Reviewer Quarter 2

Genbio
ATP-ADP CYCLE
• Metabolism - is all of the chemical reactions occurring in a cell
• Catabolism - the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones,
together with the release of energy; destructive metabolism
• Anabolism - the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with
the storage of energy; constructive metabolism
• Exergonic Reaction (Catabolism) - proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous
• Endergonic Reaction (Anabolism) - absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous
• In Exergonic, energy is released, thus the free energy of its product is lower than its reactants
• In Endergonic, energy is absorbed, thus the free energy of the product is bigger than its reactants
• First Law of Thermodynamics - energy cannot be destroyed nor created, but can be transduced or
converted
• Second Law of Thermodynamics - in any energy transformation, there is a lesser availability of
energy to do additional work, the loss of energy in a process is a result of a tendency for randomness
or disorder (entropy)
• Together the 1st and 2nd Law explains the Gibbs Free Energy - gibbs free energy is the measure of
useful energy in a thermodynamics system under constant temperature and pressure

• ATP Molecule and the Energy it Carries -

Adenosine Triphosphate is the energy currency
of the cell, hydrolysis of ATP has a highly
negative Gibbs, ATP is used in energy
coupling reactions, ATP is an intermediate in
phosphate transfer
Functions of ATP
• Biosynthesis - a term referring to the creation of
macromolecules by living things through chemical reactions
and cellular processes. These reactions can produce energy,
create food sources, or build larger structures needed for
cellular functions

• Muscle Contraction - is the tightening,

shortening, or lengthening of muscles when you
do some activity. Muscle contraction is often
followed by muscle relaxation, when contracted
muscles return to their normal state.

• Changing charges across the membranes

• Energy Coupling – is the coupling of two biological reactions, meaning the energy generated from
one reaction is used to drive the second reaction, example is ATP hydrolysis coupled with polymer
synthesis
• Energy coupling, by definition, stands for a concept of coupling two biological reactions; meaning
energy generated from one reaction is used to drive the second reaction. Two different reactions or
biological systems are coupled together or put into synchrony this way. All cells have majorly 2
types of reactions going on in them: (1) exergonic reactions that are energy-releasing reactions (thus,
energetically- favorable) and (2) endergonic reactions that are the energy-demanding reactions (thus,
energetically-unfavorable). Many times, the cell couples these two reactions and bridges the gap
between them. The energy that is released by the exergonic reactions is channeled down to the
 endergonic reactions to make them energetically favorable too. This smart work by the cell ensures
that the cellular reactions never run out of the energy source i.e., АТР. This "reactions linking or
coupling" is a vital mechanism that ensures that the cellular machinery never grinds down to a halt
and the cell remains alive! It is through this energy coupling that cells use ATP in the endergonic
reactions.
Summary:
• ATP is the primary energy-supplying molecule for living cells. ATP is comprised of a nucleotide, a
five-carbon sugar, and three phosphate groups. The bonds that connect the phosphates
(phosphoanhydride bonds) have high-energy content. The energy released from ATP hydrolysis into
ADP + P₁ performs cellular work.
• Cells use ATP to perform work by coupling ATP hydrolysis' exergonic reaction with endergonic
reactions. ATP donates its phosphate group to another molecule via phosphorylation. The
phosphorylated molecule is at a higher-energy state and is less stable than its unphosphorylated form,
and this added energy from phosphate allows the molecule to undergo its endergonic reaction.
 CHLOROPHYLL AND OTHER PIGMENTS
Mode of Nutrition - autotrophs are the ones who produce their own food, while heterotrophs are the ones
who depends on their surroundings
Chloroplast - it is a double membraned, pigment containing organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic
algae that serves as site for photosynthesis
Photosynthesis - it is a metabolic process wherein light energy (sunlight) is transformed into chemical
energy (in the form of food) (computation = 6CO2+6H2O-> C6H12O6+6O2)
Pigments
• light from the sun is absorbed by colorful compounds called pigments
• are the means by which plants capture sun's energy to be used in photosynthesis, however, since
each pigment absorbs only a narrow range of wavelength, there is usually a need to produce several
kinds of pigments of different colors to capture more of sun's energy.
• the structure and amount of pigments determine the variations in colors
• are substances that absorbs visible light, different pigments absorbs light of different wavelengths
• all colors of visible light except green are absorbed by chlorophyll, which it reflects to be detected
by our eyes
• chlorophyll gives plants their green color and may hide the other pigments found in leaves
Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments – plants possess pigments that can absorb light in specific regions of
the spectrum
Chlorophyll
• the greenish pigment found in the thylakoid membrane inside the chloroplast of a plant cell
• absorbs blue and red light while it transmits and reflects green light
• chlorophyll a plays the most important role in photosynthesis, it directly participates in converting
solar energy to chemical energy
• other pigments in the chloroplast play the part of accessory pigments, these pigments can absorb
light and transfer the energy to chlorophyll a
Chloroplast
• pigment-containing
plastids; site of photosynthesis
• double-membraned
• contains their own DNA
and is capable of reproducing
• found in green tissues of
plants

Structure of a Chloroplast
• outer membrane - freely permeable to small molecules
 • inner membrane - highly selective; contains transporters such as integral membrane proteins
• stroma - protein-rich ground substance contains enzymes, starch granules, chloroplast DNA and
ribosomes
• thylakoid - membrane-bound flattened disks
• grana - stacks of thylakoids (singular granum)
• intergranal lamellae - connects granum together
Plant Pigments
Biochromes Functions 9 chlorophyll, anthocyanin, carotenoids, betalain)
• give colors to flowers, leaves and fruits
• plays a key role in photosynthesis
• controls growth and development
Photosynthetic Pigments - these are pigments that can absorb energy from sunlight that in turn would be
utilized during photosynthesis
Carotenoid – polyene chain terminating in rings, “accessory light harvesting pigments” (carotene,
xanthophyll)
Chlorophyll – structure: central magnesium ion, porphyrin ring, phytol chain
Types of Chlorophyll:
• chlorophyll a
• chlorophyll b
• chlorophyll c
• chlorophyll d

• chlorophylls appear green because the pigments absorb light on all of the color ranges, and only
green is transmitted to our eyes
• chlorophyll a is the core pigment that absorbs sunlight for light-dependent photosynthesis. it readily
absorbs violet/blue and red light but not much of the lighter blue, and green and yellow light. it looks
bluish green
• chlorophyll b is structurally only slightly different from chlorophyll a but its absorption spectrum is
somewhat different. it absorbs more in the blue and orange-red ranges. it looks yellowish green.
captured energy is handed over to chlorophyll a, which is a smaller but more plentiful molecule in
the chloroplast
• carotenoids absorb light from violet to the greenish-blue range. they appear in various shades of
yellow or yellow-orange to our eyes. they cluster next to chlorophyll a molecules to efficiently hand
off absorbed photons. they are usually found attached to proteins or membranes in the chloroplasts
• xanthophylls pass along light energy to chlorophyll a and act as antioxidants. the molecular structure
gives xanthophylls the ability to accept or donate electrons. xanthophyll pigments produce the yellow
color in fall leaves
How does photoexcitation of chlorophyll
happen?
• a chlorophyll molecule absorbs photon
or light energy
• an electron of the molecule in its
normal orbital, said to be in its ground
state, will be elevated to an orbital of a higher energy. the molecule is now in an excited state. the
 molecule only absorbs photon that has the energy that is equal to the energy needed for it to be able
to elevate from the ground state to the excited state
• the excited state is unstable. hence, excited electrons drop back down to the ground state
immediately after, releasing energy in the form of heat and photon. this happens in isolated
chlorophyll molecules. however, chlorophyll molecule that is found in its natural environment in the
thylakoid membrane forms a photosystem together with proteins and other organic molecules to
prevent the loss of energy from the electrons
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS: LIGHT DEPENDENT
Light Dependent Reactions
• occurs in the thylakoid
membrane
• light energy is converted into
chemical energy – ATP and
NADPH
• involves two photosystems and
an electron transport chain
The light reaction of light dependent
reaction occurs in the chloroplast of
the mesophyll cells of the leaves. The
chloroplasts are double-membraned
cell organelles that are comprised of
stacked disc-like structures known as thylakoids. The pigment, chlorophyll, which is required for the
process is present on the membrane of these thylakoids and this is where the light reaction occurs
Protein Complexes

Photosystems
• pigment - containing protein complexes that
contain reaction centers
• types: PSI and PSII
Stages of Light Dependent Reaction
• Excitation of photosystem and photolysis of water
• Generation of ATP by electron transport chain
• Formation of NADPH

Linear Electron Flow

Cyclic Flow
 Light Reactions Events
(Linear Electron Flow)
• Light energy or photon is absorbed by a pigment molecule of the light-harvesting complex of
Photosystem II and is passed on to other pigment molecules nearby until the energy makes it to
the reaction center. In the reaction center, it is absorbed by the P680 pair of chlorophyll a
• The electron in this pair of chlorophyll a is raised to an excited state and is transferred to the
primary electron acceptor. P680 loses its electron and becomes positively charged (P680+)
• The positively charged molecule attracts electrons from a water molecule, resulting to the
splitting up of H20 into two electrons, two hydrogen ions (H+), and an oxygen atom with the
provision of light energy. The oxygen atom immediately combines with another oxygen atom to
form an oxygen molecule (02) which is then released outside the leaf through the stomata
• The excited electrons are then passed on from the primary electron acceptor to the electron
carrier molecules through the electron transport chain until they reach Photosystem I. The
electron carrier molecules involved here are plastoquinone (Pa), a cytochrome complex, and
plastocyanin (Pc)
• At each transfer, the electrons release small amounts of energy. This energy is used to pump
hydrogen ions across the membrane. The splitting up of water molecules results to an uneven
distribution of hydrogen ions in the stroma and the lumen. The H+ ions try to equalize their
distribution by moving from the lumen to the stroma through the aid of a membrane protein
called ATP synthase. This is referred to as chemiosmosis. The movement of hydrogen ions
through the ATP synthase channel triggers the synthesis of ATP from ADP. The ATP contains
high-energy phosphate bonds
• Meanwhile, photon is also absorbed and energy is passed on from one pigment molecule to
another until the energy reaches the reaction center complex of Photosystem I. The energy
excites the electron present in the pair of P700 chlorophyll a located here. The excited electron is
then transferred to a primary electron acceptor, making the P700 positively charged and now
seeking electrons to fill up the missing ones. This is filled up by the electrons from Photosystem
II that are passed on through the electron transport chain
• The photo-excited electron from the primary electron acceptor of Photosystem I enters another
electron transfer chain, passing the electron to an iron-containing protein called ferredoxin (Ed)
• An enzyme, the NADP+ reductase, then transfers the electron to NADP+ and stabilizes it by
adding a proton (H+) to form NADPH. NADPH is then released to the stroma and becomes part
of the Calvin Cycle
(Cyclic Electron Flow)
• Aside from the usual route of electron flow as described in the events of the light reactions (i.e.,
noncyclic or linear electron flow), photo-excited electrons may take a short-circuited route which
utilizes Photosystem I but not 24 Photosystem II.
• The ferrodoxin, goes back to the cycle and passes the electron to the cytochrome complex and to
the Pc until it reaches P700 chlorophyll instead of transferring the electron to NADP reductase.
Due to this event, no NADPH is produced but ATP is still synthesized
 CALVIN CYCLE (LIGHT INDEPENDENT)
Calvin Cycle
• occurs in the stroma
• does not require sunlight to proceed
• The Calvin cycle is named after Melvin C. Calvin, an American biochemist, who won a Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for discovering it in 1961
• Calvin and his colleagues, Andrew Benson and James Bassham, did the work at the University of
California, Berkeley
Stages of Calvin Cycle
Carbon Fixation
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is attached to ribulose 1,5- biphosphate (RuBP) to form a 6-carbon
molecule. This is catalyzed by ribulose biphosphate carboxylase- oxygenase (RuBisCo)
• The 6-carbon molecule splits to form 3-phosphoglycerate (3- PGA) a 3-carbon molecule
Reduction
• organic carbons are converted to simple sugars
• ATP and NADPH is used to convert 3- phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) to glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate
(G3P)
• ATP is converted to ADP NADPH is converted to NADP+
Regeneration
• Ribulose 1, 5 – bisphosphate is generated for the cycle to continue
• Molecules of glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate (G3P) is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5- biphosphate
(RuBP) and the cycle continues
Formation of Sugar Molecules
• Two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate (G3P) is used to make one molecule of glucose
phosphate
• It can be modified to form other molecules such as sucrose, starch and cellulose
Summary of Photosynthesis

• 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

• This means that the reactants, six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules, are converted
by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow) into a sugar molecule and six oxygen
molecules, the products
 TYPES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN PLANTS

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) Photosynthesis

In this pathway, stomata open at night, which allows CO2 to diffuse into the leaf to be combined with PEP
and form malate. This acid is then stored in large central vacuoles until daytime. During the day, malate is
released from the vacuoles and decarboxylated.
• examples: orchids, cacti, aloe, pineapple, agave, moringa, some species of euphorbia and
bromelioideae
C3 Plants
The entire process, from light energy capture to sugar production occurs within the chloroplast. The light
energy is captured by the non-cyclic electron transport process which uses the thylakoid membranes for the
required electron transport. About 85% of plant species are C3 plants.
• most common form of photosynthesis in plants
• not well adapted to hot and dry environment
• examples: wheat, oats, rice, soybean
C4 Plants
In C4 photosynthesis, where a four-carbon compound is produced, unique leaf anatomy allows carbon
dioxide to concentrate in 'bundle sheath' cells around Rubisco. This structure delivers carbon dioxide straight
to Rubisco, effectively removing its contact with oxygen and the need for photorespiration.
• examples: corn, sorghum, sugarcane, millet, and switchgrass
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION: AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC
What is Aerobic Respiration?
Aerobic respiration is a set of metabolic reactions that take place in the presence of oxygen, occurring in a
cell to convert chemical energy into ATPs.
• Aerobic respiration takes place in all plants, animals, birds, and humans except for some primitive
prokaryotes.
• In aerobic respiration, oxygen acts as an electron acceptor which helps produce ATPs more
effectively and more quickly.
• The double bond in the oxygen has higher energy than other bonds which aids to produce more
ATPs.
• It is the preferred method of degradation of pyruvate after glycolysis where the pyruvate then
enters the mitochondria to be fully oxidized during the Kreb's cycle.
• The process of aerobic respiration is utilized for the oxidation of carbohydrates, but products from
fats and proteins are also used as reactants.
• Carbon dioxide gas and water are the two products of aerobic respiration along with the energy
that is used to add a third phosphate group to ADP and form ATP.
• Other energy-rich molecules like NADH and FADH₂ are converted into ATP via electron transport
chain with oxygen and protons.
• During aerobic respiration, most ATPs are produced during oxidative phosphorylation where the
energy of oxygen molecule is used to pump protons out of the membrane.
• The passage of protons creates a potential that is then used to initiate ATP synthase and produce
ATP from ADP and a phosphate group.
• Ideally, a total of 38 ATPs are produced at the end of the aerobic respiration. However, some
energy is lost due to leaking of the membrane or the cost of moving pyruvate through the cell, as a
result of which about 29- 30 ATPs are only produced.
• Aerobic respiration results in complete oxidation of carbohydrate molecules which take place in
the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells as the enzymes for the process are present there.
What is Anaerobic Respiration?
Anaerobic respiration is a process of cellular respiration where the high energy electron acceptor is neither
oxygen nor pyruvate derivatives.
Anaerobic respiration is the process of creating energy without the presence of oxygen. Sometimes the body
can't supply the muscles with the oxygen it needs to create energy - such as in a sprinting situation. Without
the process of anaerobic respiration there may be no energy supplied to muscles in times of high demand.
• In anaerobic respiration, the electron acceptor can be sulfate ion (SO4-) or nitrate ion (NO3-) or a
variety of other molecules.
• Some archaea, called methanogens, are known to use carbon dioxide as the electron acceptor,
producing methane as a by- product.
• Similarly, another group of purple sulfur bacteria uses sulfate as an electron acceptor, thus
producing hydrogen sulfide as a by- product.
• These organisms reside in low-oxygen environments and thus opt for anaerobic pathways to break
down the chemical fuels.
• Anaerobic respiration is similar to aerobic respiration in that the molecules enter the electron
transport chain to pass the electrons to the final electron acceptor.
• The final electron acceptors involved in anaerobic respiration have a smaller reduction potential
than oxygen molecules which results in less energy production.
• Anaerobic respiration, however, is essential for biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and
sulfur.
• The nitrate that acts as an electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration produces nitrogen gas as a by-
product, and this process is the only route for fixed nitrogen to reach the atmosphere.
• Fermentation is another pathway for anaerobic respiration, where the only energy extraction
pathway is glycolysis, and the pyruvate is not further oxidized via the citric acid cycle.
• The energy-rich molecule, NADH, is also not utilized during fermentation.
• Anaerobic respiration takes place in many environments like freshwater, soil, deep-sea surfaces.
Some microbes in oxygenated environments also utilize anaerobic respiration because oxygen
cannot readily diffuse through their surface.
Basic for Comparison Aerobic Anaerobic
Definition Aerobic respiration is a set of Anaerobic respiration is a process
metabolic reactions that take place of cellular respiration where the
in the presence of oxygen, high energy electron acceptor is
occurring in a cell to convert neither oxygen nor pyruvate
chemical energy into ATPs. derivatives.
Overall Equation The overall equation of aerobic The overall equation of anaerobic
respiration is: C6H12O6 + 602 -> respiration is: C6H12O6 ->
6H₂O + energy + 6CO2 C2H5OH + CO₂ + energy
Presence of Oxygen Aerobic respiration takes place in Anaerobic respiration takes place
the presence of oxygen. in a condition where there is a low
oxygen environment.
Exchange of Gases There is an exchange of gases The exchange of gases doesn't
during aerobic respiration where take place during anaerobic
oxygen is absorbed, and carbon respiration. However, some gases
dioxide is released. like sulfur and nitrogen gases are
released by some organisms.
Location Aerobic respiration, after Anaerobic respiration occurs only
glycolysis, occurs in the in the cytoplasm of a cell.
mitochondria of eukaryotes and
cytoplasm of prokaryotes.
End Product The end products of aerobic The end products of anaerobic
respiration are carbon dioxide, respiration are acids, alcohols,
water, and energy. gases, and energy.
Energy Produced A total of 38 ATPs are produced Only 2 ATPs are formed during
during aerobic respiration, some anaerobic respiration.
of which are lost during the
process.
Reactants Carbohydrates and oxygen are the Some other electron acceptors like
prerequisites of aerobic sulfur and nitrogen are required
respiration. along with the carbohydrates.
Oxidation Complete oxidation of Incomplete oxidation of
carbohydrates takes place during carbohydrates takes place during
aerobic respiration. anaerobic respiration.
Nature of the Process Aerobic respiration is Anaerobic respiration is shorter
comparatively longer than than aerobic respiration.
anaerobic respiration.
Occurs in Aerobic respiration occurs in most Anaerobic respiration occurs in
of the higher organisms like plants primitive prokaryotes. Anaerobic
and animals. respiration also takes place in the
muscle cells in humans during
extreme movements.
 GLYCOLYSIS
During glycolysis, the 6-carbon glucose is broken
down into two moles of 3-carbon pyruvate via 10
enzyme-catalyzed sequential reactions as shown in
the above figure.
• Glucose is phosphorylated at C6 to yield
Glucose 6-phosphate by Hexokinase or
Glucokinase (both are isoenzymes). This is an
irreversible reaction, dependent on ATP and
Mg2+. The enzyme Hexokinase is present in
almost all the It catalyzes the phosphorylation of
various hexose and is inhibited by Glucose 6-
phosphate. Glucokinase present in liver catalyzes
the phosphorylation of only glucose
• Glucose 6-phosphate is reversibly isomerized to
Fructose 6-phosphate by Phosphoglucoisomerase
in presence of Mg2+. This reaction involves a shift
in the carbonyl oxygen from C₁ to C₂, thus
converting an aldose into a ketose
• Fructose 6-phosphate is phosphorylated by ATP
to produce Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate in the
presence of another inducible allosteric enzyme
Phosphofructokinase (PFK). The enzyme catalyzes
the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to
Fructose 6 phosphate at C₁ to yield Fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphate. This is an irreversible and a
regulatory step in glycolysis
• Fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate is a molecule with
phosphate group on both ends, it splits in the
middle into two different triose phosphates,
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate(an aldose) and
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate(a ketose) so named
as Glycolysis. This reaction is catalyzed by the
enzyme Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase (simply
called aldolase) which cleaves the Fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphate molecule between C3 and C4.
Carbon atoms 4, 5 and 6 appear in glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate and 1, 2 and 3 in dihydroxyacetone
phosphate
• The enzyme Phosphotriose isomerase catalyzes
the reversible interconversion of Glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate and Dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Thus, two molecules of Glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate are obtained from one molecule of
Glucose
• Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase converts Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-
Bisphosphoglycerate by dehydrogenation. This step is important as it is involved in the formation of
NADH* H* and a high energy compound 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate. lodoacetate and Arsenate inhibit
the enzyme Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. In aerobic condition, NADH passes
 through the Electron Transport Chain and 6 ATP (2 x 3 ATP) are synthesized by oxidative
phosphorylation
• This is the first ATP-generating reaction in glycolysis. It involves the transfer of high-energy
phosphate group from the carboxylic group of 3-Phosphoglycerate phosphate to ADP by the enzyme
Phosphoglycerate kinase, thus producing ATP and leaving 3-Phosphoglycerate. This step is a good
example of Substrate Level Phosphorylation since ATP is synthesized from the substrate without the
involvement of Electron Transport Chain. Phosphoglycerate kinase reaction is reversible, a rare
example among the kinase reactions
• The 3-Phosphoglycerate is converted into 2-Phosphoglycerate due to the intramolecular shift of
phosphoryl group from C3 to C₂, by the enzyme Phosphoglycerate mutase. This is an isomerization
• The high energy compound Phosphoenolpyruvate is generated by dehydration of 2-
Phosphoglycerate by the enzyme Enolase. This enzyme requires Mg2+ or Mn2+ and is inhibited by
Fluoride
• Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) is converted into pyruvate in enol form (i.e. enolpyruvate) by the
inducible allosteric enzyme Pyruvate kinase(PK). The enzyme catalyzes the transfer of a phosphoryl
group from PEP to ADP, thus forming ATP. Pyruvate kinase requires K+ and either Mg2+ or Mn2+.
This is the second ATP-generating reaction in glycolysis. This step also is a substrate level
phosphorylation. This reaction is irreversible
Glycolysis
• Carbohydrates are the major source of energy for the living cells. The major function of
carbohydrates in metabolism is as a fuel to be oxidized and provide energy for other metabolic
processes
• The 3 principal monosaccharides resulting from digestive processes are glucose, fructose, and
galactose
• However, Glucose is the central molecule in carbohydrate metabolism since all the major pathways
of carbohydrate metabolism are connected with it
What is Glycolysis?
• Glycolysis is derived from the Greek words (glycose - sweet or sugar and lysis dissolution)
• Glycolysis the sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert glucose into pyruvate with
the simultaneous production of ATP
• It is a universal pathway in the living
• It is frequently referred to as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas or EMP pathway, in honor of these pioneer
workers i.e Gustave Embden (1874-1933), Otto Meyerhof (1883-1951) and Jacob Parnas in the field
• Glycolysis takes place in all cells of the body. The enzymes of this pathway are present in the
cytosomal fraction of the of the cell
Salient feature of Glycolysis:
• Glycolysis is the central pathway of glucose catabolism
• It takes place in all cells of the body. The enzymes of this pathway are present in the cytosomal
fraction of the cell
• It is a major pathway for ATP synthesis in tissues lacking mitochondria, g. erythrocytes, cornea, lens
etc
• Glycolysis occurs in the absence of oxygen(anaerobic) or in the presence of oxygen (aerobic).
Lactate is the end product under anaerobic condition. In the aerobic condition, pyruvate is formed,
which is then oxidized to CO2 and H2O
• The glucose in brain has to undergo glycolysis before it is oxidized to CO2 and H2O so glycolysis is
very essential for the brain which is dependent on glucose for energy
 • Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway with many of its intermediates providing branch point to
other pathways. Thus, the intermediates of glycolysis are useful for the synthesis of amino acids and
fat
• Reversal of glycolysis along with the alternate arrangements at the irreversible steps will result in the
synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis)
The overall reaction of Glycolysis can be summarized as:

Glucose + 2NAD++ 2ADP+2P₁→ 2Pyruvate + 2[NADH++H+] + 2ATP + 2H2O

Thus, three things happen simultaneously in glycolysis:

(a) Glucose is oxidized to pyruvate
(b) NAD+ is reduced to NADH
(c) ADP is phosphorylated to form ATP
There can be no EMP pathway without all 3 events which means that NAD+, ADP, and Pi, as well as
glucose, must be present
Muscle or Anaerobic Glycolysis:
• The fate of pyruvate produced in glycolysis depends on the presence or absence of oxygen in the
cells.
• Under aerobic conditions, the pyruvate is the product of glycolysis and NADH, formed by the
dehydrogenation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, is then reoxidized to NAD+ by oxygen.
• Under anaerobic conditions, the NADH generated in glycolysis cannot be reoxidized by oxygen but
must be reoxidized to NAD+ by the pyruvate itself, converting pyruvate into lactate. The reaction is
catalyzed by Lactate
• Such type of glycolytic sequence actively occurs in contracting skeletal muscles during strenuous
exercise where oxygen supply is very limited. Glycolysis in the erythrocytes leads to lactate
production, since mitochondria, the centers for aerobic oxidation are absent.
• Besides these a large number of microorganisms, the lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacilli, Bacilli,
Streptococci, and Clostridia) also follow the same path for the reduction of pyruvate to lactate. Such
type of fermentation that yields lactate as the sole product is termed homolactic fermentation.
Energy Yield in Glycolysis:
• The details of ATP generation in glycolysis (from glucose) are given in the table given below. Under
anaerobic conditions, 2 ATP are synthesized while, under aerobic conditions, 8 ATP are synthesized
Note:
(-) the sign refers to the utilization of ATP in the reaction
(*) NADH so produced(6) or utilized(anaerobic glycolysis) undergo ETC to produce ATP i.e.
1NADH=3ATP
Regulation of Glycolysis:
The three enzymes namely hexokinase (glucokinase), phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase, catalyzing
the irreversible reactions regulate glycolysis
1. Phosphofructokinase:
• Phosphofructokinase is the most important control element in the glycolytic pathway.
• It is an allosteric enzyme that catalyzes the rate-limiting step
• The enzyme is regulated by allosteric effectors
• High levels of ATP allosterically inhibit the enzyme in the liver, thus lowering its affinity for
fructose 6-phosphate. Other allosteric inhibitors are citrate and H+ ions (low pH)
• Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate, ADP, AMP and Pi are the allosteric
2. Hexokinase:
• It is inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate
• This enzyme prevents the accumulation of glucose 6-phosphate due to product inhibition. High
concentrations of this molecule signal that the cell no longer requires glucose for energy and the
glucose will be left in the blood
• Glucokinase, which specifically phosphorylates glucose, is inducible. The substrate glucose,
probably through the involvement of insulin, induces glucokinase
3. Pyruvate kinase:
• Pyruvate kinase also regulates glycolysis
• This enzyme is inhibited by ATP and activated by fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
Note:
• Phosphofructokinase has a greater regulatory effect than Hexokinase. The reason becomes evident as
glucose 6-phosphate is not solely a glycolytic intermediate. Glucose 6-phosphate can also be
converted into glycogen or it can be oxidized by the pentose phosphate pathway to form NADPH
• The first irreversible reaction unique to the glycolytic pathway, the committed step, is the
phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. Thus, it is highly appropriate
for phosphofructokinase to be the primary control site in glycolysis
• In general, the enzyme catalyzing the committed step in a metabolic sequence is the most important
control element in the pathway
Lactic acidosis:
• Lactic acidosis is a form of metabolic acidosis that begins in the kidneys. People with lactic acidosis
have kidneys that are unable to remove excess acid from their body
• Lactic acid is 3 carbon hydroxy acid. There are two types of lactic acid: L-lactate and D-lactate.
Most forms of lactic acidosis are caused by too much L-lactate
• If lactic acid builds up in the body more quickly than it can be removed, acidity levels in bodily
fluids - such as blood - spike. This buildup of acid causes an imbalance in the body's pH level, which
should always be slightly alkaline instead of acidic
• Lactic acid buildup occurs when there's not enough oxygen in the muscles to break down glucose
and glycogen. This is called anaerobic metabolism. Elevation of lactic acid in the circulation (normal
plasma 4-1 5 mg/dl) may occur due to its increased production or decreased utilization
• The term oxygen debt refers to the excess amount of 0₂ required to recover. In clinical practice,
measurement of plasma lactic acid is useful to know about the oxygen debt and monitor the patient's
recovery
Cancer and Glycolysis:
• Cancer cells display increased uptake of glucose and glycolysis
• As the tumors grow rapidly, the blood vessels are unable to supply adequate oxygen, and thus a
condition of hypoxia exists. Due to this, anaerobic glycolysis predominantly occurs to supply
energy
• The cancer cells get adapted to hypoxic glycolysis through the involvement of a transcription
factor namely hypoxia-inducible transcription factor (HIF). HIF increases the synthesis of
glycolytic enzymes and the glucose transporter
• However, the cancer cells cannot grow and survive without proper vascularization. One of the
modalities of cancer treatment is to use drugs that can inhibit vascularization of tumors
 CITRIC ACID CYCLE (KREBS CYCLE)
Krebs Cycle – a chain of reactions occurring in the mitochondria through which all living cells produce
energy in aerobic respiration, it uses oxygen and gives out water and carbon dioxide as products

It is an eight-step process
• Condensation of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate (4C) forming citrate (6C), coenzyme A is released.
• Conversion of Citrate to its isomer, isocitrate.
• Isocitrate is subjected to dehydrogenation and decarboxylation forming 𝝰-ketoglutarate (5C).
• 𝝰-ketoglutarate (5C) experiences oxidative decarboxylation forming succinyl CoA (4C).
• Conversion of Succinyl CoA to succinate by succinyl CoA synthetase enzyme along with substrate-
level phosphorylation of GDP forming GTP.
• Oxidation of Succinate to fumarate by the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase.
• Fumarate gets converted to malate by the addition of one H2O.
• Malate is dehydrogenated to form oxaloacetate, which combines with another molecule of acetyl
CoA and starts the new cycle.
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND CHEMIOSMOSIS

THE PATHWAY OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT AND CHEMIOSMOSIS

It is in the stage involving the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain is the final stage in
cellular respiration. It occurs on the inner mitochondrial membrane and consists of several electron carriers.
The purpose of the electron transport chain is to form a gradient of protons that produces ATP. It moves
electrons from NADH to FADH₂ to molecular oxygen by pumping protons from the mitochondrial matrix to
the intermembrane space resulting in the reduction of oxygen to water. Therefore, the role of oxygen in
cellular respiration is the final electron acceptor. It is worth noting that the electron transport chain of
prokaryotes may not require oxygen. Other chemicals including sulfate can be used as electron acceptors in
the replacement of oxygen.
The complexes involved in the electron transport chain
Four protein complexes are involved in the electron transport chain. Complex I or NADH-ubiquinone
oxidoreductase transfers electrons from NADH to Coenzyme Q (ubiquinone). Complex II or succinate
dehydrogenase receives FADH₂ which is also found in the Krebs cycle. FADH₂ transfers its electrons to
iron-sulfur proteins within complex II, which then pass the electrons to Coenzyme Q, as for complex I.
These electrons are then shuttled down the remaining complexes and proteins. These include complexes II,
III, IV, cytochrome c, and coenzyme Q. They are passed into the inner mitochondrial membrane which
slowly releases energy. The electron transport chain uses the decrease in free energy to pump hydrogen ions
from the matrix to the intermembrane space in the mitochondrial membranes. This creates an
electrochemical gradient for hydrogen ions. The energy in this gradient is used to generate ATP from ADP
and inorganic phosphate (Pi) via the ATP synthase complex. Overall, the end products of the electron
transport chain are ATP and water.
Chemiosmosis
The process described above in the electron transport chain in which a hydrogen ion gradient is formed by
the electron transport chain is known as chemiosmosis. After the gradient is established, protons diffuse
down the gradient through ATP synthase. The flow of hydrogens catalyzes the pairing of phosphate with
ADP, forming ATP. Chemiosmosis was discovered by the British Biochemist, Peter Mitchell. In fact, he
was awarded the Nobel prize for Chemistry in 1978 for his work in this area and ATP synthesis.
 ROLES OF ATP AND OXYGEN
Production of ATP - phosphorylation and cellular respiration
Phosphorylation - method specific to plants and cyanobacteria, the creation of ATP from ADP using energy
from sunlight, occurs during photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration - ATP is also formed from this process in the mitochondria of a cell
• ADP is combined with a phosphate to form ATP in the reaction ADP+Pi+Energy->ATP+H2O
• The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to perform cellular work usually
by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with endergonic reaction
• Aerobic respiration produces ATP (along with carbon dioxide and water) from glucose and oxygen
• Anaerobic respiration uses chemicals other than oxygen, and this process is primarily used by
archaea and bacteria that live in anaerobic environment
• Fermentation is another way of producing ATP that does not require oxygen, it does not use an
electron transport chain, yeast and bacteria are examples of organisms that uses fermentation to
generate ATP

Gas Exchange
• Oxygen is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain in the final step of cellular
respiration
• Breathing, also known as respiration, is essential for life, the body cannot store oxygen for later use
as it does food conservation
• Cellular Respiration is the process cells use to make energy, our body need oxygen to do process,
although other organism, like yeast and bacteria, don’t always need it, all body cells engage in
cellular respiration
 ADVANTAGES OF THE TWO RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION
Anaerobic cellular respiration is similar to aerobic cellular respiration in that electrons extracted from a fuel
molecule are passed through an electron transport chain, driving ATP synthesis. Some organisms use sulfate
(SO42- as the final electron acceptor at the end of the transport chain, while others use nitrate (NO3-),
sulfur, or one of a variety of other molecules.
What kinds of organisms use anaerobic cellular respiration? Some prokaryotes-bacteria and archaea that live
in low-oxygen environments rely on anaerobic respiration to break down fuels. For example, some archaea
called methanogens can use carbon dioxide as a terminal electron acceptor, producing methane as a by-
product. Methanogens are found in soil and in the digestive systems of ruminants, a group of animals
including cows and sheep.
Similarly, sulfate-reducing bacteria and Archaea use sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor, producing
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a byproduct. The image below is an aerial photograph of coastal waters, and the
green patches indicate an overgrowth of sulfate- reducing bacteria.
Fermentation is another anaerobic (non-oxygen- requiring) pathway for breaking down glucose, one that's
performed by many types of organisms and cells. In fermentation, the only energy extraction pathway is
glycolysis, with one or two extra reactions tacked on at the end.
Fermentation and cellular respiration begin the same way, with glycolysis. In fermentation, however, the
pyruvate made in glycolysis does not continue through oxidation and the citric acid cycle, and the electron
transport chain does not run. Because the electron transport chain isn't functional, the NADH made in
glycolysis cannot drop its electrons off there to turn back into NAD+.
The purpose of the extra reactions in fermentation, then, is to regenerate the electron carrier NAD+ from the
NADH produced in glycolysis. The extra reactions accomplish this by letting NADH drop its electrons off
with an organic molecule (such as pyruvate, the end product of glycolysis). This drop-off allows glycolysis
to keep running by ensuring a steady supply of NAD+.
In lactic acid fermentation, NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate, generating lactate as a
byproduct. Lactate, which is just the deprotonated form of lactic acid, gives the process its name. The
bacteria that make yogurt carry out lactic acid fermentation, as do the red blood cells in your body, which
don't have mitochondria and thus can't perform cellular respiration.
Muscle cells also carry out lactic acid fermentation, though only when they have too little oxygen for
aerobic respiration to continue for instance, when you've been exercising very hard. It was once thought that
the accumulation of lactate in muscles was responsible for soreness caused by exercise, but recent research
suggests this is probably not the case.
Lactic acid produced in muscle cells is transported through the bloodstream to the liver, where it's converted
back to pyruvate and processed normally in the remaining reactions of cellular respiration.
Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation, in which NADH donates its electrons to a
derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol.
Going from pyruvate to ethanol is a two-step process. In the first step, a carboxyl group is removed from
pyruvate and released in as carbon dioxide, producing a two-carbon molecule called acetaldehyde. In the
second step, NADH passes its electrons to acetaldehyde, regenerating NAD+ and forming ethanol.
Alcohol fermentation by yeast produces the ethanol found in alcoholic drinks like beer and wine.
However, alcohol is toxic to yeasts in large quantities (just as it is to humans), which puts an upper limit on
the percentage alcohol in these drinks. Ethanol tolerance of yeast ranges from about 555 percent to 212121
percent, depending on the yeast strain and environmental conditions.
Advantages of Aerobic Respiration
A major advantage of aerobic respiration is the amount of energy it releases. Without oxygen, organisms can
split glucose into just two molecules of pyruvate. This releases only enough energy to make two ATP
molecules. With oxygen, organisms can break down glucose all the way to carbon dioxide. This releases
enough energy to produce up to 38 ATP molecules. Thus, aerobic respiration releases much more energy
than anaerobic respiration.
The amount of energy produced by aerobic respiration may explain why aerobic organisms came to
dominate life on Earth. It may also explain how organisms were able to become multicellular and increase in
size.
Advantages of Anaerobic Respiration
One advantage of anaerobic respiration is obvious. It lets organisms live in places where there is little or no
oxygen. Such places include deep water, soil, and the digestive tracts of animals such as humans
Another advantage of anaerobic respiration is its speed. It produces ATP very quickly. For example, it lets
your muscles get the energy they need for short bursts of intense activity. Aerobic respiration, on the other
hand, produces ATP more slowly.
The muscles of these hurdlers need to use anaerobic respiration for energy. It gives them the energy they
need for the short-term, intense activity of this sport.
It is therefore be understood that aerobic respiration produces much more ATP than anaerobic respiration
and anaerobic respiration occurs more quickly than aerobic respiration.