CME2023 Assignment 2023:

Solar Hot Water Central Heating System

Faizah Ashraf
220672472

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Contents:

Nomenclature------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Pg3

HEAT TRANSFER:

Geometry, Operation Principles and Diagram------------------------------------------Pg4

Heat Transfer Calculations ---------------------------------------------------------------Pg5

FLUID MECHANICS:

Central Heating System Description-----------------------------------------------------Pg6

Fluid Mechanics Calculations------------------------------------------------------------Pg7

References-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pg9

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Nomenclature:
∆P – pressure drop, Pa
A - area, m2
Hn – pressure head loss, Pa
l – length, m
PS – pressure at the suction inlet of the
w – width, m pump (Pa)
L – thickness, m PD – pressure at the delivery inlet of the
T - Temperature, K or C o pump (Pa)

U - overall heat loss coefficient, W.m-2 g – gravitational constant, 9.81m.s-2

qsun - heat input, W σ – Stefan Boltzmann 5.67x10-8

qheat – heat energy of the water, W
ri – Inner radius of riser tube, m
ro - Outer radius of riser tubes, m
h – heat transfer coefficient, W.m-2.K-1
f – Fanning friction factor, (dimensionless)
k- Thermal conductivity, W.m-2.K-1
ṁ - mass flow rate, kg/s
u- velocity, m.s-1
Nu - Nusselt number, (dimensionless)
Pr - Prandtl number, (dimensionless)
Re - Reynolds number, (dimensionless)
Cp – Specific heat capacity, J.kg-1.K-1
μ- viscosity, Pa.s
ρ - density, kg.m-3
D – pipe inside diameter, m
Fpipe – frictional losses of straight pipe, J.kg-1
Ffittings - frictional losses of fittings, J.kg-1
Fpump - frictional losses of pump, J.kg-1
Fpump - frictional losses of pump, J.kg-1
P – Pressure, Pa
R – Resistance, s2.m-5
ε – emissivity (dimensionless)
Q – Volumetric flowrate, m3.s-
WS – shaft work transferred to the liquid by the pump (J kg -1 )

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HEAT TRANSFER- Geometry, Operation Principles and Diagrams:
Flat plate collectors (FPC’s) are classed as a non-concentrating type of solar collector [1]. It is
the most common form for residential applications, as it tends to be more cost effective due to
simpler design and easily installation[2]. Another major advantage of this form of collector in
it its ability to collect direct energy from the sun from all directions, as well as being able to
generate even at lower temperatures (for example in winter)[3].

Figure1: 3-D and cross-sectional view of flat plate collector, with dimensions.

Air gap

Insulation
Glazing

0.00211m

Absorber plate
0.0127m

FPC’s structure consist of a cover, an absorber plate, riser tubes and insulation, all housed
within an aluminium frame[4]. Aluminium is used due to its desirable properties of being
lightweight, and corrosion-resistant, therefore can withstand weathering affects [5]. The glazed
panel on top is where the solar energy passes through, and between this glazed panel and the
absorber plate lies an air gap which prevents heat from escaping back into the atmosphere.
The material chosen for the glazing was glass as it suggests a high efficiency, minimal
reflectivity of radiation, and is also considered more durable than other potential materials
such as PVF[6]. The absorber plate is typically made from copper as it exhibits a high thermal
conductivity but is sometimes substituted with aluminium due to coppers expensive nature [7].
For this design, aluminium was used to be cost efficient. The riser tubes house the water
being heated within the system, and they are also generally made of copper for the same
reason, and so this material was chosen. The pipes are soldered to bottom of the absorber
plate, to ensure maximum surface contact and therefore heat transfer between the two. To
maximise the absorption of radiation, the tubes can be painted black[2]. Beneath this, as well
as encasing the components, is an insulting layer, typically made from foam sheets of
synthetic materials such as polyurethane which minimizes heat loss from the absorber
plate[3].
Figure 2: Diagram displaying energy changes within the system via cross-section.

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Heat Transfer Calculations
To calculate the area of the solar panels needed, an assumed area was used initially with the
aim of scaling this value up. The value assumed was 2.97m, as research shows that the
average area used for commercial flat plate solar panels is 32ft (2.97m)[8]. In general, for our
calculations, values for winter (Dec-Feb) were used as this would be when the least hours of
sunshine would occur and would be the months that would need the heating system most.
Summer months were neglected (Jun-Aug) as the temperature is high enough to not require
central heating[9].
Calculating qsun:
Season qsun/W
The values researched for solar radiance in Bilbao (North) and
Caceres (South) were converted from kw/ to kw/h[10], after Autumn 499.1797
which months corresponding to each season were added up and (Sept-Nov)
divided by researched sunshine hours[11]: Spring 488.5689
(Mar-May)
kW Table 1: Values of qsun for each season
solar radiance( ) 1 1
hr 254.79 ε= =
qsun ( W )= x 1000 → x 1000=523.5W 1 1 1 1
sunlight hours (hr ) 486.7 + −1 + −
Calculations for section 1: To find T1 in Winter ε g [12] ε a 0.93 0.8

√ 4 q
q sun =εσA ( T 14−T surr 4 ) → T 1= sun + T surr= 4
Calculation for section 2: To find T2 in Winter
εσA √ 523.5
−8
0.7545 ×5.67 x 10Assuming
+282.7 34 =320 K
× 2.97the use of anti-reflective glass negates radiation
being reflected out (value is miniscule)
q sun + qcond =q conv , forced + qrad , out → q cond=q conv ,forced +q rad ,out −qsun =h A ( T 1−T surr )−q sun =( 11.2 ) × ( 2.97 )( 320−282.7
So, to find T2:
(T ¿ ¿ 2−T 1 ) L 0.004[13]
q cond= → R cond= = =0.00128 ∴ T 2=(q¿¿ cond × R)+T 1=( 720 ×0.001
R kA ( 1.05 [14 ]×2.97 )
ρuD 1.24 × 2.71× 2.44
① Finding h for qconv,forced = ℜ= = =459373>10000
μ 1.79 ×10
−5

Therefore, use Dittus-Boelter equation

4 1
Cpμ 1000 × 1.79× 10−5 kl 0.024 ×2.44
Pr ¿ = =0.745 , Nu=0.037 ℜ 5 Pr 3 =1136.06→ h= = =11.8
k 0.024 Nu 1136.06
Where: D=2.44m, ρ =1.24kg.m-3[15] k=0.024W.m-1.K-1, ,u(mean windspeed)[16]=2.71m.s-
1
,Cp=1000J.kg-1K-1, μ=1.79x10-5[17]
Calculation for section 3-5: To find T3,T4,T5 in Winter
For natural convection, the h value is 22W/m2/K1 , so using this value:
T 3−T 2 1
q conv ,free =qsun → =q sun , where R= =0.0153 , ∴ T 3=(q ¿ ¿ sun × R conv , free )+T 2=( 523.5 ×0.0153 )−321
R conv ,free hA
T −T 2 T −T 3 329−321 L 4 ×10−3 [18
q conv ,free +q sun =q cond ,∈,1 → 3 +q sun = 4 , whereq conv ,free = =524 ,∧R cond = =
Rconv ,free R cond 0.0153 kA 237[19]×2.9
which is a very low value, so this conduction is negligible. Then to find T5, the same process
is used as to find T4, using q cond ,∈, 2=q cond ,∈,1, where Rcond ,∈ ,2=ln ¿ ¿ , which is once again very
low, therefore it can be assumed that the temperature remains the same through the absorber
plate which has a 0.004mm[18] thickness and through the riser tube, which has a 1mm[18]
thickness. So T3,T4,T5= 329K
To find T6, first find the value of qheat which signifies the heat energy of the water inside the
tubes is required to be at, and can be calculated using:

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 total power required 10
q heat = , wheretotal power required=440 kW /h × 3600000=1.58 ×1 0 J ,
total hours of sunshine
use values for sunshine hours researched ,converted into seconds . Use
qheat ṁ
q heat = ṁCp ∆ T , so ṁ= ,∧then u= .Now use system of equations seen in ①,
Cp[20 ]∆ T ρA
with an assumed value for ∆T to find h, where 70o is water out from hot side, as radiators
cannot exceed 80o,[21] and 25o was used as assuming water in from cold side is room
T −T 5 1
temperature. Solve to find T6. q heat = 6 , T 6 =( q heat × R ) +T 5 , where R= :
R hA

Season Sunlight qheat ∆T m u h R T6

hours [11] (W) assumed assumed assumed ASSUMED
(x60x60) (mean) VALUES
Winter 1748520 9059 70-25 0.0388 0.354 1.9x103 8.2x10-4 337
Autum 2694240 5879 = 45 - - - - 341
n
Spring 2238120 7077 - - - - - 338
Table 2: Calculation values to find T6 using assumed data.
Now, the calculation
can be redone using Season ∆T m u h R T6
the correct value for actual actual actual ACTUAL

T6: (mean) VALUES

Winter 64-25 0.044802 0.354 2x103 7.31x10-4 336
Finally, to scale the Autumn =39 - - - - 340
Area value, , Spring - - - - - 337
q heat 9059 Table 3: Calculation values to find T6 using actual data.
use A 2.97 6 solar panels required[22], which fits results of researched
= =5.826 ≈
q sun 523.5
data.

FLUID MECHANICS- Central Heating System Description

The central heating system for a 3-bedroom house in Spain consists of 5 radiators; one in
each room with the kitchen and living room designed with an open floorplan. The radiators
act as heat exchangers, containing extreamly hot water that heats up the ambient air.
However, typical central heating systems, including this design display limited controllability.
BBOE (Bottom-Bottom Opposite Ends) single panel radiators were used as they are one of
the most common configurations for domestic heating[23]. The pipes are made from copper,
due to its high conductivity and temperature tolerance[24]. The pumps used are centrifugal,
using impellers to pressurise the water[25]. The valves used are globe valve with composition
seat, which are best for ensuring no water leakage when the valve is closed, particularly with
the use of hot water.[26].
Figure 3: Floorplan of 3-bedroom apartment, with dimensions and visual pathway for radiators.
2.4m
3.2m 2m 3.4m

Bedroom 1 Bathroom Bedroom 2

Kitchen 5m

10m
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Water tank
(0.4x0.4x1m)

Living Hallway Bedroom 3 5m

0.4m
Room
 Figure 4: Schematic of system & pipe flow, for both LHS and RHS of the water tank, displaying
branched pipe network [NOT TO SCALE]

RHS: First, the qheat required by the C.H.S is calculated using

Total power required 4400 kW
= =4030 W where Total hours of heating is calculated using
Total hours of heating 1092
total no. of days x no. of hours that heating would be on per day, which is 4 hours[27]. Then
4030
q heat = ṁCp ∆ T is rearranged to find ṁ , so ṁ= =0.0959where 65o is the mean
4200 × ( 65−55 )
ṁ 0.0595
T6 value. Next, u is calculated: u= = , which is used to find Reynolds by
ρA 1000 ¿ ¿
ρud
ℜ= =12215. The value of ε used for copper is 0.002[28], and so a friction factor of
μ
0.0075 is found. The velocities and mass flowrate are assumed to go down by 1/5 at each
l 2
branch. To find frictional losses, F pipe =2 f u ,
d
10
1 2 0.0791 2× 10
F fitting= K L u , F pump = 0.25 ∧F radiator = 2.096 [29]
2 ℜ ℜ
3.15 2
e.g. F pipe =2(0.0075) (1.2215) = 7.0499J.kg-1
0. 01
Fitting Type No. in System KL Ffitting
90o Bend 18 0.75[30] varies
Globe valve, 12 6[30] 0.179
composition
seat (CS)
Radiators 5 54.31 0.00298
Exit 0.4 0.4 | 7
Page 0.298
Entrance 0.8 0.8 0.597
Pump 0.0752 - 0.00752
Pipe Length Velocit Mass Fpipe 2f(l/d)
(m) y Flowrate (J.kg-1)
(m.s-1) (kg/s)
1 3.15 1.2215 0.0959 7.0499 4.725 For the pipe network B-J, the ∆ P should
2 10.5 0.9772 0.0767 15.040 15.75 be the same for all loops: HB-HJ, so this
3 5 0.7329 0.0576 4.0285 7.5 is calculated:
4 6.9 0.4886 0.0384 2.4708 10.35 Loop 1: ∆ P=¿HB-HJ
5 2.6 0.2443 0.0192 0.2328 3.9 HB-HJ= R2Q22+ R3Q32+ R4Q42+ R9Q92+
6 to 15 0.1 0.2443 0.0192 0.0090 0.15 R10Q102+ R11Q112+ R12Q122= 4.743, where
ṁ 1 l
16 2.6 0.2443 0.0192 0.2328 3.9 Q= ∧R= (0.5 ∑ K L +2 f ).
17 6.9 0.4886 0.0384 2.4708 10.35 ρ gA
2
d
18 5 0.7329 0.0576 4.0285 7.5 Valves 6-10 and 15 are open, so Q1-4,9-13
19 10.5 0.9772 0.0767 15.040 15.75 and R1-4,9-13 are5:calculated,
Table KL values andbut to find
friction losses for different fittings
20 2.85 1.2215 0.0959 6.3785 4.275 how open valves in 11-15 are, we
calculate R5-8 by rearranging loop
Table 4: Pipe lengths, friction losses and other values for straight pipes
equations.
2 2 2 2 2 2
∆ P−R 2 Q2 −R3 Q3 −R4 Q 4 −R10 Q 10 −R 11 Q 11 −R12 Q12
e.g. Rearrange for R8 : 2
=R8
Q8
l
∑ K fitting=¿ 2 g A 2 R−4 f d ¿ and so K valve =∑ K fitting−(K radiator + K open ,valve )
Qn Q value R(s2.m-5) KL of valve
-5
1 9.59x10 192933711 6
-5
2 7.67 x10 266471614 -
3 5.76 x10-5 123940285 -
-5
4 3.84 x10 177234608 -
-5
5 1.92 x10 706570090 1679.14
6 1.92 x10-5 2124446960 647.14
-5
7 1.92 x10 4355372104 377.14
8 1.92 x10-5 12882463767 205.54
-5
9 1.92 x10 706570090 -
10 3.84 x10-5 177234608 -
-5
11 5.76 x10 123940285 -
-5
12 7.67 x10 266471614 -
13 9.59x10-5 192933711 -
To calculate the work shaft exerted by the pump in the RHS, rearrange the
Table 6: Volumetric flowrate and resistances of pipes, with calculated mechanical energy
KL values.
balance, where velocity is equal and cancels out, P1=P2=101325Pa so cancels out and z2=0.
MEB:
P1 P2 ∆P ∆P 4.743
+ z 1 g+W s= + F + ∴ W s =F+ −z 1 g=24.39 × −( 0.8 × 9.81 )=16.593 J/kg
ρ ρ ρ ρ 1000
LHS: use the same equations to work out Fpipe and Ffittings, where ṁ and u are the values, we
found from the heat transfer side for the fluid inside the tubes (ṁ=0.0448 ,u=0.3536) where
u stays constant, so the friction loss Fpipe = 0, where f (friction factor) calculated was 0.01 and
z2= 3.05
Pipe Length (m) Fpipe
1 3.05 0.1703
2 0.1 0.0056
3 3.05 0.1703

Table 7:Pipe length and frictional losses.

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 Fitting Type No. in system KL Fpipe
Globe valve, CS 2 6 0.375
Exit 1 0.4 0.025
Entrance 1 0.8 0.05
4 0.1 0.0056 Pump 1 - 0.0096
Table 8: KL values and friction losses for different fittings

So, to find work shaft: Ws = F +z2g = 1.37+(3.05x9.8) = 31.3J/kg

For Both Sides: To find the pressure of the suction side and delivery side of either pump,
assuming velocity is constant therefore cancels out, use, e.g RHS:
P1
ρ
P
(
P
)
+ z 1 g= S + F , so P S=ρ 1 −F S =1000
ρ ρ (
101325
1000
−6.089 =95235 Pa )
for suction side, and for delivery side,
P D=ρ ( PS
ρ )
+ F D−z 1 g =1000¿
For LHS: Pump Inlet Pressure (PS): 100839.6Pa, Pump Outlet Pressure (PD): 131000Pa

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