 98.72 % of the water used in
irrigated agriculture, which produces more than 60 % of the country’s
crops (FAO Country Profile). This underscores Libya’s dependence on
non-renewable groundwater resources.
Development of the NSAS in Libya, where the subsystems are named
Kufra in the north and Sarir in the south, started in the late 1960s. The
groundwater is extracted through wells from a few meters to more than
1,000 m in depth (Salem 2007, 107). The water is used for human applica-
tions, agricultural production (especially for major irrigation projects in
Kufra and Sarir), and for oil production. The Great Man-Made River Pro-
ject (GMRP) (see box 1) also extracts water from the NSAS and uses it to
a great extent for urban supply.
The NSAS on Libyan territory has been studied intensively. Libya can
therefore rely on information on its hydraulic properties and on flow direc-
tions in the aquifer system. Monitoring of aquifer behaviour through a
60 Exact figures range from 68 % of non-renewable groundwater (although not exclusively

from the NAS [data from Foster / Loucks 2006, 19]) and 78 % (Salem 1997, 107) to
87 % (FAO 2005c).

Marianne Alker
piezometric61 network of more than 150 wells has made it possible to de-
velop mathematical models on the basis of which future scenarios can be
analyzed (Salem 2007, 109).
The FAO country profile indicates some negative developments for the
shallow, non-renewable aquifers in the south of the country. Severe pollu-
tion and a significant water table decline have been reported due to inade-
quate sanitation and excessive pumping (FAO 2005c).
Box 1: The Great Man-Made River Project of Libya

The primary objective of the GMRP is to achieve a secure supply of food and a stable supply
of water for domestic consumption. Libya’s most densely populated region in the north is
inadequately supplied with water. The situation has worsened since saltwater intrusion follow-
ing a water table decline induced by over-pumping made water in the coastal aquifers unsuit-
able for human consumption. The Great Manmade River Project is designed to transport
eventually 2.3 BCM of fossil water from the south of Libya to the north.
The project consists of five phases, of which Phases I and II are currently being imple-
mented. In Phase I, two well fields in the As Sarir - Al Kufrah Basins of the NSAS have
been selected as a source of 730 ucm of water per year to the coastal areas from Binghazi
to Sirt. The first well field is located in the Sarir area and currently produces 94 ucm of
water per year. This is 25–30 % of its capacity. The second well field is located near the
village of Tazirbu, some 200 km south of the Sarir well field, and is currently under devel-
opment. In Phase II, several well fields in the Jabal Hasawna area will transport some 910
ucm of water per year to the Jifarah plain around Tripoli.
Altogether, the first wells already in operation produce about 140 ucm of water per year.
The GMRP is designed mainly to serve irrigated agriculture, but up to now the water has
been used almost exclusively for domestic and industrial purposes in the major cities of the
country.
The total amount of water required to ensure basic food self-sufficiency and to meet the
domestic water requirements of the 12 million Libyans in the year 2025 is estimated to
range between 10.5 and 16.4 bcm/year, compared to 4.3 bcm/year at present. When the
GMRP is fully operational, and assuming that present groundwater production equipment
will be in service until 2025, the total amount of water available for all uses will be appro-
ximately 6.5 BCM/a and will thus barely cover 50 % of total water requirements (p. 5).
According to the FAO, the GMRP will permit distribution of only 2.0 BCM/year (p. 9).
Source: FAO (2005c)
61 The piezometer is an instrument for measuring pressure changes in a material subjected

to hydrostatic pressure (Merriam-Websters 1998). A piezometric survey measures
groundwater levels.

3.2 Groundwater use patterns in Egypt

Egypt’s water dependency ratio, which is defined as the percentage of
renewable water resources originating outside the country, is at 97 %. The
most important water source for Egypt is the Nile; Egypt meets only 7 %
of its water demand from groundwater (Foster / Loucks 2006, 19). Of this,
only 1.2 %62 is fossil groundwater from the NSAS63 (FAO 2005b). The
FAO Aquastat country profile (2005) does not provide figures how this
amount is split among domestic, industrial and agricultural uses.
Most of the groundwater presently extracted is used for agriculture. In
Egypt, private farms located in the old traditional oases of the New Val-
ley64 are the major users of water from the NSAS (Bakhbakhi 2006, 78).
However, large irrigation schemes are under development in the south-
western part of the country at Al Qweinat, in the vicinity of traditional
irrigation systems in the New Valley. In 2003 4,200 ha were already under
irrigation, and it is planned to increase this area (Salem / Pallas 2002, 20;
Salem 2007, 107; FAO 2005b). When fully developed, the New Valley
Project65 will extract 540 MCM from the Dakhla sub-basin (Al-Eryani /
Appelgren / Foster 2006, 32).
Exploitation of groundwater has been growing in the last 40 years in
Egypt, resulting in a groundwater table decline of 60 m in the oases. All
free-flowing wells and springs have been replaced by deep wells
(Bakhbakhi 2006, 78).66
Since the availability of water is a limiting factor for agricultural produc-
tion, the use of saline groundwater for agriculture and the concomitant
62 1.2 % is equivalent to 825 106m³/year (FAO 2005b).

63 82 % of the groundwater used is seepage water extracted from the Nile Basin, 1.2 %
comes from the NAS and 1.3 % is extracted from shallow aquifers in Sinai and on the
northwest coast (FAO 2005b).
64 The New Valley is a sequence of oases receiving water through discharge from the
aquifer system. New Valley is also the name of the Egyptian governorate in this region.
65 The New Valley Project has created a new river valley by pumping water from Lake
Nasser 310 km to the Paris Oasis. The water is used for agricultural production along
the whole stretch (http://lexicorient.com/e.o/nw_valley.htm).
66 Murakami (1995) gives figures according to which yields declined by 40 % after a few
deep wells had been drilled in the 1950s in the Kharga and Daklha Oases.

Marianne Alker
change in agricultural practices and crops is currently being discussed as a

potential way to increase water supply (IWMI 2004).67
3.3 Groundwater use patterns in Chad

The northern part of Chad has a very dry climate and is only sparsely
populated (0.2 capita/km²; FAO Country Profile Chad). The figures pub-
lished by the CEDARE do not indicate the amount of extraction from the
NSAS on Chadian territory (Bakhbakhi 2006, 79), nor is the NSAS men-
tioned in the FAO Aquastat Country Profile Chad (2005a). Nevertheless, it
can be assumed that Chad is extracting water from the NSAS to such a
limited extent that this is not monitored and is not thought to have any
transboundary implications.68
In general, future overexploitation of the NSAS by Chad seems unlikely,
since groundwater requirements in the Sahara zone of Chad amount to
only 0.14 % of potential groundwater resources in that part of the country.
By the year 2020 this figure is expected to rise to only 0.25 %, and it is
estimated that the level of extraction from the NSAS will be only 0.07
MCM/year in 2000. Moreover, groundwater use faces severe technical and
economical constraints in Chad, and no irrigation projects are currently
planned (HCNE et al. 2003, 113, 66, 115).
On the other hand, the Integrated Plan for Chad’s Water Development and
Management assesses conditions for the exploitation of groundwater
stored in the NSAS in Chad as favourable. However, information on the
characteristics of groundwater use in the area of the NSAS is considered
insufficient (HCNE et al. 2003, 111–112).
3.4 Groundwater use patterns in Sudan

The NSAS area in the north of Sudan receives an average annual rainfall
of only 25 mm. As a consequence, the area is sparsely populated and is
67 In Egypt, only 3 % of the country is under cultivation, and 97 % of all inhabitants live
near the Nile, resulting in a population density of 1,165 persons/km² in the Nile basin
(FAO 2005b).
68 This view is also shared by A. Sefelnsar from the University of Halle (personal commu-
nication 4/2007).

used by nomadic and semi-nomadic herders for extensive animal produc-

tion. The FAO Aquastat country profile for Sudan (2005d) indicated that
groundwater use is confined mainly to domestic purposes. Only 4 % of the
irrigated area is supplied by groundwater, and this is probably not
extracted from the NSAS, since the irrigated area is confined to the
southern part of the country (FAO 2005d).
Two groundwater basins, the Nile Nubian Basin and the Sahara Nubian
Basin, are found in northern Sudan. Figures reported by CEDARE indicate
that Sudan extracts most of its groundwater from the Nile Nubian Basin,
which is recharged by the Nile as well as by the underflow of the Blue
Nile (Omer 2002, 974). The Nile Nubian Basin is not considered to be part
of the NSAS. Nevertheless, extraction from both the Nile Nubian Basin
and the Sahara Nubian Basin are included in the figures by CEDARE. No
explanation could be obtained why the abstraction figures from the NSAS
for Sudan include both groundwater basins (compare table 1).
Research by the University of Halle, Germany, has identified the Selima
oasis (probably in the Nile Nubian Basin) and the Naqiya oasis (probably
within the Sahara Nubian Basin) as water-stressed areas. For this reason,
Sudan’s groundwater development activities at these oases are included in
the University’s models of transboundary impacts in the NSAS (Sefelnasr /
Gossel / Wycisk 2007). In summary, although Sudan is using and develop-
ing the NSAS, it remains impossible at present to assess the extent of these
activities and their transboundary impact, if any.
4 Transboundary implications
The following section discusses the transboundary impacts deriving from
national groundwater use and provides an analysis of the cooperation
problem over the NSAS. In the process, the NSAS will be regarded as a
transboundary resource with asymmetric use patterns in which upstream-
downstream constellations do not play a role. Two riparian countries,
namely Egypt and Libya, are apparently exploiting the aquifer more inten-
sively than the southern riparians Sudan and Chad. Although no
transboundary impact of this between Egypt and Libya has been reported,
negative impacts on Sudan are likely. No information is available
concerning Chad in this regard.

Marianne Alker
4.1 Pressures deriving from national use patterns

Although extraction in relation to the volume stored in the NSAS might be
low, signs of over-extraction have been described. The Great Man-Made
River Project, for example, has led to reduced water levels in Libya´s
Kufra sub-basin and has dried up lakes linked to oases. Water levels also
declined in Egypt’s Kharga Oasis by 60 m from 1960 to 1998. In the north of
Chad, groundwater level declines have led to a migration of the rural popu-
lation (online: http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_Nubian _irra-
tional_extraction.html). However, no information has been found to indicate
that this is a transboundary impact of Libya’s groundwater development.
Population growth in the riparian countries is certain to increase water
demand and will contribute further to already existing over-extraction of
groundwater from the NSAS.
4.2 Cooperation problems

The types developed by Eckstein and Eckstein will be used here to de-
velop a conceptual understanding of the NSAS. These six types were de-
veloped as paradigms for the application of international law to ground-
water use. The types show the potential transboundary implications of
groundwater use in the hypothetical situation of two riparian countries
sharing one aquifer (Eckstein / Eckstein 2005).
The Eckstein-Eckstein types depict only situations involving two riparian
countries and thus do not perfectly reflect the situation of the NSAS with
its four riparian countries. Nevertheless, type F (cf. page 25) can be ap-
plied to the NSAS. As in this model, the NSAS is unrelated to any surface
water bodies, is recharged only to a negligible extent, and thus contains
mainly fossil water. Some characteristics of the NSAS are not contained in
the type: water in the NSAS is not stagnant but flows very slowly, and
natural discharge exists (see Chapter 2).
Nevertheless, the transboundary implications shown in the type can also

be applied to the NSAS since they are almost exclusively a function of
pumping.
The assumption that transboundary implications are exclusively a function
of pumping is corroborated by Salem and Pallas, who describe the (ex-

pected) negative transboundary impact on water quantity. Although the

authors do not expect mutual transboundary impacts to ensue from
development projects currently planned in Libya and Egypt, a negative
impact on Sudan is considered possible. For example, intensified ground-
water pumping in the southeastern part of Egypt could cause a cone of
depression extending 50–70 km beyond the Sudanese-Egyptian border
(Salem / Pallas 2002, 20).
This assumption is currently being tested in a research project by the Uni-
versity of Halle, Germany, which integrates the transboundary implica-
tions of major aquifer development projects in Egypt and Libya into mod-
els based on current and planned extraction rates. While the results have
not yet been published, preliminary findings indicate that development
projects in the southeastern part of Egypt are likely to have a transbound-
ary impact on the Kufra area (communication with A. Sefelnasr, Univer-
sity of Halle). Based on planned extraction rates, it is estimated that water
levels will eventually sink below economically viable groundwater depths
(Sefelnasr / Gossel / Wycisk 2007).
Furthermore, increased groundwater pumping in the Siwa Oasis (Egypt)
and the development of the well field in Libya’s Jaghubub will eventually
threaten water quality due to the intrusion of salt water in the deeper, con-
fined part of the NSAS (Salem / Pallas 2002, 10). It remains unclear, how-
ever, whether this projected decline in water quality will also affect
neighbouring countries to the south.
When studied in light of the Eckstein-Eckstein types (2005) and evidence
from the region itself, the NSAS shows no upstream-downstream constel-
lation. It can therefore be assumed that common interests and incentives
for cooperation do indeed prevail. Nevertheless, development of the NSAS
seems to be asymmetrically distributed between Egypt and Libya, which
heavily exploit the NSAS on the one hand, and Sudan and Chad on the
other. This may have a bearing on the incentives for cooperation among
the riparian states.
4.3 Need for cooperation

The literature reflects different points of view concerning the need for
cooperation. Al-Eryani / Appelgren / Foster (2006) have summarized
various assessments of the transboundary impact of water extraction and

Marianne Alker
the resulting need for socio-political cooperation in using the NSAS.

Given the rather long time frame (50–100 years) in which water will
probably continue to be available from the NSAS, the authors conclude
that the most important objective in management of the NSAS is to opti-
mize social developments induced by groundwater use. On this basis, the
authors underscore the need for socio-political cooperation among the
riparian countries.
Other authors already cited in the present study believe that the amounts of
water needed even for the great development projects in Egypt and Libya
are so small in comparison to the stored volume that any future trans-
boundary impact will be small (Khouri 1999, in: Al-Eryani / Appelgren /
Foster 2006, 31–32). These authors therefore see only a limited need for
socio-political cooperation in the form of regular data exchange (Attia
1999, in: Al-Eryani / Appelgren / Foster 2006, 31–32). Others, on the
other hand, emphasize the nature of the NSAS as a common pool resource
and point to the need for an integrative approach, taking the entire system
into account, as opposed only to its parts, i.e. the sub-basins (Alghariani
1999, in: Al-Eryani / Appelgren / Foster 2006, 31–32). This again points
to a need for intensified cooperation among the riparian countries.
In summary, socio-political cooperation through joint management of the
NSAS appears necessary as a means of optimizing social development,
since the riparians are very dependent on the NSAS and negative trans-
boundary impacts cannot be ruled out. This is even more so inasmuch as
development of the NSAS and its resulting, potentially negative trans-
boundary impact are asymmetrically distributed between the northern and
southern riparians. Cooperation is therefore needed to take this impact into
account, to manage it, and to harmonize the differing interests.
5 Institutional arrangements for groundwater

management and transboundary cooperation
The following is an overview of national water policies and national insti-
tutional setups for groundwater management in the NSAS area.
Multilateral, bilateral and trilateral arrangements for transboundary coop-
eration concerning the NSAS will be briefly described, and an analysis
will be given of achievements to date and challenges lying ahead for

transboundary groundwater management through these institutional ar-

rangements.
5.1 National institutions
5.1.1 Institutions in Egypt

In November 1999, Egypt created a department for the management of
freshwater and non-fresh groundwater resources within the Ministry of
Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI), thus delegating the responsibility
for groundwater management clearly to a single agency. The department
has the following tasks:
— Keeping track of present groundwater development and management
— Conducting campaigns to increase public awareness of the need for
groundwater protection
— Dealing with legislative aspects for the licensing of wells and pollu-
tion control
— Investigating appropriate technologies for groundwater management,
rain water harvesting. and the conservation of flash flood water
— Finding ways to augment the supply of fresh groundwater (IWMI
2004, 3).
With the support of the German Development Cooperation agency (in
German: GTZ), a “Vision and Strategy on Institutional Reform” has been
developed and agreed upon within the MWRI. Currently, a consultative
process with various ministries and with both regional and local represen-
tatives aims at a general agreement on this strategy for reform before it is
presented to the cabinet (online: http://www.gtz.de/en/ weltweit/maghreb-
naher-osten/1477.htm).
Groundwater in Egypt is owned by the nation and managed by the MWRI.
As far as groundwater rights are concerned, two different systems coincide
in Egypt. The licensing system, which ensures water rights relating to
wells, applies to most users in the country, including non-traditional users
in the desert. On the other hand, a system of traditional rules clearly allo-
cates ownership of groundwater at oases and in wadis (IWMI 2004, 4).
Irrigation schemes worked out by the NSAS will be subject to the licens-

Marianne Alker
ing system, whereas traditional agriculture at the oases will be governed

by the traditional system.
The MWRI has presented a Water Resources Policies and Strategies Plan
(WRPSP) for the period from 1997 to 2017. This strategy aims at integrat-
ing all water-related ministerial policies and strategies (i.e. for agriculture,
industry, domestic use etc.) into a single, comprehensive framework
document. It provides for 5-year national plans. The WRPSP is aimed at
(1) the management and development of existing resources in terms of
quantity, (2) control of all sources of pollution and serious hazards, and (3)
the development of new water resources through close cooperation with
the upper riparian countries of the Nile Basin.69 In Egypt, a national
groundwater monitoring system dating back to the 1960s exists to monitor
groundwater levels and to estimate potential and future recharge.
Moreover, a system which uses data from 250 wells to monitor the quality
of groundwater has been in place since 1997. Apart from all this, well
inventories are updated every 3–5 years for licensing purposes (IWMI
2004, 34).
The Research Institute for Groundwater is the focal point of groundwater
management organization, and its director acts as national coordinator of
the internationally supported Regional Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System
Study Project (Abu Zeid s. a., 5).
Available information indicates that Egypt has implemented a fairly
consistent body of policies, legislation and strategies for management
planning, monitoring, and assessment. However, the GTZ believes that
Egyptian water management structures are still so highly centralized that
effective fulfillment of their tasks is hindered.
For the same reason, the GTZ also concludes that Egypt is struggling to
cope with its water-related challenges. German-Egyptian cooperation
therefore seeks to promote further reforms in the Egyptian water sector in
order to achieve greater efficiency. Decentralisation, establishment of
regionally integrated water basin management, delegation of functions and
69 A number of sophisticated tools such as models, databases, Geographic Information

System (GIS) and Decision Support Systems are already in use to provide input for the
Management Plan. Researchers from the National water Research Centre, in coopera-
tion with the Italian Centre for River Restoration, have developed a dynamic model for
integrated evaluation of management alternatives (Nardini / Fahmy 2005).

authority to water use organisations, cost recovery from water users, and
the strengthening of ministerial authority in the exercise of regulatory and
monitoring functions are priority areas of such bilateral development co-
operation within the Egyptian water sector (online: http://www.gtz.de/en/
weltweit/maghreb-naher-osten/1477.htm).
However, the available information does not yet permit a realistic assess-
ment of the actual state of groundwater governance in Egypt in terms of
user participation and water-related governmental authority at decentral-
ized levels.
5.1.2 Institutions in Libya

In Libya, the General Water Authority (GWA), established in 1972 is
responsible for all water resource assessment and monitoring. This institu-
tion is organized into six General Directorates: Planning; Follow-up and
Statistics; Water Resources; Dams, Irrigation and Drainage; Soils; and
Finance and Administration. The GWA supervises all irrigation and drain-
age projects in Libya and carries out research aimed at improving the
irrigation network. It is also concerned with data storage and the develop-
ment of water resources (e.g. linkups with GIS).
The Secretariat of Agriculture and Animal Wealth is responsible for the
development of irrigated agriculture and the implementation of major
irrigation projects. The Secretariat has appointed the General Water Au-
thority as the focal institution and its director as the national coordinator in
Libya of the internationally supported Regional Nubian Sandstone Aquifer
System Study Project (Abu-Zeid s. a., 5).
For the Great Man-Made River Project, a special authority, the “The Great
Man-Made River Water Utilization Authority”, was created, which is
supervising the whole project up to final water use in irrigation. The Se-
cretariat of Municipalities is responsible for water supply to urban settle-
ments.
In conclusion, the main characteristics of the institutional set up in Libya
are the relatively strong capacities for strategic planning and especially
engineering in the country. User participation and decentralisation, how-
ever, are evidently not very much developed. At present, for example, no

Marianne Alker
water fees are imposed on of irrigation water; rather, irrigated agriculture

is subsidized, and water-saving practices are not politically encouraged.
5.1.3 Institutions in Sudan

In Sudan, the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MIWR) is the
federal body responsible for all water affairs. The Directorate of Ground-
water and Wadis is responsible for all groundwater issues as well as those
concerning non-nilotic streams and valleys. This Directorate is also the
national focal point for coordination of the internationally supported Re-
gional Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Study Project (Abu-Zeid s. a.,
5).
The responsibilities of the MIWR in Sudan are:
— Planning, management, development, and allocation of water to
various users throughout the country
— International and regional cooperation concerning shared water re-
sources
— Planning, designing, executing, operating and maintaining the various
irrigation schemes
— Control of water extraction
— Construction of new irrigation works
— Operation and maintenance of all large-scale irrigation structures and
drinking water facilities
— Provision of means for hydropower generation and protection of the
water-related environment (FAO s. a.).
Current groundwater legislation, however, assigns responsibilities to vari-
ous ministries and government agencies with little integration of their
mandates. Moreover, water management institutions have been in a state
of flux for years (study by the IFPRI 2006, 30).
According to the 1998 Constitution, all surface and subterranean resour-
ces, including water, are a public good whose utilization must be regulated
and managed by the Federal Government (IFPRI 2006, 20). Initially, this
regulation was introduced as part of the Water Resources Act of 1995.

Sudan is a federal republic, and each of its states has its own state legisla-
tive assembly, with complete administrative and fiscal autonomy (FAO s.
a.). The State Water Corporation Act of 1996 regulated the management of
water resources at the state level by de facto delegating responsibility to
the State Ministries of Engineering Affairs. In accordance with this Act,
state water corporations were set up. These entities are responsible for
setting policies, planning the use and development of water infrastructures,
setting tariffs, and generally for all management initiatives concerning
groundwater. Despite the fact that no clear distinction is made between
state and interstate water, in practice the State Water Corporations’ juris-
diction also extends to water inasmuch as it is formally regarded as na-
tional property (IFPRI 2006, 21).
Other overlaps also exist and hinder effective water resources manage-
ment. For example, the authority of the State Water Corporations often
overlaps with that of municipalities and provinces. Whereas the Local
Government Act of 2002 empowered municipalities to manage local water
resources, laws and agreements concerning the use and protection of local
water resources also exist at the regional level. Responsibilities are also
sometimes duplicated at the national level, e.g. between the Higher Coun-
cil for Environmental and Natural Resources and the National Council for
Water Resources (IFPRI 2006, 20–21).70
A new National Water Policy formulated in 2000 aims at improving water
governance. However, this policy has not yet been implemented, with the
result that efficient coordination among the different agencies responsible
for water management and greater involvement of the stakeholders are still
not in place. Especially in the case of groundwater, local and state-level
agencies and bodies do not sufficiently consult with groundwater authori-
ties and specialists in their decision-making processes. Moreover, ground-
water authorities are not permitted to monitor drilling activities of the
petroleum industry or to enforce pertinent regulations.
Although some policy and legislative steps have been taken on the federal
and state levels, water governance and the water-related legislative frame-
work remain on the whole weak in Sudan. Furthermore, existing legisla-
tion has generally undermined or openly delegitimized the authority of
70 The case study published by the IFPRI (2006) gives a very interesting analysis of natu-
ral resource governance in Sudan.

Marianne Alker
traditional institutions for the management of natural resources and the

resolution of conflicts over natural resources. Given the fact that the new
institutions are weak, often overlap, and are not easily accessible to the
local population, the regulatory gap created by the delegitimization of
traditional institutions can easily result in an escalation of use conflicts
over natural resources within the country (IFPRI 2006, 21–22).
5.1.4 Institutions in Chad

The Ministry of Environment and Water in Chad is responsible for
groundwater resource planning. The Directorate of Hydraulics is responsi-
ble for hydrogeological issues and also provides data on available water
resources and water use for rural water supply and livestock. It is also the
institution with primary responsibility for the Regional Nubian Sandstone
Aquifer System Study Project in Chad (Abu-Zeid s. a., 5). The General
Directorate of Rural Works and Agricultural Hydraulics is in charge of
irrigation and drainage from surface and groundwater sources and agricul-
tural water use in general (AHT Group for GTZ / LCBC 2006).
A national Water Code has been in place in Chad since 1999, but is only
weakly implemented. The Water Code defines all water resources in Chad
as communal property, the exploitation of which is subject to declaration
or authorisation under modern laws and must also comply with customary
laws (FAO 2005a; HCNE et al. 2003, 73–74). United Nations Environ-
ment Programme (UNEP) assesses the capacities and the legislative
framework for groundwater management in Chad as rather limited:
equitable use of groundwater is not adequately governed by national law.
Legal instruments and the authority to ensure compliance and enforce
agreements are lacking (UNEP 2004).71
Moreover, the responsibilities of the different ministries are not clearly
defined; the jurisdictions of the ministries often overlap and are sometimes
conflicting (UNEP / Fortnam / Oguntela 2004, 86, 94, 99). The situation in
Chad, one of the poorest countries in the world with a very low index of
human development, is further worsened by adverse conditions in the
71 For more details on laws and regulations governing the water sector see HCNE et al.
2003, 73–75.

country such as domestic and cross-border armed conflicts (for example in

the Lake Chad region).
Nevertheless, Chad drafted with support of United Nations Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and UNDP an Integrated Plan
for Chad’s Water Development and Management in 2003. In order to
organize implementation and funding of the plan, institutional strengthen-
ing of the Ministry of Water and a cooperation mechanism between the
supervising administration and stakeholders is needed. With the drafting of
the Integrated Plan, an intersectoral consultative mechanism was set up
and institutionalized in Chad for water governance (HCNE et al. 2003,
151). As capacities for planning and implementation are assessed to be a
limiting factor, a planning and monitoring unit has been set up in the Di-
rectorate of Hydraulics (HCNE et al. 2003, 151).
The Integrated Plan covers groundwater-related activities for development
of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer (see chapter 4 for the Integrated Plan),
namely the development of capacities and the sharing of know-how in
relation to the CEDARE project (see Chapter 5.2 below) (HCNE et al.
2003, 198).
5.2 Institutions for transboundary cooperation

The chapter provides an overview of international institutions which have
been established for transboundary groundwater management. Multilateral
agreements are summarized, and the Joint Authority for the Study and
Development of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer is analyzed in detail.
5.2.1 Cooperation over the NSAS

All riparian countries of the NSAS are members of the Joint Authority for
the Study and Development of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer.72 This Joint
Authority was created by Libya and Egypt in 1982, and Sudan and Chad
became members at a later point in time. The objectives and functions of
the Commission have been declared as follows:
72 Note: The term Nubian Sandstone Aquifer is equivalent to the term Nubian Aquifer
System used in this paper.

Marianne Alker
— Collecting data, information and study results for classification,

analysis and linkups
— Conducting complementary studies to determine the present state of
the aquifer regarding quality and quantity
— Preparation of plans for the development of water resources as well
as proposing and implementing joint policies for the exploitation and
use of water resources at national and regional levels
— Managing the aquifer on a sound scientific basis
— Cooperation in the areas of training and capacity building
— Awareness raising for rational use of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer’s
water
— Studying the environmental impact of water development
— Organizing scientific workshops, disseminating aquifer-related in-
formation, and strengthening ties to regional and international organi-
zations with common interests (Salem 2007, 111).
The Authority’s board of directors consists of three members from each
member country, an administrative secretariat, and a managing director
appointed by the board (Nanni et al. 2006, 55–56). The Authority is
chaired by each member country on a rotational basis. The board members
are appointed from the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation in
Egypt, the Secretariat of Agriculture of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, the
Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources in Sudan, and the Ministry of
Environment and Water in Chad (Abu-Zeid s. a., 3).
Financial resources for the Authority are allocated annually. The budget
for 2005 was 400,000 US$ (IAEA / UNDP / GEF 2006, 6.1), all of which
was contributed by Libya (IAEA / UNDP / GEF 2006, 6.5). The board
should meet twice a year and makes its decisions by a majority vote. How-
ever, only eight meetings have been held up to now, most of which were
devoted to an exchange of information and scientific data and a review of
work in progress in the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Study Project.
This project is a primary responsibility of the Joint Authority, and it re-
mains to be seen what role the Joint Authority will play in other projects in
the future (compare also IAEA / UNDP / GEF 2006, 6.5).
The first phase of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System Study Project
started in 1994. The project is carried out by CEDARE. This first phase

was financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development

(IFAD), the second by the Islamic Development Bank (Salem 2007, 112;
Abu-Zeid s. a., 2).
The project has two main objectives: 1) formulation of a regional strategy
for utilizing of the NSAS, and 2) developing the capacity of national insti-
tutions to monitor and manage groundwater reserves in the riparian coun-
tries (WWC 2006, 76).73
Concerning the first objective, three major steps have been taken so far.
First, the Joint Authority has sought to establish an adequate institutional
setup for the formulation of a regional strategy. In line with this, the Joint
Authority for Study and Development already mentioned above was revi-
talized and expanded to include Chad (in 1999), and other supportive
regional and national institutions were also created.74
Secondly, studies to provide accurate technical information about the
NSAS were carried out. These included the acquisition of data on ca.
2,100 wells, a GIS system with regional, hydro-geological and water qual-
ity maps, a mathematical model, simulation of different scenarios of ex-
ploitation, draft agreements by the National Coordinators on a protocol for
information-sharing, and development of a website (WWC 2006, 76, com-
pare also FAO s. a.). All information thus gained is stored in the Nubian
Aquifer Regional Information System (NARIS) (see box 2).
73 In CEDARE (s. a.) a third objective was cited for the first project phase: “Assist the
rural poor in accessing the resources needed to better their lives” (s. a., 5). Other publi-
cations do not refer explicitly to this objective. The socio-economic study described
above might well be included under this objective.
74 A Regional Program Steering Committee 30 was also formed by the members of the
Joint Authority to manage its work plan and budget (WWC 2006, 76). Another body
formed was the Regional Technical Review Committee, consisting of representatives
from Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Chad, CEDARE, IFAD, IDB, UNESCO, ACSAD, OSS, and
the Technical University of Berlin (Abu-Zeid s. a., 5). With support from the Project,
national focal point institutions were appointed in the member countries, and offices of
the Joint Authority were opened in each country (Abu-Zeid s. a., 5, 2).

Marianne Alker
Box 2: Databases of the NSAS
The Nubian Aquifer Regional Information System (NARIS) contains data on water loca-
tion characteristics, groundwater levels, water quality, water extraction, and stratigraphic
and hydraulic parameters. Additionally, it includes a bibliographic database on earlier
studies and research findings. It is linked to a geographical information system. NARIS is
used to prepare input parameters for aquifer models as a means of simulating scenarios for
different approaches to development of the NSAS.
NARIS is stored on a server operated by CEDARE in Egypt. This server is accessible only
to members of the Joint Authority. However, the application and maintenance of NARIS is
also subject to severe limitations: difficulties in renewing software licences in Sudan and
Egypt and technical limitations in Chad. Furthermore, the IAEA / UNDP / GEF project has
identified major gaps in NARIS.
A second NSAS database is the Isotope Hydrology Information System (ISOHIS), which
focuses on isotopes and related data. It is operated by the IAEA. However, this database
too appears to have significant gaps. One of the first meetings of the project partners of the
new IAEA / UNDP / GEF Nubian Project recommended that close links be established
between ISOHIS and NARIS in order to make them compatible and more accessible to the
riparian countries and other institutions.
Source: Abu-Zeid s. a., 6 / Grossmann (2006, 211–212); IAEA / UNDP / GEF (2006
6.0); IAEA / UNEP / GEF (2007, 33)
A third objective concerns socio-economic development in the region as a

whole. Recommendations for future socio-economic development were
elaborated, and a system of regional indicators was developed in order to
balance the groundwater needs of the population and available groundwa-
ter resources on the basis of a comprehensive assessment (WWC 2006,
76). This was carried out in the second phase of the project up to 2002
(Abu-Zeid s. a., 2). Abu-Zeid, who has described decisive factors for
socio-economic development in the NSAS in detail, has shown that the
topics relevant for cooperation concerning the NSAS go beyond hydrogeo-
logical and technical aspects. However, it remains unclear whether and
how these issues are being taken into consideration in national policies and
cooperation concerning use and development of the NSAS, since detailed
information from the concerned member states is lacking.
With respect to the second objective mentioned above, namely the devel-
opment of technical capacities, an assessment of needs has been carried
out, hardware and software have been purchased, and training courses in

key areas have been carried out by the national institutions in the four
riparian countries (WWC 2006, 76).75
The member parties of the Joint Authority signed two agreements in 2000:
The first governs the supervision and exchange of groundwater informa-
tion concerning the NSAS. The members agreed to continue studying the
NSAS, to share information gained by regional projects, and to incorporate
this into a regional information system (details below). The second agree-
ment governs continuous monitoring of the aquifer and data sharing by
updating the regional information system.76 These two agreements estab-
lish a continuous mechanism of regional cooperation (Abu-Zeid s. a., 2, 8).
As this makes clear, the Joint Authority is primarily an investigation and
information exchange group which is not actually in charge of manage-
ment decisions. However, its objectives include joint groundwater man-
agement, and its modelling activities do provide information for decision
makers.
The major challenge ahead for the Joint Authority (JA) will be to promote
a transition from transboundary cooperation in information sharing to joint
management. Recently, A “Nubian Project” was started with this as its
goal. Partners in the project include UNDP / GEF / International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultu-
ral Organization (UNESCO), the Joint Authority itself, and the four NSAS
countries. The project’s long-term goal is to establish a rational and equi-
table system of management of the NSAS for sustainable socio-economic
development and the protection of biodiversity and land resources. The
project’s four immediate objectives are: 1) to identify priority transbound-
ary threats and root causes; 2) to fill key gaps; 3) to prepare a Strategic
Action Programme (SAP); and 4) to establish a framework for SAP
implementation (online: http://www-naweb.iaea.org/ napc/ih/Nubian/IHS_
nubian.html).
75 Training was given in the application of mathematical models, the use of databases, the
GIS, and the use of advanced monitoring equipment (Salem 2007, 112).
76 It is planned to provide updates of the Regional Information System in a database which
is accessible through the Internet. This, however, has not yet implemented due to a lack
of funds (Abu-Zeid s.a., 8).

Marianne Alker
5.2.2 Other agreements concerning transboundary water

resources in the region
Apart from cooperation regarding the NSAS as a whole, the two NSAS
riparian countries of Egypt and Sudan also cooperate in the Nile Basin
Initiative, which has distinct objectives of its own and an individual re-
gional scope.
The Nile Waters Agreement, signed between Egypt and Sudan in 1959,
established regulations for each country’s share of the Nile. Joint trans-
boundary Nile management received new impulses during the 1990s,
especially in 1998, when all riparian countries of the Nile, namely Tanza-
nia, Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC),
Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia and Eritrea (the latter with observer status only)
created a “Regional Partnership for Sustainable Development and Man-
agement of the Nile Waters”. On the basis of this Partnership, the Nile
Basin Initiative (NBI) was launched in 1999. The objective of the NBI is
“to achieve sustainable socio-economic development through the equitable
utilization of and benefit from the common Nile Basin water resources”
(FAO 2005b). A strategic program containing a number of joint projects
was developed within the NBI (Grossmann 2006, 207).
In contrast to practices concerning the NSAS, information sharing and
steps towards joint management of the Nile appear to be hampered by
limited political will due to strategic reasons in this upstream-downstream
constellations (Grossmann 2006, 207). In particular, problems seem to
appear between Sudan and Egypt.
It may therefore be asked whether the agreements reached above all be-
tween Sudan and Egypt concerning the use of the Nile have an influence
on their negotiations concerning the use of the NSAS and vice versa. Two
basic facts have to be kept in mind: First, Sudan is in the upstream position
of the Nile and second, groundwater development projects in Egypt near
the border with Sudan are likely to have a negative impact on groundwater
availability in Sudan. For these reasons it can be assumed that any evalua-
tion of water cooperation between Egypt and Sudan must take both NBI
and NSAS cooperation into account.
In general terms, the respective responsibilities of the NBI and the Joint
Authority, along with their respective memberships, coincide only in cer-
tain areas. However, inasmuch as both organizations are of great impor-

tance for water policy and security in their riparian countries, both could
almost certainly benefit from the experience gained by countries which are
members of each.
In addition to the NBI, other institutions also exist for transboundary water
cooperation in the region. Libya, for example, also cooperates with Tuni-
sia and Algeria over the North-West Sahara Aquifer. Chad is a member
country of the Lake Chad Basin Commission.77
6 Prospects for transboundary cooperation, and

recommendation for German development
cooperation
Access to information and conclusions
The present study is based on the available literature and on communica-

tion with experts from the BGR and the University of Halle, Germany.
Attempts to obtain the assistance of representatives from CEDARE were
unsuccessful.
Although, information on the NSAS was accessible from the literature,
recent detailed information on transboundary implications was not avail-
able. The available data show high variability and could therefore lead to
differing conclusion.
The new IAEA / UNDP / GEF Project currently being conducted by the
riparian countries is aimed at identifying and filling these data gaps. Dur-
ing the project’s Technical Meeting held in Vienna in April 2007, a
baseline of technical knowledge concerning the NSAS was established
(IAEA / UNDP / GEF 2007) on the basis of which a Transboundary
Diagnostics Analysis will be undertaken. The technical information gained
in this way will serve as a basis for negotiations on transboundary
groundwater management.
77 Transboundary groundwater management for the Lake Chad Basin and the North-West
Saharan Aquifer are discussed elsewhere in this volume in two separate case studies.

Marianne Alker
Transboundary impacts and conclusions for transboundary

cooperation
Since estimates of groundwater quantities stored in the aquifer system and

theoretically available for use vary substantially, different authors have
presented different conclusions regarding current and planed groundwater
development projects in the region. Briefly, it appears that Egypt’s
groundwater development projects are likely to have a negative impact on
Sudan. Whether this will also be the case for Libya is still subject to inves-
tigation. A drop in the level of groundwater tables at centres of extraction
in Libya and Egypt has been reported.
The main impetus for cooperation over the use of the NSAS derives from
prevailing common interests and similar incentives among the riparian
states. This was underlined above by an analysis of the Eckstein-Eckstein
types, which showed that the NSAS is a common pool resource without
considerable upstream-downstream constellations.
In general, cooperation concerning the use of the NSAS is a strategic
choice for the riparian countries in order to prevent international conflicts
over socio-economic and environmental objectives and to secure access to
water. This is naturally of enormous importance in this waterscarce region.
Thus, cooperation in the use of the NSAS can be described as an issue of
national security.
While the incentives for cooperation are similar, they are not equally
strong for each riparian state: in each case, the capacity to pursue national
interests differs substantially in practice depending on economic and po-
litical power and stability. This results in asymmetrical use and develop-
ment of the NSAS. Among the riparian countries, Chad and Sudan seem to
be in a weaker negotiating position since their groundwater extraction is
limited by both technical and economic factors as well as by political
stability.
The riparian countries have created a promising institutional environment
for mutual cooperation in use of the NSAS. They have institutionalized
this cooperation through the Joint Authority and other related interriparian
and national organizational bodies. This process has been strongly
supported by the CEDARE / IFAD / IDB project. Since the NSAS is one
of ten transboundary water basins selected by African Ministers’ Council

on Water (AMCOW) within the framework of New Partnership for Afri-

ca’s Development (NEPAD) to receive support from the African Water
Facility, further activities in joint monitoring and evaluation as well as
strategic development can be expected.
Main aspects of the interriparian cooperation at the moment are investiga-
tion, joint modeling and information sharing. In this regard, the major
challenge appears to lie in improving the interface between monitoring and
decision-making in order to react to changes within the system and to
arrive at decisions based on reliable monitoring results. Analysis shows
that the topics discussed among the riparian countries go beyond hydro-
geological and technical issues to include the socio-economic dimensions
of groundwater use in the region.78 This provides a clue to the possible
direction of future development of the institutions for cooperation in use of
the NSAS, i.e. from data-sharing to joint management. However, the ex-
tent to which these issues are actually reflected in national policy making
and in the cooperation process can at this stage not be fully assessed.
Barriers for undertaking further steps towards joint management by dele-
gating more power to the Joint Authority can, however, be assumed to
exist. Since access to the NSAS is a matter of national security, especially
for Egypt and Libya, decisions concerning groundwater development
projects are politically highly sensitive. This may not only create incen-
tives for cooperation but also hinder them: that is, the countries involved
may well refrain from transferring this kind of decision to an institution for
transboundary cooperation.
The Joint Authority is an important part of Africa’s institutional architec-
ture for transboundary water management. While it may not yet have the
authority to implement management decisions, it remains a successful
forum for information collection and exchange.
Since transboundary cooperation concerning groundwater resources in the
region is still in its infancy compared to cooperative use of surface water
resources, the endeavours of Egypt, Chad, Sudan and Libya to jointly
agree on the use of transboundary non-renewable groundwater may well
78 Given the fact that Chad and Sudan in particular are economically underdeveloped
countries, the socioeconomic impact of groundwater development may be important for
the reduction of rural poverty there.

Marianne Alker
yield an example of good practices for other countries. The challenge

ahead is to move from developing the information sharing to cooperation
in the form of joint management. This, in fact, is the goal of the recently
initiated “Nubian Project”.
External actors and recommendations for German

development cooperation
Concerning the potential for cooperation between the NBI and the Joint
Authority and its subordinate bodies, it is important to remember that the
NBI and the Joint Authority are two separate institutions whose
responsibilities are not identical. The importance of studying both therefore
lies more in lessons to be learned regarding bilateral cooperation between
Sudan and Egypt in both areas in spite of their different objectives.
External development support has played an important role in reviving the
cooperation process in 1998 and technically and financially promoting it.
In addition, research seems to be playing an increasingly important role for
information gathering and the creation of models of use of the NSAS.
The following considerations can be derived from the preceding analysis
for German development cooperation:
Most importantly, a general decision needs to be made as to whether
German development cooperation should actively support the develop-
ment of non-renewable groundwater resources. The current BMZ Sector
Concept for Water states that support for deriving drinking water from
non-renewable groundwater resources should be considered only if a)
there is no other water source available to meet the demand for drinking
water, and b) if a highly significant positive development impact can be
expected from such intervention. It is indispensable, however, that all
alternatives be carefully evaluated as a means of improving the water
balance in the long run.79
79 See BMZ (2006, 17): “In water catchment areas with a strained or negative water
balance, the drinking water supply can only be safeguarded – if no water is to be di-
verted away from agriculture – through the temporary or permanent overexploitation of
groundwater or from rivers and, in extreme cases, the utilisation of fossil groundwater.
in such situations, the need to ensure a basic supply of water services to poor popula-
tion groups must be brought into line with the need for environmental sustainability. in

Applying this framework to the case of the NSAS, the following conclu-
sions can be drawn:
— In actual fact, the population depends completely on the NSAS for its
water supply, since no alternative water sources are available. Sup-
port for the drinking water supply should therefore be an option for
German development cooperation within the framework of the Water
Sector Concept. However, any measure must focus on improving the
drinking water supply of marginalized people.
— Egypt and Libya are using the NSAS to augment irrigated agriculture
in the Sahara Desert. Support for these activities would not conform
to the Water Sector Concept. Nevertheless, support for greater water
use efficiency and for the introduction (or further development) of
water-saving practices (like wastewater use in agriculture) could be
an interesting option for German development cooperation.
Apart from implications involving the non-renewable nature of ground-
water resources in the region, the dimension of conflict prevention must
also be taken into account. For this reason, support for the establishment of
institutions and for the development of strategies in the riparian countries
for successful cooperation in use of the NSAS could well be considered as
a potential area of support for German development cooperation.
In this regard, German development cooperation may have effective entry
points at both the national and regional levels.
The national level: since the riparian countries are relatively advanced
regarding their information-sharing mechanisms, the focus could be put on
developing national capacities for groundwater management. This is espe-
cially true in the case of Chad and Sudan, which appear considerably less
advanced in terms of capacities for groundwater management in compari-
son to Libya and Egypt. However, since only Egypt is currently a partner
country for bilateral German development cooperation, options at the
national level are at the moment limited to this country.
In response to its tremendous population growth, Egypt is currently at-
tempting to develop other parts of the country for agricultural production
and human settlement. Here, the NSAS’s non-renewable groundwater
the long term, social justice can only be achieved on the basis of ecologically sustain-
able resource management.”

Marianne Alker
plays a rather small role in comparison to that of the River Nile. Conse-
quently, it would appear far more important for the reduction of (rural)
poverty in Egypt to provide support for improving water governance in
general and for increasing the efficiency of agricultural production while
making the best use of available water resources. For these reasons it
seems advisable that German development cooperation should concentrate
on these issues in its development cooperation with Egypt rather than on
bilateral support in relation to the NSAS.
The regional level: the Joint Authority and its subordinate bodies could
provide institutional entrypoints for providing advisory services. The crea-
tion of mechanisms for resolving conflicts and compensating for negative
impacts seems to be an important starting point in this regard. However,
the riparian countries’ political will to introduce such steps remains diffi-
cult to assess.
Information from the new IAEA / UNDP / GEF project, however, has
shown that the Joint Authority is perceived by some of the riparians as
being an institutional body of the IFAD project rather than an independent
regional institution. The possibility of channelling support through the
Joint Authority will therefore depend in future on strengthening the au-
thority of existing institutions, on building up technical capacities, and on
improved dialogue on the national and regional (= Joint Authority) levels
in order to eventually change the role of this institution and the riparians
countries’ perception of it.
Germany is already contributing support at the regional level through its
multilateral development cooperation. In view of the facts already pre-
sented, the present study recommends that these activities continue to
receive support.
Finally, and again on the regional level, German development cooperation
should intensify its cooperation with the African Water Facility for trans-
boundary water management (AMCOW), since the NSAS is one of the
priority areas for AMCOW. Support for AMCOW could therefore be
extended to the improvement of capacities for implementing activities
already planned for the NSAS.

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The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

A case study for the research project

German Development Institute 233

2 Characteristics of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer

3 National groundwater use patterns 242

4 Transboundary implications 249

5 Institutional arrangements for groundwater

German Development Institute 235

6 Prospects for transboundary cooperation, and

236 German Development Institute

The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System

2 Characteristics of the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer

German Development Institute 237

238 German Development Institute

The NSA consists of continental (mainly sandstone) Palaeozoic48 and

German Development Institute 239

lower estimates (Gossel / Ebraheem / Wycisk 2004; Ambroggi 1966), as

240 German Development Institute

Figure 1: The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer and the Post-Nubian Aquifer

Source: Bakhbakhi (2006, 76)

55 This is based on the definition of Foster et al. that a “non-renewable groundwater

German Development Institute 241

Groundwater in the NSAS generally flows from north to south. However,

3 National groundwater use patterns

57 “Based on estimates of the hydraulic parameters (gradient 3x10-4, hydraulic conductiv-

242 German Development Institute

Large-scale groundwater development projects are currently being carried

German Development Institute 243

Nubian Sandstone Post-Nubian Aquifer

Chad 232,980 47,810 - - 47,810 1,630 - 0.000 0.000

Sudan 373,100 33,880 - - 33,880 2,610 - 0.833c 0.833

German Development Institute

3.1 Groundwater use patterns in Libya

60 Exact figures range from 68 % of non-renewable groundwater (although not exclusively

German Development Institute 245

Box 1: The Great Man-Made River Project of Libya

Source: FAO (2005c)

61 The piezometer is an instrument for measuring pressure changes in a material subjected

246 German Development Institute

3.2 Groundwater use patterns in Egypt

62 1.2 % is equivalent to 825 106m³/year (FAO 2005b).

German Development Institute 247

change in agricultural practices and crops is currently being discussed as a

3.3 Groundwater use patterns in Chad

3.4 Groundwater use patterns in Sudan

248 German Development Institute

used by nomadic and semi-nomadic herders for extensive animal produc-

German Development Institute 249

4.1 Pressures deriving from national use patterns

4.2 Cooperation problems

Nevertheless, the transboundary implications shown in the type can also

250 German Development Institute

pected) negative transboundary impact on water quantity. Although the

4.3 Need for cooperation

German Development Institute 251

the resulting need for socio-political cooperation in using the NSAS.

5 Institutional arrangements for groundwater

252 German Development Institute

transboundary groundwater management through these institutional ar-

5.1 National institutions