Statistics Examples:

 is the science of collecting, organizing, summarizing, and 1) The average score of a volleyball player for the past 10 games
analyzing information to draw conclusions or answer questions. 2) Birth rate in rural areas in the Philippines
 provides procedure in data collection, presentation, 3) Enrollment record of all colleges in BSU – TNEU Lipa Campus
organization, and interpretation to have a meaningful idea.
Inferential Statistics
Importance of Statistics
 It is the logical process that involves generalizing from a
Statistics plays a major role in many aspects of our lives. sample to the population
 It is also called as statistical inference or inductive
 It is used in sports statistics.
 it is used in politics
Examples:
Importance of Statistics
1) A car manufacturer wishes to estimate the average lifetime of
 It is used in medicine batteries by testing a sample of 50 batteries.
 Statistical research in business enables managers to analyze 2) The political views of the youth in the urban areas with respect
past performance, predict future business practices and lead to inflation rate in Asia
organizations effectively. 3) A campaign manager analyzes the effect of TV ads on the
 Can be described markets, inform advertising, set prices and promotion of a presidential candidate
respond to changes in consumer demand.
 Statistics, being quantitative tools widely used in the areas of Basic Terminologies in Statistics
economics and finance
Population consists of all the members of the group about which
Computer Software you want to draw a conclusion

 If the data seems too massive to handle, then you use Sample is a portion or part of the population of interest selected for
analysis.
computer software to deal with the data and make sure the
results are useful and informative.
Parameter is a numerical index describing a characteristic of a
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) population

Statistic is a numerical index describing a characteristic of a

 perhaps the most widely used statistics software package
sample.
 offers the ability to easily compile descriptive statistics,
Sources of Data
R
 a free statistical software package that is widely used across
Primary data
both human behavior research and in other fields.
 it also has a steep learning curve
 are data that come from an original source, and are intended to
Matlab answer a specific research question.
 This can be taken by interview, mail-in questionnaire, survey or
experimentation.
 an analytical platform and programming language that is
widely used by engineers and scientists.
Secondary data
 The learning path is steep

SAS  are data taken from previously recorded data, such as

information in previously conducted research, financial
statements, business periodicals, and government reports.
 a statistical analysis platform that offers options to use
 It can also be taken electronically, for instance via internet
either the GUI
websites, etc.
 a premium solution that is widely used in business,
healthcare, and human behaviour research alike.
Basic Terminologies in Statistics
GraphPad Prism premium software primarily used within statistics
Constant is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that does
related to biology
not vary.
Minitab offers a range of both basic and fairly advanced statistical
tools for data analysis.  For example, the temperature at which water boils (100 degree
Celsius) is a constant.
Excel
Variable
 offers a wide variety of tools for data visualization and
simple statistics.  is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that can take
different values.
 It is simple to generate summary
 It can vary in quantity like weight of people, or in quality like
hair color of people.
Data
Two Types of Variables
 The information referred to the definition is the data.
 According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, data are
Qualitative variables or categorical variables
“factual information used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation”
 Are variables that yield categorical responses.
Types of Statistics  These are words or codes that represent class or
category.
 Some examples of qualitative variables are eye color,
1. Descriptive Statistics
sex, occupation, student number, etc.
 It basically consists of organizing and summarizing
data.
 Descriptive statistics describe data through numerical
summaries, tables, and graphs
Quantitative variables or numerical variables Process of Statistics

 Variables that take on numerical values representing an 1) Identify the research objective A researcher must determine
amount or quantity. the question(s)
 These numerical values should answer the question how 2) Collect the information needed to answer the questions.
much or how many. This step is vital to the statistical process Do not overlook the
 Some examples of qualitative variables are height, importance of appropriate data collection.
weight, distance, salary, etc. 3) Organize and summarize the information. Descriptive
statistics allow the researcher to obtain an overview of the data
Variables can also be classified into two according to purpose 4) Draw conclusion from the information. In this step the
whether experimental or mathematical. information collected from the sample is generalized to the
population.
Experimental Classification
Important Note If the entire population is studied, then inferential
A. Independent variables or explanatory variables are statistics is not necessary, because descriptive statistics will
variables controlled by the experimenter or researcher provide all the information that we need regarding the population.

B. Dependent variables or outcome variables measure Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring
the behavior of subjects and expected to be influenced by information on variables of interes
the independent variable.
Consequences of Improperly Collected Data
Experimental Classification Example:
• Inability to answer research questions accurately.
For instance, to predict the value of fertilizer on the growth of plants, • Inability to repeat and validate the study.
the dependent variable is the growth of plants while the • Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources.
independent variable is the amount of fertilizer used. • Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of
investigation.
Mathematical Classification • Compromising decisions for public policy.
• Causing harm to human participants and animal subjects.
Discrete variables
Steps in Data Gathering
 are quantitative variables that are either a finite number
1. Set the objectives for collecting data
 These are variables that are countable.
2. Determine the data needed based on the set objectives.
 examples: number of cars, number of siblings, etc.
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering and define
the comprehensive data collection points.
Continuous variables 4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
5. Collect data.
 are quantitative variables that have an infinite number of
possible values Data can be classified as primary data or secondary data. These are
 These are variables that are no longer countable but are the methods you can use to collect such data.
measurable.
 Examples: height, weight, volume, etc. Methods of Data Collection

Level of Measurement of Variables Primary data can be collected by:

Nominal Level 1. Direct personal interviews – The researcher has direct contact
with the interviewee.
 is the first level of measurement and it is characterized by
data that consist of names, labels or categories only. 2. Indirect/Questionnaire Method This methods of data collection
 Data cannot be arranged in ordering scheme. involve sourcing and accessing existing data
 Nominal scales have no numerical value.
 examples Sex, Type of School, Eye Color Questions can either be:
• An open-ended question does not include response
Ordinal Level categories. This type of question is usually appropriate for
collecting subjective data.
 involves data that may be arranged in some order, but • A closed-ended question includes a list of response
differences between data values either cannot be categories from which the respondent will select his answer.
determined or meaningless. This type of question is usually appropriate for collecting
 An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also objective data.
ranks
 examples Highest Educational Attainment, Rank of 3. Focus Group – It is a group interview of approximately six to
military officer, twelve people.

Interval Level 4. Experiment – It is a method of collecting data where there is

direct human
 is a measurement level that specifies the distances
between each interval on the scale. 5. Observation – It is a method of collecting data on the
 have no absolute zero. This means that a value of zero phenomenon
does not mean the absence of the quantity.
 examples Temperature, IQ, Secondary data can be collected by:

Ratio Level 1. Published report on newspaper and periodicals.

 represents the highest, most precise, level of 2. Financial Data reported in annual reports.
measurement.
 Variables of this level have absolute zero which means 3. Records maintained by the institution.
that a value of zero means the absence of the quantity.
 Example Height and weight, Time, Distance and speed 4. Internal reports of the government departments.

5. Information from official publications.

Take Note: Always investigate the validity and reliability of the Sampling technique/Sampling Strategies - It is a plan you set
databy examining the collection method employed by your source. forth

- Do not use inappropriate data for your research. Sampling Bias - This involves problems in your sampling, which
reveals that your sample is not representative of your population.
Sample Size
Advantages of Sampling
 typically denoted by n and it is always a positive integer.
 No exact sample size can be mentioned Here are the advantages of sampling over complete
 However, all else being equal, large sized sample leads to enumeration:
increased precision
a. Less Labor - Greater Efficiency and Accuracy
Take Note: b. Reduced Cost – Convenience
c. Greater Speed - Ethical Considerations
 Representativeness, not size, is the more important d. Greater Scope
consideration.
 Use no less than 30 subjects if possible. Population is a group to which the results of the study are intended
 If you use complex statistics, you may need a minimum of 100 to apply.
or more in your sample (varies with method).
Sample is a group in a research study on which information is
obtained.
Non-statistical considerations – It may include availability of
resources, man power, budget, ethics and sampling frame. One of the most important steps in the research process is to
select the sample of individuals who will participate as a part of the
Statistical considerations – It will include the desired precision of study.
the estimate.
Sampling refers to the process of selecting these individuals.
Three criteria need to be specified to determine the appropriate
sample size: Two of Sampling Types

1. Level of Precision Also called sampling error is the range in Random Sampling or Probability Sampling
which the true value of the population is estimated to be.
 It is a process whose members had an equal chance of being
2. Confidence Interval It is statistical measure of the number of selected from the population.
times out of 100  They require the use of a complete listing of the elements of the
universe called the sampling frame.
3. Degree of Variability  The probabilities of selection are known.
 They are generally referred to as random samples.
 Depending upon the target population and attributes under  They allow drawing of valid generalizations
consideration  It is the most basic method of drawing a probability sample
 The degree of variability varies considerably.  It is also a process of selecting n sample size in the population
 The more heterogeneous a population is, the larger the sample via random numbers or through lottery.
size is
a. Simple Random Sampling The directors of each sampled health
Raosoft Calculator This can be used to determine the sample size. center were interviewed to obtain the necessary information.

Basic Sampling Design The goal in sampling is to obtain b. Systematic Sampling It is obtained by selecting every kth
individuals for a study individual

Reason for Sampling c. Stratified Random Sampling It is obtained by separating the

population into non- overlapping groups called strata and then
 Important that the individuals included in a sample represent obtaining a simple random sample from each stratum.
 If sample is not representative it is biased.
 You cannot generalize to the population from your statistical d. Cluster Sampling a process of selecting clusters from a
data. population which is very large or widely spread out over a
widegeographical area
Observation unit
Non-random Sampling or Non-probability Sampling It is a
sampling procedure where samples selected in a deliberate manner
 An object on which a measurement is taken.
 This is the basic unit of observation, sometimes called
a. Convenience Sampling conveniently available for a study.
 an element.
 In studying human populations, observation units are often
b. Purposive Sampling selecting based from judgement t,
individuals.
c. Quota Sampling It is applied when an investigator survey collects
Target population - The complete collection of observations we
information from an assigned number, or quota
want to study.
d. Snowball Sampling It is a technique in which one or more
Sampled population
members of a population are located
 The collection of all possible observation e. Voluntary Sampling It is a technique when a sample is
 the population from which the sample was taken. composed of respondents who are self-select (volunteered) into the
study/survey.
Sample - A subset of a population.

Sampling unit - A unit that can be selected for a sample.

Sampling frame - A list, map, or other specification of sampling

units