DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 1

AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER SCIENCES (AICS)

BP:13719

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Mr. MESSIO

Computer Engineer / Teacher in IAI Cameroon

Email: [email protected]

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Chapter 1
1. NUMBERING SYSTEMS AND NON-NUMERICAL INFORMATION

1.1 Introduction

In this modern world of electronics, the term digital is mainly associated with a computer. Today, digital
circuits and systems have a wide range of applications in almost all areas of electronics. In communications,
the principles of digital electronics are found in satellites, telephone switching and transmission networks,
and navigation systems. In consumer electronics, digital circuits are found in compact discs, VCRs and
television. Similarly, digital systems are also used in process controls in industrial applications and in the
field of medical science.

In this chapter, we will begin the discussion with the introduction of digital and analog systems, and then we
will study different numbering systems used to represent data in digital systems.

1.2 Analog and digital systems

There are two types of electronic circuits and systems; analog and digital. Analog systems are those in which
physical quantities are represented over a continuous range of values. They can take infinite values within the
specified range. For example, the amplitude of the output signal to the speaker in a radio receiver can have
any value between zero and its maximum limit.

On the other hand, numerical systems are those in which physical quantities are represented in numerical
form; that is, quantities can only take discrete values. Any quantity in the physical world, such as
temperature, pressure, or voltage, can be symbolized in a digital circuit by a group of logical levels that, taken
together, represent a binary number. Logical levels are usually specified as 0 or 1; Sometimes it may be more
convenient to use low/high, false/true or disabled/enabled or on/off.

1.2.1 Advantages of digital systems Here are some of the advantages of digital systems over analog
systems:

1. Digital systems are easier to design

Since all modern digital circuits use only two voltage levels, HIGH and LOW, they are therefore easier to
design. The exact numerical values of the voltages are not important because they have only a logical
meaning; only the range in which they are located is important. In analog systems, signals have digital
significance; their design is therefore more complex.

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2. Storing information is easy

Storing digital information is easy because there are many types of high-capacity semiconductor and
magnetic memories that can store digital data for as long periods as needed.

3. More accuracy and precision

Digital systems are much more accurate and accurate than analog systems, as digital systems can be extended
to handle more digits simply by adding more switching circuits. Analog systems are quite complex and
expensive for the same accuracy and precision.

4. Digital systems are less affected by noise

Unwanted electrical signals are called noise. Since in analog systems the exact values of voltages are
important and in digital systems only the range of values is important, the effect of noise is more critical in
analog systems. In digital systems, noise is not critical until it is so great that we cannot distinguish a HIGH
from a LOW.

5. Operation can be controlled by a program

It is quite easy to design digital systems whose operation is controlled by a set of stored instructions called a
program. If we want to change the way the system works, we can do it easily by changing the program.
Analog systems can also be programmed, but the variety of operations available is limited.

6. More digital circuits can be manufactured on integrated circuit (IC) devices

The manufacture of digital integrated circuits is simpler and more economical than analog integrated circuits.
In addition, higher integration densities can be achieved in digital integrated circuits than in analog integrated
circuits, because digital design does not require high-value capacitors, resistors, inductors, and transformers
(which cannot be economically integrated) like analog design.

7. Digital systems are more reliable

Digital systems are more reliable than analog systems.

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1.2.2 Limitations of digital systems

We have already discussed the benefits of digital systems, but there are some limitations of digital systems.
In the real world, most physical quantities are analog in nature. These quantities are used as system input
signals and monitored to control the system. In the digital system, these analog quantities are used through
the following steps:
1. Convert analog inputs to digital form by a converted ADC analog to digital.
2. Process digital information.
3. Convert digital outputs back to analog form by digital-to-analog converter, DAC.

Due to these conversions, the processing time increases and the system becomes more complex. In
most cases, these disadvantages are outweighed by many advantages of digital techniques.

1.3 Numeral Systems

1.3.1 Numeral System

Everyone knows a numeral system known as the decimal number system. The "deci" means ten, so that this
system has 10 distinct digits or symbols: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. Decimal numbers fall into the category of
positional numbering system, since the position of a digit indicates the meaning to be attached to that
number. For example, consider a number 7639. This number has 7 thousand, 6 cents, 3 tens and 9 units,
which can be written as:

If a fractional decimal number is considered to be say 5367.42, then it can be written in positional form as:

In general, any number in a system of decimal numbers can be written as:

where the coefficients an to a−m are the elements or digits of decimal numbers. In addition, these weighted
coefficients are multiplied by the power increased to 10. The power increased to 10 depends on the position
of the coefficients. In other words, it can be said that in the coefficients of the decimal system, an to a−m can
be any number between 0 and 9 {i.e. between 0 and (10 – 1)} and that the positional power is raised to 10,
which is known as radix or the basis of this system of decimal numbers.

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Based on the decimal number system discussed above, other numbering systems can be defined very easily.
The general form of any numeral system may be given as:

Where r is called radix or base of the numbering system. The weighted coefficients a n to a−m can be any
number between 0 and (r – 1). The coefficient a−m is called the least significant digit (LSD) and a n is
known as the most significant digit (MSD).

1.3.2 Binary number system

On the analogy of the system of decimal numbers, we can define another system of numbers whose radix or
base is two (r = 2) and its elements or digits will be 0 & 1 only. This system is known as the binary number
system because its radix is two (binary means 2). The digits 0 and 1 of this system are called bits. This
numbering system is widely used in digital electronics. Table 1.1 illustrates the binary system count with
their decimal equivalents

Binary numbers are pronounced as follows:

- 0 is pronounced as zero
- 1 pronounced as a
- 10 is pronounced as a zero, not ten
- 11 is pronounced as one, not eleven - and so on.

The decimal equivalent of a binary number (for example 10110) is 22, which can be verified as follows by
applying the same pattern discussed in the decimal number system.
(Demonstration)

????

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Example 1.1: Find the decimal equivalent of the binary number 11011001.0101.
(Demonstration)

????

1.3.3 Octal Numbering System

The radix or base of the octal number system is 8 (octal means 8) and its digits will be from 0 to 7, i.e. 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Table 1.2 illustrates the octal counting with their decimal equivalents

The decimal equivalent of octal number 24 is:

????

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1.3.4 System of hexadecimal numbers

In the system of hexadecimal numbers, the radix or base is 16 and its digits will be 16 distinct elements
which are given as: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Table 1.3 illustrates the counting in the system
of hexadecimal numbers with their decimal equivalents

It can be verified that the decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number (17)16 is (23)10

??????????

1.3.5 Converting an integer decimal number to a binary number

It is necessary to know the techniques with which the conversion of the whole decimal number is possible
directly into a binary number. Consider an integer decimal number d that can be represented by:

If we divide d by a factor of 2 (radix of the binary number system), we get the quotient q as:

And the coefficient a0 becomes the rest. Thus, the least significant bit a0 is determined. Still dividing the
quotient q by 2, we obtain the second least significant bit a1. If this division procedure is continued until the
quotient becomes zero, all coefficients an to a0 will be obtained. In general, integer decimals can be
converted to their equivalent numbers in another number system by dividing the decimal number by the radix
of the required number system. The leftovers will give the required result.

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Example 1.4: Convert the following decimal numbers to binaries.

(i) 35 (ii) 127

Solution:

Example 1.5: Convert the following decimal numbers to octal.

(i) 567 (ii) 1276

Example 1.6: Convert the following decimal numbers to hexadecimal. (i) 8537 (ii) 98765

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1.3.6 Converting fractional decimal number to binary number

Consider a fractional decimal number f represented in its equivalent binary form given by:

In order to find the coefficients a– 1, a – 2 .... a – n The fraction number f is multiplied by a factor of 2 (radix
of the binary number) such as:

In this way, we obtain the coefficient a − 1 which is an integer 0 or 1. The fraction f1 of the product is then
multiplied by the factor 2 to have the coefficient a – 2. The multiplication procedure shall be continued until
the fractional part of the product becomes void. Sometimes the fractional part does not become zero, in which
case the multiplication process is stopped after obtaining the four five coefficients or until recurrence occurs.
i
Example 1.7: Convert the following decimal numbers to binaries. (i) 0.625 (ii) 0.6

In this example, the non-terminal binary fraction is obtained when 0.6 reproduces beyond this point. So
(0.6)10 = (0.1001(1001) ... ) 2

Exercise 1.8: Perform the following conversions:

(i) (965.125)10 to octal (ii) (8765.025)10 to hexadecimal (iii) (6754.05)8 to decimal.

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1.3.7 Converting octal to binary and vice versa – Versa

The eight symbols of the octal numbers 0, 1, 2, .... 7 can be represented as three-bit binary numbers like 23 =
8. Thus, starting from the least significant bit of the binary number, the three successive bits are arranged
together as groups. These three-bit groups are replaced by their octal equivalents as shown in Table 1.4.

Binary numbers are converted to octals by making the groups of three bits from right to left in the integer part
of the binary number and from left to right on the binary fractional part. If it is necessary to make groups of
three bits, one or two zeros can be added to the left of the most significant bit; and/or to the right of the least
significant bit of the fractional part of the binary number.

Example 1.9: Perform the following conversions:

(i) (1100110111110.1011)2 to octal
(ii) (2467.534)8 to binary

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1.3.8 Converting from hexadecimal to binary and vice versa – Versa

As is well known, the hexadecimal system has a base 16 (24 = 16), each hexadecimal digit can be represented
as a group of 4 bits as shown in Table 1.5. For the conversion of octal to binary and vice versa, one can
proceed in the same way as in the case of octal to binary and vice versa.

Example 1.10: Perform the following conversions:

(i) (11001101011111110.101)2 to hexadecimal
(ii) (2AB6E7.5D4)16 to binary

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Example 1.11 Convert hexadecimal 4AC7.4B to its equivalent octal number.

1.3.9 Binary addition

Table 1.6 shows the addition of two bits a and b, having the sum and the carryover to the next position. There
are four possible combinations

This table is known as the half-adder table, because it gives the simple addition of two bits a and b. Table
1.7 known as the full adder table shows the addition of a maximum of three bits. These bits are the transport
bits, if any, from the previous addition step, and the augend and addend bits.

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Example 1.12: Make the following binary additions.

(i) 110111 + 11010
(ii) 101101.101 + 101011.011
(iii) 1101101.101 + 110110.01

1.3.10 Binary subtraction

The subtractor half table is used for subtraction similar to that used for addition. It is clear from Table 1.8
that when 1 is subtracted from 0, a 1 must be borrowed from the next adjacent upper position.

A complete table – subtractor with minuend, subtrahend and borrowed bit from the previous step as inputs
and which gives the difference as well as the borrowing bit to be taken from the next step, is presented in
Table 1.9.

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Example 1.12: Perform the following binary operations.

(i) 1101101 – 1100111
(ii) 11011.01 – 10101.11
(iii) 1101.101 – 1001.011
Solution:

(Do the rest as an exercise)

1.3.11 Signed numbers:

The positive figures have been discussed so far in the previous sections of this chapter. But most numerical
systems deal not only with positive numbers, but also with negative numbers. Certain means are therefore
necessary to represent the sign of binary numbers. In general, an extra bit is provided at the far left of the
number. This extra bit is known as the sign bit. The extra bit is isolated from the magnitude of the binary
number by a comma. The sign bit is 0 or 1. By convention, a bit 0 is used for positive numbers and a bit 1 is
used for negative numbers.

For example: + 9 is represented by 0, 1001 and – 9 is represented by 1, 1001

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Although this method of representing signed numbers is simple, it is not normally used in the numerical
system because the realization of this method by digital circuit is very complex. The most commonly used
method to represent signed binary numbers is the complement of 2 method. Before discussing binary
arithmetic operations signed using the complement of 2 method, it is necessary to show the complement of 1
and the representation of the complement of 2 of binary numbers.

1.3.11.11 Representation of the 1

The complement of 1 of a binary number is obtained by converting each bit 0 of the binary number into a 1,
and each bit 1 by a 0. The value of the complement of 1 represents the negative number of the binary number.
For example: The complement of 1 of the binary number 1011101 is obtained as:

Thus, the complement of 1 of binary 1011101 is 0100010.

1.3.11.2 Workforce Representation 2

The complement of 2 of a binary number is obtained by taking the complement of 1 of the number and
adding 1 to the least significant binary position. The process of obtaining the complement of 2 of (25)10 =
(11001)2 is given below:

The strength of 11001 of the 2nd is 00111.

The other method to obtain the complement of 2 of a binary number is to scan the number from right to left
and complete all the bits appearing after the first scan of a '1'.

For example, the complement of 2 of (42)10 = (101010)2 is 010110. Since the first '1' appears in the second
place from the right side, all the bits after popping up first '1' in the second place are completed. This can be
checked using the first method described above.

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1.3.11.2Numbers signed with the complement of 2

An N-bit machine can handle unsigned decimal numbers from 0 to 2N – 1. Thus, a 4-bit machine can handle
from 0 to 15 decimal (unsigned) numbers represented by binary numbers ranging from 0000 to 1111.
However, for signed binary numbers, the 4-bit machine will have the range from – 8 to +7. Table 1.10 shows
how the 4-bit machine represents signed binary numbers.

If the complement of 2 method is used to represent negative numbers as discussed above, subtraction of
signed numbers can easily only be done by the addition method. This will lead to a simplification of
hardware circuits.
Example 1.14: Represent the following decimal numbers as 8-bit signed numbers in the complementary form
of 2. (i) +25 (ii) – 68 (iii) –128

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Solution:
(i) +25 = 000110012
(ii) – 68 = complement of 2 of + 68 (010001002) = 101111002
(iii) – 128 = 100000002

1.3.11.4 Signed number with sign + absolute value

As shown in Figure 1-1-12, in the absolute representation of negative integers, the first bit represents the sign
and the other 7 bits represent the numerical value (absolute value).

For example, in (00001100)2, since the sign bit at the top is 0, it is a positive number. Similarly, since the
other 7 bits, which are the absolute value of the numerical value, are (0001100)2 = 23 + 22 = (12)10, the
decimal number 12 (positive number) is represented. On the other hand, since in (10001100)2 the sign bit at
the top is 1, it is a negative number. The decimal number - 12 = (negative number) is represented.
However, since in this method of representation the numeric value 0 can be represented in two ways, as
000000000 (positive zero) or as 10000000 (negative zero), the operation becomes complicated and, for this
reason, it is not widely used.

1.3.12 Adding/subtracting signed numbers in the representation of 2

In signed numbers, the addition and subtraction of binary numbers are the same. Subtracting two positive
numbers means adding a negative number to the positive number. The negative number infect is the
complement of the positive number of 2. When adding two signed numbers, if there is an ending around the
port, it should be ignored. The result is interpreted using the convention discussed above, i.e. if MSB of the
result is 0, then the answer is positive and on the contrary if MSB is 1, then the answer is negative (in the
complementary form of 2). This can be illustrated by taking the following examples:

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(i) Adding a positive number with a smaller negative number

Consider the addition of +15 and – 9. The numbers +15 and –9 are represented in 5-bit signed binary form.
These numbers cannot be represented as a 4-bit signed number because the 4-bit machine will have the range
of – 8 to +7.

There is an ending around porting that is ignored. The answer is therefore correct because 00110 represents +
6.

(ii) Adding a positive number with a larger negative number

Consider adding +9 and –15.

There is no end around porting, so the answer is negative, which is verified by the ESM of the response. The
answer is correct because 11010 represents – 6.

(iii) Addition of two positive numbers

Consider the addition of the positive numbers +15 and +9:

The result 11000 is correct in unsigned binary numbers but incorrect in signed binary numbers because 11000
is −8 in 5-bit signed binary numbers. The correct answer could be obtained if a 6-bit signed binary system
were considered.

Now the answer is correct

(iv) Addition of two negative numbers:
Consider the addition of –15 and –9.

After ignoring the end around port, the 01000 response is incorrect because the maximum limit for 5-
bit signed binary numbers is –16 to +15. To get the correct answer, each number should have been

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represented in 6-bit signed binary form as follows:

Now the answer is correct because after ignoring the end around port 101000 represents –24 in
signed binary form.
The overflow would have occurred in the two examples above because an initially insufficient
number of bits were used to represent the signed binary numbers. When working with the addition of
the complement of 2, it is necessary to ensure that the positive and negative number are expressed in
the representation of the complement of 2 and that the sum is also within the specified range,
otherwise an erroneous result will occur. However, in computers, a special circuit is provided to
detect any overflow conditions and indicate the erroneous result.
Example 1.15: Perform the following in an 8-bit system using the add-in method of 2.
(i) – 49– 26 (ii) 67 – 39 (iii) – 87 + 112 .
Solution:

1.3.13 Binary multiplication

Here are the steps used in multiplying two binary numbers:
Step 1: The multiplier is scanned from the right side. If LSB is equal to 1, the multiplier is copied as the first
partial product. If LSB is zero, zeros are entered as the first partial product.
Step 2: The next bit (to the left of the previous bit) of the multiplier is examined, if it is equal to 1, the
multiplicand is copied as the next partial product after shifting this partial product one bit to the left. If it is

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zero, enter zeros as the next partial product after shifting it one bit to the left.
Step 3: Repeat step 2 until all the bits of the multiplier have been taken into account.
Step 4: The final product is obtained by adding all partial products.

Example 1.17: Multiply 10101 by 10011.

Solution:

1.3.14 Binary Division

The process of dividing binary numbers is similar to dividing decimal. The long-hand division method is
used for this purpose.
Example 1.17: Divide 1101101 by 101.

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Solution

1.3.15 Floating-point representation of binary numbers

For scientific and technical fields requiring this type of complicated calculation, the floating-point format is
used. Here, "complicated" means not only that the computational process itself is complicated, but also that
the extremely large or small size of the data is processed. When we represent the number 1,500,000,000,
instead of writing 8 zeros, we use the following exponent representation: 15 x 108 .
In the floating-point format, it would be written as 0.15 x 1010, where 0.15 is called the mantissa, 10 is the
radix and the other 10 is the exponent.
The floating-point representation format varies depending on the computer. This is roughly classified in the
format used in mainframe computers and that defined by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering).

1.3.15.1 Floating-point representation format in mainframes

The floating-point representation format used in general-purpose computers is shown in Figure 1-1-17. This
format was adopted in the world's first general-purpose computer, the "IBM System/360", called the Excess
64.

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Superscript part: The exponent part has 7 bits, and the range of representable numeric values in the binary
system is (0000000)2 to (1111111)2, which in the decimal system is 0 to 127. However, a numerical value 64
times larger than the actual exponent is represented. For this reason, the real exponent is equivalent to 64 to
+63. Then, including the sign bit, the range of numeric values that can be represented with the exponent part
is shown in Figure 1-1-18.

Mantiss part: When the decimal fraction 0.05 is converted to a binary fraction, it becomes a repeating binary
fraction. (0.0000110011001100110011001100...) 2 . Since the mantissa part has 24 bits, in this case, the
decimal fraction 0.05 will not be represented correctly. (The error that occurs in this case is called a rounding
error.) However, if we look at the bit pattern of the mantissa part, we can see that the top 4 bits are 0, if we
then extract these 4 bits and move the remaining bits to the left, 4 rounded bits can be represented. Here, as a
result of moving the mantissa part 4 bits to the left, the original value of the mantissa part was increased by
24 = 16. In order to cancel this increase, it is necessary to divide it into 16 (16-1). Since the radius is 16, the
value of the exponent part can be set to -1. The technique, used in this way, in order to reduce rounding error
to its minimum as well as maximize accuracy is called normalization.

- 1.3.15.2IEEE floating-point representation format

The floating-point representation format according to an IEEE standard is shown in Figure 1-1-21

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The differences from the general-purpose computer floating-point representation format are as follows: - The
exponent part has 8 bits, and a value resulting from the addition of 127 to the value of the original exponent
part is represented. This addition to the original value is called bias - The mantissa part has 23 bits and a
binary fraction equivalent to the mantissa -1 is recorded. In other words, 1 is considered omitted. - The radius
of the exponent part is 2. For example, let's represent 5 using the IEEE format. - Since it is positive, the
mantissa sign will be 0. - If 5= (101)2 = (101)2 x 20 = (1.01)2 x 22, then the mantissa part will be (1.01)2-
(1)2 = (0.01)2 - If (101)2 is shifted 2 bits to the right, it becomes (1.01)2, 2-2 times the previous value. In
order to normalize it, 2 is added to the exponent 0, which becomes 2. Consequently, since the exponent part
is 2 + 127 = 129, the representation will be (10000001)2.

1.4 Representation of non-numeric values

When using a computer, in order to enter numbers and characters (alphabetic characters, symbols, etc.), input
devices such as keyboards are used. Inside the computer, in order to represent characters using binary digits,
a concept called code is used. Currently, different character codes are used depending on the computer. Here,
the codes widely used in the world and in Japan will be explained.

1.4.1 Character portrayal

The main character codes are listed below.
- ASCII code (American Standard Code for Information Interchange), on 7 or 8 bits
- ISO (International Organization for Standardization) code, 7-bit
- JIS code (Japanese Industrial Standards), on 7, 8 or 16 bits
- EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code), on 8 bits
- Unicode, on 16 bits

1.4.2 Audio representation

One of the components that make up multimedia is audio. The human voice is produced when the
airflow generated in the lungs changes, vibrates and resonates due to a large number of organs such as the
tongue, lips, teeth, jaw, nasal cavity and vocal cords. Since audio data has a complicated analog waveform,
audio analysis is performed using a digital formula and once converted to digital codes, it is processed in the
computer. Word processors that accept audio input and speaker recognition are examples of its recent
applications.

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1.4.3 Image representation

In order to support today's multimedia, not only audio data but also image data must be processed. Inside the
computer, image data is processed as a set of points. For this reason, recording the status of each of the points
that make up an image is the recording of the image data itself. The simplest approach is to record two states,
black and white, for each of the points that make up an image. In this case, 1 bit is used to record the
information of each point. Today, most image data is colored, so this method does not solve all problems.
Therefore, the representation method that combines the basic colors in each point is used. Among computer
monitors, there are a large number of systems that combine the three primary colors (red, green and blue) in
256 levels respectively and represent about 16,000,000 colors. In this case, since 8 bits are needed for 1 color,
in order to record

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