I FAOISF: 10IETH

71ERIAL ETHIOPIAN GOVairl,riE-

UNI-117°D NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJZ-CT

PORT ON

UWE
\,(' A H RIME '

GENERAL REPORT

UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND

ry* FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
 REPORT ON

SURVEY OF THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

Volume I

GENERAL REPORT

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND ROME 1965

 i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE 1

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AM HISTORICAL ACCOUNT 3

Purpose and Scope of the Project 3

Terms of Reference 3
Arrangements for Execution 4
Kodification of Plan of Operation 6
Summary of Field Work 6
Follow-up Project 7
Training and Fellowships 7
Final Report 7
Acknowledgements 8
Place Names 8

CHAPTER II SUMMARY OF MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 9

A. CONCLUSIONS 9

Description 9
Existing Land Use 9
Resources of Land 9
Resources of Water 10
Prospective Land Use under Development 12
Water Control 13
Priorities in Planning Water Use 15
The Development of Irrigation 16
Estimates of Capital Costs 16
Economic Appraisals 19

B. RECOMMENDATIONS 20

Recommendations 20
Hydrology 20
River Control and Training 20
Soil Surveys 20
Agronomic Studies 20
Cropping Patterns and Rotations 21
Regulation of High-value Crops 21
Fertilisers 21
Irrigation Practices and Water Requirements 21
Irrigation Design and Layout 21
Water Control by Storage Reservoirs 22
Power 22
Methods of Operating Irrigation Schemes 22
Economic and Social Considerations and Priorities 22
Phases and Programs of Development 22
Master Plan 23
Reclamation of Swamps 23
Improvement of Grazing Lands and Range Pastures 23
Watershed Management 23
Health Studies 23
Awash Valley Authority 23
 -

Page

CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF THE AWASH BASIN 24

1. Location and Extent of the Basin 24

2. The River 24
3. Physical Features 27
4. Hydrology Factors 28
5. TraditiOnal Climatic Zones 28
6. Population 29
7. Lines of Communication 31

CHAPTER IV OUTLINES OF EXISTING LAND USE 33

1. Patterns of Vegetation 33
2. Agriculture - General 33
3. Crops 33
4. Agriculture in the highlands 36
5. Agriculture in the lowlands 36
6. Land tenure and farming units 37
7. Livestock breeding 37
8. Ranching methods 37
9. Value of grasslands 38
10. Living standards of nomadic tribes 39
11. Production from the land 39
CHAPTER V SOIL SURVEY AND LAND CLASSIFICATION 40

1. Soil Survey - General 40

2. General Reconnaissance of Soils 40
3. Reconnaissance Soil Survey in the Potential
Development areas in the lowlands 42
4. Semi-detailed Soil Survey - Selection 43
5. Semi-detailed Soil Survey 44
6. Conclusions 49
CHAPTER VI PROSPECTIVE LAND USE UNDER DEVELOPMENT 50

1. General considerations 50
2. Management 50
3. Crops 51
4. Other factors 52
5. Rotations 53
6. Arboriculture 53
7. Improvement of grazing lands 56
8. Irrigation Water Requirements and Water Quality 56
9. Fertilisers 57

CHAPTER VII CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY 58

1. Arrangements 58
2. Climatology 58
3. Regional climates in the Awash Basin 62
4. Hydrology - General 65
5. Analysis of Normal Annual Flows 65
6. Comments on Hydrological Factors 68
7. Flood Characteristics 69
8. Erosion and Sediment Load 69
 Page

CHAPTER VIII WATER CONTROL FOR IRRIGATION AND POWER 74

Need for Development of Water Resources 74

Storage Dams - General 74
Kesem Dam 75
Kebena Dam 80
Tendaho Dam 81
Meki Diversion Scheme 86
Management of Available Water Resources 89
, 8. Compensation Dam 90
9. Hydro power Potential of the Upper Basin 92

CHAPTER IX PRIORITIES IN PLANNING WATER USE 93

Areas possible 93
Areas possible with various combinations of
water control schemes 93
Factors affecting Relative Priorities of
Irrigation Development 95
Stages of Development Proposed 96
Master Plan 96

CHAPTER X DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION 98

Present Development 98
Principles affecting the Fxtension of
Agricultural Development 96
Individual Irrigation Schemes - Upper Valley 99
Individual Irrigation Schemes - Middle Valley 99
Individual Irrigation Schemes - Lower Plains 100
Stages of Development 101
Comments on Suggested Developments 104

ESTIMATES OF COSTS AND ECONOMIC APPRAISALS 105

CHAPTER XI

Estimates of Costs 105

Economic Appraisal 109
Comments on the Economic Feasibility Report 110
Incidence of Settlement 112
Planning of Development 112
Master Plan 112
Awash Valley Authority 113

ADDITIONAL REMARKS 114

CHAPTER XII

In the lowlands 114

In the High plateau 114
 iv -

Page

APPENDICES

I - Plan of Operations - United Nations Special Fund Project

in Ethiopia - Survey ofm'the Awash River Basin 116
II - Topography and Mapping 136
III - Feasibility Report on Development of Irrigated Agriculture
and Hydl'oelectric Power in the Awash River Basin, Ethiopia 139

BIBLIOGRAPHY 175
 LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES

Page
1. General lilap of Ethiopia
5
2. Relief Map of th Awash Basin 25
3. Longitudinal Profile of the Awash Basin -)-
,-)
4. Population in the Awash Basin 30
5. Lines of Comunication and Logistic Layout 32
6. General Map of Soil Survey in the Awash Basin 41
7. Irrigability Map - Middle Valley (in the folder)
8. Irrigability Map - Lower Plains (in the folder)
9. Suggested Crop Rotation Schemes - Middle Valley 54
10. Sug,.;ested Crop Rotation Schemes - Lower Plains 55
11. Climatological and Hydrological Map of the Awash Basin (in the folder)
12. Monthly Flows Recorded at various Gauging Stations 64
13. Normal yearly Distribution of Runoff in the Awash Basin 67
14. Location of works for Water Control 76
15. Sketch Map showing potential Diversion of Meki River 87
16. Asayita Delta suggested Layout and typical Distribution
System (in the folder)
17. Schematic Irrigation Layouts - Middle Valley (in the folder)
18. Schematic Irrigation Layouts - Lower Plains (in the folder)
19. Proposed Stages of Development 103

LIST OF TABLES
Land Use in the AWalah River Basin 34
Grazing Possibilities of the Grasslands 38
General Soil Reconnaissance 42
Reconnaissance Soil Survey-Suitability for Irrigation 43
Summary Distribution of Soils on the Semi-Detailed soil survey
Semi-Detailed Soil Survey - Land Classification for Irrigation 4'
Irrigation Water Requirements
d. Some Temperatures Observed in 1962-64 F0
Awash Basin - Average Annual Temperatures 61
Normal Annual Evaporation Measured by Sunken Tank 62
10a. Normal Annual Evaporation from a Large Deep Reservoir 62
Climatic Zones 63
Analysis of Annual Runoff. in "Normal" Year 66
Estimated Maximum Flood Discharge data for various Points
along the Awash 70
Awash Basin Sediment Load and Specific Degradation 71
15, Kesem Dam Capacities 77
Regulation of Kesem Reservoir
Kesem Dam - Principal Characteristics
Kebena Dam - Principal Characteristics 81
Tendaho Dam - Alternative Capacities 82
Tendaho Dam - Evaporation Losses 83
Regulation of Tendaho Reservoir 84
Tendaho Dam - Principal Characteristics 86
Analysis of Awash Flow in Lower Period 90
Compensation Reservoir - Capacities and Area Irrigable
Upper Valley - Estimated Power Potential
Maximum Areas which could have been irrigated in 1962/63
4
with Various Schemes for Water Control 94
Present and Proposed Stages of Development 96
Proposed Development of Irrigation by Projects and Stages 102
Estimated Costs of Storage Dams 106
Tentative Forecast of Cost of Kebena Dam 107
Estimate of Costs of Diversion of Meki River 107
Irrigation.Development- Particula.rs af lirks and Estima ts of Cost 108
Comparison of Investment Required per Hectare 110
Benefit/Cost Ratios for General and High-Value Crops 111
 - vi -

GLOSSARY

UNITS OF MEASURE

METRIC SYSTEM SYMBOLS

( A4. = 10-3mm micron ( s; sec second

( (
( mm = l03m millimetre ( min minute
( (
( cm = 10-2m centimetre h, hr hour

metre ( d day
m'
( Km = 1,000m kilometre ( °C degree centigrade
(
( cm2 = square centimetre ( cal small calorie
(

m2 square metre ( mA miliampere

ha = 10,000m2 hectare kV kilovolt

(
km2 = 100 ha square kilometre ( kVA kilovolt-ampere
(
( 1 litre ( kW kilowatt
( (
m3 = 1,000 1 cubic metre ( GWh = 1,000,000 kWh
( gigawatthour
( hm3 = 1,000,000 m3
( cubic hectometre

( g gramme
(

kg = 1,000g kilogramme

= 100kg quintal

( t = 1,000kg metric tOn

ETHIOPIAN MEASURES

one gasha = 40 ha

one massa = 1/40 ha = 250 m2

one kunna of sorghum, noog = 3.0 kg

barley = 4.0 kg
beans = 5.5 kg
wheat, maize,
lentils, linseed 6.0 kg
peas, guaya, teff
or any other
product = 5.0 kg

one dawula = 20 kunna one Ethiopian Dollar (ES) - 0.40 US Dollar

 PREFACE

The Report on the Survey of the Awash River Basin comprises the following
volumes:

Volume I General Report

Volume II Soils and Agronomy

Volume III Climatology and Hydrology

Volume IV Water Storage and Power Development

Volume V Irrigation and Water Planning

These volumes are all issued on the authority of the Special Fund of the
United Nations and the Food and Agriculture Organisation.

Volume I is a comprehensive Report covering concisely all aspects of the

Survey, and setting out the conclusions reached and the recommendations made. It
is wholly prepared by FAO. It embraces and is based on the contents of the other
volumes.

The other volumes were all drafted by the SubContractors, S.O.G.R.E.A.H. of

Grenoble, France, who carried out the main work of the Project. They have sub-
sequently been edited by FAO. Each of these volumes in its more specialised field
provides and analyses the relevant data, discusses the results, and sets out the
conclusions to which they point. The discussions in one volume of course in various
respects have-reference to and depend upon the discussions in other volumes.

The scope of Volume I, as will be seen from the Table of Contents, covers
the following:

Chapter I Introduction and Historical Account

Chapter II Summary of Main Conclusions and Recommendations

Chapter III Description of the Awash Basin

Chapter IV Outlines of Existing Land Use

Chapter V Soil Survey and Land Classification

Chapter VI Prospective Land Use under Development

Chapter VII Climatology and Hydrology

Gnapter VIII Water Control for Irrigation and Power

Chapter IX Priorities in Planning Water Use

Chapter X Development of Irrigation

Chapter XI Estimates of Costs and Economic Appraisals

Chapter XII' Additional Remarks

 2

It will be realised that Volume I covers the whole work of the Survey, and
by itself provides a oomprehensive and coordinated statement of what it has achieved.
The other volumes are essentially technical volumes, to which reference may be made
for more detailed information on any particular aspect of the work.
 3

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL ACCOUNT

Purpose and Scope of the Project

The Awash River is the only largo stream in Ethiopia which flows towards the
east and north. These which flow towards the west and north-west, including the Baro,
the Blue Nile, and the Setit, have larger annual flows, but their courses in Ethiopia
lie largely in deep valleys and canyons, which are much less accessible, and thus do
not present immediate possibilities of developing extensive areas of irrigation,
commensurate with their flows. The Awash basin, in contrast, is in many parts
relatively open. It has, over much of its extent, rainfalls which are limited in
amount, and are confined to one part of the year. Its lands include considerable
areas of fertile soils, which at present are used only to a very limited extent. Many
of the people living within its limits at present have a quite low standard of liveli-
hood. The needs for development are obvious, and potentialities clearly exist. It
is not surprising, therefore, that for a number of years considerable interest has
been shown in the possibilities of developing both irrigation and hydro-electric
power. In 1960 the Imperial Ethiopian Government asked for the help of the United
Nations Special FUnd in appraising the resources of the basin in land and water, and
their potential development for these purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organisation
was designated as Executing Agency. The Plan of'Operation was signed by the three
parties on February 7, 1961, and authorisation to begin operations was given on
February 21, 1961.

The Awash Basin in relation to the rest of Ethiopia is shown on Fig. 1 -

General Map.
Terms of Reference
The Project was specified to include the following:

(i) Survey of water resources, based on hydrological and meteorological

observations.
(ii) Studies of possibilities of water control by storage and otherwise, and
preparation of a water management plan, taking into account the require-
ments of irrigation and hydro-electric power.

(iii) Soil surveys and land classification according to suitability for

irrigation:
On reconnaissance standard over about 500,000 ha of agricultural
land and about 200,000 ha of grazing land.
On semi-detailed standard over selected areas totalling some 100,000
ha and on detailed standard over areas totalling some 20,000 ha, for
pilot schemes.

(iv) Geological and engineering studies of potential dam sites, with outline
designs and estimates.
(v) Survey of erosion and sedimentations

(vi) Agronomic studies of land use, present and future.

(vii) Aerial photography over some 30,000 km2', and contour mapping, particularly
of potential reservoir areas.

(viii) Training of Ethiopian counterpart staff.

Neither economic nor sociological investigations were included in the original
Terms of Reference. However, preliminary eponomic appraisals of potential developments
were ultimately made, and are briefly described in this Report.
The Plan of Operation, and the subsequent amendments thereof, are attached as
Appendix No. 1 to this Volume.
 4

3. Arrangements for Execution

The Plan of Operation specified that the project .7ihou1d be executed by sub-
contract. The following contracts were let:

On February 23, 1961 to Hunting Surveys Ltd., London, for the aerial
photography required.

On July 13, 1961 to SOGREAE (Societ6 Grenobloise d'Etudes et eApplications

Hydrauliques), Grenoble, for the provision of specialist staff and the
execation of the main work of the survey.

On September 13, 1962 to Ing. Giovanni Rodio S.A. Milano for test borings
on the sites of prospective dams.

The Project M.inager, Mr. M. Reklewski, was appointed on August 10, 1961 and
arrived at Adis Abeba, his duty station, on August 13. 1961. The following staff
from FAO served as Administrativo Officers:

Mr. Ch. de Beck Lambly December 3, 1961 - June 30, 1963

Mr. K. Danillowicz July 1, 1963 - Juno 30, 1964
Mr. G. Abolafio July 1, 1964 - December 31, 1964
Field Operations for aerial surveys were supervised by Mr. H. Williams, chief
of Hunting Surveys office in Nairobi. Processing and preparation of mosaics were
done in Hunting Survey's office in Great Britain.

The main part of the general work of the survey was done by SOGREAH in the
field and at their headquarters ih Grenoble, under the direction of Mr. P.M. Lafont,
Water Planning and Irrigation Engineer. The names and services of the specialists
provided by SOGREAH are shown on page 5.

The interpretal.ion of the results of the test borings made by G. Rodio S.A.
was the responsibility of specialists of SOGTIFAH.
In September-December 1964, Special Fund sent two consultants to-ascertain
in close collaboration with the Project Manager the economic feasibility of the
development schemes recommended as the result of the technical studies. These were:

Dr. L.G. Allbaugh

Mr. R.M. Arbuckle

Government Counterpart staff, provided through the Awash Valley Authority,

were under the control of the Co-Managers, as follows

H.E. Dr. Haile Georghis August 1961 - April 1962

Ato Getachew Wolde Emmanuel April 1962 - December 1964

Other counterpart staff included:

4 Soils and agricultural technicians.

5 Hydrological technicians.
1 Surveyor and 3 assistant surveyors.
1 Draftsman.
12 Assistant hydrometriets and computers.
109 Observers for hydrological and meteorological stations.
8 Clerical staff.
1 Mechanic and 14 Drivers.
6 Watchmen.
 TIME TABLE OF EXPERTS ASSIGNMENTS
196 I 1962 I963 1964 965

TOPOGRAPHER
M r. Jean JOLLY
Erian _railiwIn
IOU o 111 D 111111013011111110 o El ° CHEMICIONCIU 0111 D FAUCIDEMMIII 0 DD I CI

SOIL CHEMIST
Mr. Jacques PINEL 1111111=1
INUMMININ
Lil
SENIOR SOIL SCIENTIST
Mr, Pierro VEROT .......mommmonliellEINIMICE
El1111111111111111
1 crararamilralran
SOIL SURVEY SPECIALIST
SOIL CONSERVATJONIST
Mr. Claude BEAUCHENE

PHOTO- INTERPRETER 2 rt laran cc cc

i
Mr. Paul ANDRE

SENIOR HYDROLOGIST
I ill Ili
Mr. Gilbert MOUdIN

SENIOR HYDROLOGIST ASSISTANT

Mr. Dominique NORMAND

gm. 61 inpmmum gummiliiimil

FIELD HYDROLOGIST
Mr, Antoin SERRANO I
HYDROMETRIST-COMPUTER
Mr. Louie GAMBA

HYDROMETRIST
1111111111111111111ffainCalkilii
Mr. Robert BELLIN
mill
HYDROMETRIST
Mr. Robert JOSSERAND
11ILail
111111111111NOMUNINIIIIIIIIIIIIIMI
WATER-PLANNING ENGINEER
Mr. Pierre LAFONT

DAM DESIGN ENGINEER

Mr. Robert LEMOINE

SENIOR GEOLOGIST
Mr. Reynold BARBIER
o
33

GEOLOGIST
Mr. Rene de LARMINAT

BORINGS SUPERVISOR
Mr. Maurice RUITTON
 Modification of Plan of Operation

After preliminary reconnaissances in August and September 1961, and subsequent

discussions beteen Government, FAO, and Special Fund, it was agreed that to cover
increases required in aerial photography and in the number of river gauging stations,
the provision of access tracks to remote sites, the making of exploratory 'borings,
to investigate foundation conditions at potential dam sites, etc., the contribution
of the Special Fund should be increased by US 3 90,000, and that of Government by
US $ 50,000. The necessary amendment to the Plan of Operation was signed in
September 1962.

Subsequently it was agreed that prospective savings on counterpart staff could

be used to meet increased expenditure on the running and maintenance of vehicles, and
certain other local costs.

Summary of Field Work. The following facts and figures indicate the nature
and scope of the work done in the field:

(0 Access and Communications. 240 Km. of tracks and 2 bridges were built,
and 2 ferry boats installed. 5 airstrips were prepared and 2 existing
strips were repaired. 4 radio telephone sets were installed.

Installations. Headquarters for the project, with store and workshop

was arranged. 2 field bases with offices and living quarters were set
up, and 6 field shelters. A soil and water laboratory was installed at
the Forestry Institute of the Haile Selassie I University. 30 river
gauging stations, 8 meteorological stations, and 95 raingauges were
installed and put into use.

Transport. 1,760,000 Km. in all were run by 19 vehicles under the project,
at an average cost of US 3 0.07 per Km. 272 hours were flown by hired
aircraft, planes and helicopters.

Aerial Photography. This was completed in two periods, in May and

November 1961. Mosaics were made available by May 1962.

Soil Survey. When modification of the Plan of Operation was under

discussion in March 1962, it was agreed that in place of the 20,000 ha
of detailed soil survey specified therein, an additional 50,000 ha should
be surveyed on semidetailed standard, to bring the total to 150,000 ha.
Field work on soils was completed by July 1963, and two interim reports,
on the areas suitable for irrigation in the Middle Valley and in the
Lower Plains, were submitted in September 1963.

(v Hydrology and (Climatology. About 2,500 flow measurements were made,

about 2,200 water samples were tested for silt content. The great part
of the hydrometric and climatological network was made operational in6-ty64e
course of 1962. Regular observations were made during 1962/63 and 193
hydrological cycles and lasted till October 31st 1964. A programme for
continuation of recording was prepared and submitted to Awash Valley
Authority.

(vii) Appraisal of river hydraulics in the Delta area. Because of very high
cost of establishing gauging stations in the deltaic section of the river
and as detailed topographical works would have been needed for any
meaningful hydrological studies in these regions, it was decided in
March 1962 to exclude the unstable river section from the programme of
systematic flow measurements. At the P-ame time it was decided to proceed
 7

to an expert appraisal of river's behaviour in the Delta area.

The appraisal was carried out in March 1963 and the relevant
report submitted to the Government in September 1963.
Test BorinFs. These were made at the prospective sites for Kesem and
Tendaho Dams between November 1963 and March 1964, in accordance with the
recommendations of the geologist.

Health Conditions. These, with special regard to bilharziasis, were

investigated in 1964.by specialists from W.H.O. and by Dr. Aklilu-Lemma,
parasitologist in the Haile Solaseis I University.

Field operations ended on October 31, 1964, and the Project Manager left
Ethiopia on December 15, 1964 to take part with the sub-contractors in the preparation
of the Final Report at Grenoble and F.A.O. headquarters in Rome.

Follow-up Project.

In April 1964, the Government approached Special Fund about a possible follow-
up project, for the preparation of irrigation layouts and dam designs in the Awash
Basin. Government also asked for an appraisal of the economic feasibility of schemes
proposed as a result of the survey. To this the Special Fund agreed, and the appraisal
was made in September-December 1964; it should be noted that for this incomplete
figures of estimated costs had to be used, which later in some cases had to be revised.
The formal request for a follow-up project was submitted by Government to Special Fund
in November 1964.

Subsequently it was agreed between the Government and the Special Fund, that
the reinforcement of the Authority responsible for development of the Awash River
Basin was necessary before the initiation of a second phase of surveys. In 1965
an Interim Project aimed at Assistance in the strengthening of the Awash Valley
Authority was approved.

Training and Fellowships.

Although no specific provisions for fellowships had been made in the Plan of
Operation, it was found possible, with the help of SOGREAH, to arrange for 6
scholarships of 6 months each, under the bilateral cooperation scheme of the French
Government. 6 technicians, 3 ir soils and 3 in hydrology, received training at
Grenoble.

An important part of the Project was in-service training for Government counter-
part staff, in soil survey, and laboratory work, hydrology and climatology, topographi-
recruit
cal srvey and photo-interpretation. It was not in all cases possible to
:imitable qualified trainees in sufficient numbers.

Final Report.

The Final Report as now presented by F.A.O. consists of the following volumes:

Volume I General Renort

Volume II Soils and Agronomy
Volume III Hydrology and Climatology
Volume IV Water Storage and Power Development
Volume V Irrigation and Water Planning.
 - 8-

Acknowledgements.

Grateful acknowledgement is made of the help and cooperation received from

many branches and officials of the Government and other authorities, as well as from
firms and private individuals. In particular, collaboration from the following
Departments and Institutes was appreciated:

Ministry of Agriculture, particularly the Statistic Department,

Animal Husbandry Department (Mission Vétérinaire Frangaise), and
Research Department.
Ministry of Public Works and Communications, particularly
Water Resources Department.
Imperial Highways Authority
Imperial Ethiopian Mapping and Geography Institute
Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
Central Statistical Office
Halle Selassie I dniversity (Forestry Institute)
Institut Pasteur d'Ethiopie
Civil Aviation Department (National Meteorological Department)
Ethiopian Airlines
Chemin de Fer FrancoEthiopien
Provincial Governors and officers 5 Police etc.

Place Names.

The spelling of place names used in this Report follows wherever possible that
introduced recently by the Imperial Institute of Mapping and Geography. This in some
cases may differ from the spelling hitherto commonly used, but no difficulties should
arise, because the differences are not large.
 9

CHAPTER II - SUMMARY OF MAIN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. CONCLUSIONS

Description.

Seo Figs Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 8, 14, and Chapter III. The Awash Basin, in area some
701000 km2, lies between the latitudes of 80 N and 12° N, on the southern and eastern
sides of the central plateau of Ethiopia. The greater part of the Basin lies geolo-
gically within the Great Rift Valley. In elevation the Basin ranges from 3,000 m
to 250 m above sea level. Its lower parts open out to the North and East, towards
the Red Sea, but the river does not reach'the sea, ending in the large depression
of Lake Abe, where its remaining waters are lost by evaporation and seepage.
The Basin may conveniently be described as consisting of the following
parts
The Upper Basin from the headwaters down to Koka dam.
The Upper Valley, from the Koka dam to Metehara,
The Middle Valley, from Metehara to Tendaho,
The Lower Plains, from Tendaho to Lake Abe.

The Basin includes the capital of Ethiopia) Adis Abeba, with a population
of about 4501000, and several other towns, all relatively much smaller. On the
plateau and in the Upper Valley the people are mostly Christian; outside the towns
they are largely agricultural, with a proportion engaged in commerce and, recently,
in industry. The rest of the Basin, including all the lower lands, is relatively
thinly populated, mostly by Moslem tribes, largely nomadic and pastoralists.

There pass through or across the Basin, the railway between Adis Abeba and
the port of Djibouti and, further north, the main road from Adis Abeba to the port
of Aseb and Asmera. A new main road from Mis Abeba to Aseb is projected, and this
would probably be aligned down the right bank.of the Awash, at least beyond Awash
station on the railway; if so, it would pass near to potential areas of irrigation
in the Basin, and would greatly facilitate their development. (See Figs 1 and 5).

Existing Land Use.

On the plateau lands and in the Upper Valley, large tracks of lands of good
quality are already cultivated with rain-grown crops. In the Upper Valley are also
como areas under irrigation, notably the plantation of 6,000 ha at Wenji, growing
sugarcane. In the Middle Valley are irrigated areas totalling some 1500 hal and in
the Lower Plains, cotton plantations totalling some 4,500 ha at Dubti and Dit Bahri
are under irrigation, with several thousand ha in Asayita delta used to growcrops after
natural flooding. (See also Figs 14).
Resources of Land.
The Upper Valley offers relatively little additional land for development,
beyond that now cultivated. Elsewhere in the Basin, as the result of reconnaissance
soil survey over some 2 million ha, followed by a semi-detailed soil survey on
selected area totalling some 502,000 ha, the lands were classified according to their
suitability for irrigation, in the following classes
Class I Good irrigable land.
Class II Moderately good irrigable land.
Class III Marginal irrigable land.
Class IV Land unsuitable for irrigation, :except under special
conditions.
Class V Land of which the suitability for irrigation is
undetermined.
Class VI Land permanently unsuitable for irrigation.

See Fig. No. 6.

 0f the 502,000 ha covered by the semi-detailed survey, the classification-
was as follows

Land Classification
Middle Lower Totals -
(-4

Class Valley Plains

(ha) (ha) (ha)

I - -

II 56,600 30,000 36,600 17

III 58,000 39,000 97,000 19

iv 40,100 33,000 73,100 15

IT 9,900 15,000 24,900 5

vz 97,400 123,000 220,400 44

262,000 240,000 502,000 loo

Thus there are 183,600 ha of lands in Classes II and III; in addition, some
lands mainly in the Lower Plains placed in Class IV because of liability to flooding
are also worthy of development, if effective control of the flooding is provided.
It is safe to 'say that some 200,000 ha of suitable land can be made available for
irrigation. (See Figs 7 and 8 - in folder).

4. Resources of Water.

i) Climate. See Chapter VII.

(a) Rainfall. This is shown on Map No. 11 in thE, olr. Typical normal
annual totals aro as follows

Millimetres

Upper Basin - above Koka Dam 1000

Middle Valley - Koka to Hertale 850
Middle Valley - Hertale to Tendaho 610
Lower Plains -- Tendaho to Lake Abe 215

There are two rainy seasons in the year, the lesser rains from March to
May, and the main rains from July to September, which provide naarly 90% of
the total annual run-off in the streams. The rainfall minimum in the two
seasons, in June, is more pronounced in the drier northern part of the Basin.
From October to February, hardly any rain falls.

Rainfalls vary widely from year to year in total amount; in general they
may range from 505 to 1505 of the mean figure. Individual rainstorms are
usually fairly brief, and do not cover very large areas.
(b) Temperatures. Some ranges of temperatures which may occur are indicated
by the following figures, observed during 1962-64

oCentigrade
Maxima Minima
Adis Abeba 28 6
Koka 34 7
Metehara 39 7
Gewani 42 8
Tendaho 46 6

Temperatures vary with the season, and also with altitude and aridity.
In certain parts of the Basin, sheltered from South Nest winds,
"Foehn" effects may raise the tomerature locally.

(c) Winds. During the dry season from October to February, the prevailing
winds are "anticyclone" winds, mainly from the North East. At other times of t
the,year, winds.are variable in direction and strength, but in general the
upper rain-bearing air currents come from the South West.

ii) Hydrology. See Chapter VII and Map No. 13.

Except for a few fairly long records, such as that for the gauge at
Awash railway station, observations of river flows are available only
for 1962-64. It has been possible to extend the period for some stations
by correlation with longer records of rainfalls. In this way have been
prepared estimates of flows at various points in the Basin, for a "normal"
year. These estimates must however be taken as tentative and approximate,
and subject to adjustment in the future, as more data of actual observations
become availi.,ble.

Flows from the Upper Valley, are already regulated by the operation of
Koka Reservoir (Lake Gelilea), so far primarily in order to generate
hydro-electric power most effectively. Only since this reservoir came into
operation- in 1961 has the flow of the Awash become permanent throughout
the year; previously it dried up in its lower course in the dry season.
Subject to this regulation at Koka, the following are the resulting present
estimated annual total flows at various points :

hm3
Inflow to Lake Gelilea 1895
less losses from reservoir (evaporation
and leakage) 695
Outflow from Lake Gelilea 1200
Flow at Awash Station 2460
Flow at Hertale 2840
Flow at Dubti 3490
Some maximum rates of flood flows with probabilities of occurrence
estimated to be less than once in 1000 years are expected to be as
follows :
 12

River m3/s

Awash at Koka 1050

Awash at Awash Station 1050
Awash at Melka Warar 1150
Awash at Hertale 850
Awash at Tendaho 1000
Kesem at Awora Melka 1400
Kebena 1300

Degradation by erosion is estimated to occur as follows

Tons/km2/year

Steep eastern slopes of high plateau 1200

Gentler southern slopes of high plateau 850
Middle Valley Koka to Gewani 150
Arid lowlands downstream of Gewani 850
Northwestern slopes of Chercher Mountains 400

Deposition of sediment occurs

In natural swamps and flooded areas

b In all storage reservoirs; ultimately, perhaps after centuries,
any reservoir will silt up.

5. Prospective Land Use under Development. See Chapter VI and Figs 7 and 8
(in folder).
Areas. The areas suitable for development (land in Class II and III)
are

,a.) In the Middle Valley 114,600 ha

b) In the Lower Plains 69,000 ha

In the Middle Valley, on the whole, the lands are more suitable in type
and somewhat better in quality. But the amounts of water available, even
with control and storage, might not suffice for the irrigation of all the
suitable lands in the Upper and Middle Valleys. In the Lower Plains, in
contrast, more water *could be nade available than would be required for the
irrigation of all the suitable lands.

Costs and Returns. Because the development of irrigated agriculture

is expensive, it must bring sufficiently high returns. This calls for
cropping patterns as intensive as the prevailing conditions will allow,
with, where possible, a suitable proportion of highvalue crops.

Crops. Agronomically, conditions in the Awash Basin are suitable for

growing a wide range of crops, including fibres (and particularly cotton),
oil seeds, pulses, cereals, sugar cane, vegetables, and fruits of many
different sorts. Selection is likely to depend more on economic factors
than on agronomic conditions. Animal husbandry should be combined with
agriculture, and this will involve the inclusion of legumes and other
forage crops in the rotations, both to feed the animals and as green
manure to maintain the fertility of the land. Dairying is also to be
encouraEed.
 - 13 -

Rotations. These should not be finally determined without extensive

and systematic experimentation. Meantime, for the assessment of possibili-
ties, and for the preparation of suggestions for staged development, two
tentative crop patterns have been assumed, as shown in Fig. No. 9 and 10.

For lands in the Middle Valley intensity 1.75-2.0 crops a year

b For lands in the Lower Plains intensity 1.0 - 1.5 " "

For both the period is four years; the main cash crop is cotton, on
about 40% of the dross area.

Perennial Crops. Crops of this type, such as citrus and other tree fruits,
bananas, etc. are not included in the typical rotations assumed, but may be
grown on areas allotted for this purpose. It is suggested that

Doum palms now growing naturally may be replaced by date palms.

b Useful timber trees, e.g. eucalyptus and poplars, may be grown
along the river, in replacement of existing woodlands of poor
quality, or on other areas now flooded.

Grazing. It may/ or may not, be economically feasible to improve grazing

lands by simple methods of irrigation. However this may be, the establish-
ment of additional watering points for animals to drink at, and the control
of flooding on grazing lands, will be beneficial.

Water Requirements for Irrigation. These have been estimated to be as

follows, on the assumed rotations

Cubic meters per hectare of commanded area

Months A M J J A S 0 N D Year

Middle Valley 1645 1585 1195 1220 1940 2135, 1140 770 1365 1020 955 1770 16,740
Lower Plains 845 875 880 705 285 1075 1935 1615 2075 2010 1590 1455 15,345

Quality of Water. In quality, the waters of the Awash River are quite
suitable for irrigation. But water from the saline springs and wells, or
from lakes fed by saline springs, should not be used.

6. Water Control. See Chapter VIII and Fig. 14.

Because of the extremely wide range of variations in natural flows of the

main river and its tributaries between the dry season and the season of rains,
excess flows in the latter season cannot be used for irrigation, and in large
measure must be wasted and lost, while in contrast, in the dry season there is
serious shortage of water. Water control therefore aims at storing the excess
flows in the flood season, until they can be used to supplement the natural flows
in the dry season. This is to be done by storage reservoirs. The use of these will.
incidentally also reduce the peak rates of flood run-off; and thus reduce the extent
to which lands alongside the river are axposed to the risk of being flooded. In
addition to storage reservoirs, possibilities exist of increasing the supplies of
water in the Upper Awash; by the diversion to Koka Reservoir of part of the flows
of the Meki River in the adjoining catchment of Lake Ziway. The main criteria in
selecting sites for storage reservoirs are
 - 14-

(a) The prime purpose of storage is the supply and regulation of water for
irrigation, with the generation of power as an important but secondary
purpose
Storage of water should submerge cultivated lands as little as possible:
c Reservoirs should be reasonably near to the lands irrigable from them.

The projects for the supply and control of water on the Awash, existing or
now proposed, may be summarized as follows

Koka Reservoir - in use since 1961. Net available capacity 1,660 hm3,
Height of concrete dam 42 m. Primary purpose is the generation of power.
Maximum rate of outflow through turbines 3.6 hm3/day. Normal annual outflow
about 1200 hm3. Losses by evaporation about 315 hm3/year, and by percolation
about 380 hm3/year. The last is serious, and calls for investigation to find
a remedy. (See Fig. 14).

Meki River Diversion. Proposed, found feasible, to. supply some

200 hm3 annually via the Dubeta River into Lake Gelilea. This, if used only
for irrigation, might suffice for about 40,000 ha. Further technical and
economic investigation i.e necessary, including the effects of diversion on
the catchment of the Lake Ziway. (See Fig. 15).

Compensation Reservoir. If the Meki Diversion is not feasible, the out-

flows from Lake Gelilea, suited to power production, can be regulated so as
to suit the requirements of irrigation, month by montb, by a compensation
reservoir, of capacity tentatively estimated at 50 hm3. A site near Awash
Station may be suitable to provide this, by a dato some 40 m in height.
Investigationr of this and other sites will be required.

If it can be arranged,after construction of hydro power plants on other

rivers,that the releases of water from Lake Gelilea can be adjusted to suit
irrigation requirements more nearly, it may not be necessary to construct a
compensation reservoir. (See Fig. 14).

Kesem Reservoir. Proposed to have a gross capacity of 370 hml with a

depth of water of 69 m. This would provide a usable amount sufficient to
irrigate some 22,000 ha, and to generate about 52 GWh of power annually.
Loss of water by evaporation would be about 35 hm3 per year. Some test
drilling of the foundation was done, and it appears that the site is suita-
ble for a rockfill dam. Grouting to reduce losses by percolation would be
necessary. (See Fig. 14)

Tendaho Reservoir. Proposed to have a gross capacity of 970 hm3 with

a depth of water of 32 m. This would provide a usable amount of water
sufficient to irrigate some 70,000 ha, and to generate about 91 Mill of power
annually. Loss of water by evaporation would be heavy, about 294 hm3
annually. Some test drilling of the foundation was done, arad, it appears
that here also a rockfill dam would be a suitable type. Grouting to reduce
percolation losses would be necessary. (See Fig. 14)

Power Stations. At Koka Dam, Awash I power station generates about

110 GWh annually. Further downstream, Awash II and Awash III stations are
now under construction; they also will use the flows released from Lake
Gelilea, and are expected to generate together some 364 Wheach year.
Still further down, but still in the Upper Valley, Awash IV, of capacity
similar to that of Awash II or Awash III, is in prospect. The ultimate pos-
sibilities of power generation may total some 950 GWh annually. (See Fig.14
 - 15 -

7 Priorities in Planning Water Use. Se Chapter IX.

It is apparent that with the degree of control now provided by Koka

Reservoir, the amounts of water available in an average year are enough to irrigate
about 67,000 ha. in the whole Valley. Observations and investigations made so far
indicate that, given sufficient additional water control by schemes now proposed,
the amounts of water available in the conditions of a year like 1962-63 (taken as
approximating to an average year) would suffice for some 200,000 ha. Because
hydrological data so far are limited and incomplete, and taking into account the
results of soil surveys and engineering investigations, it appears wise to reckon
on a smaller figure. For the purposes of the present Report, the target is adopted
of 163,250 ha., to include areas already under irrigation. Investigations of the
implications of various combinations of schemes of water control, and of areas of
irrigation possible with them in the different parts of the Valley, have brought
out the following points:

The Niddie Valley. This, with a better climate and better soils than
the Lower Plains, is more suited to the development of intensive agriculture
on commercial-type farms; yields per ha willbe higher and benefits greater
than elsewhere. No technical argument arises against development here.
However, as will be shown later, development in certain parts, such as Kesem,
will be relatively costly.

In the Lower Plains, soils and climate are somewhat less favourable, and
as a result, the range of types of crop patterns is less wide. In its
present condition, much of the area is subject to flooding, and the numerous
channels of the river are unstable, For these reasons, the expansion of
systematic irrigation beyond a total of about 20,000 ha cannot be recommended
until Tendaho Dam is built. Although the present development of systematic
irrigation has been achieved largely by commercial estates, there is scope
for, and demand for, smaller family-type farms. Prospective cultivators in
sufficient numbers appear to be available. Communications to Aseb and to
the high plateau are reasonable.
Taking into account all considerations, technical, economic, and social, it
is proposed that development should proceed in all parts of the Valley, and notably
in the Middle Valley and the Lower Plains, in three successive stages, as discussed
in Chapter IX, and as there set out in Table 27, which for convenience is reproduced
here.
TABLE 2/ - PRESENT AND PROPOSED STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Target Areas of Development hectares

Stage Water Control Upper Middle Lover
Valley Valley Plains Totals

Present Koka Reservoir only 6,650 1,550 16,100 24,300

First Koka Reservoir only 12,000 19,500 31,900 63,400

Second Koka Reservoir + Meki

Diversion Scheme (or mpen-
satip Reservoir)+ Tendaho 12,000 50,850 51,300 114,150
Reservoiro
Third As second stage + Kesem
Reservoir 12,000 84,950 66,300 163,250

See also Fig. 19.

 - 16 -

It will be seen that Stage I, up to a total of some 63,000 ha, can be achieved
with the water control now provided by Koka Reservoir. Stage II will involve the
construction of either the Meki Diversion Scheme or the Compensation Reservoir,
and of Tendaho Dam; it will then be possible to extend irrigation to a total of
some 114,150 ha, of which about 51,000 ha would be in the Middle Valley and about
the same amount in the Lower Plains. Stage III would involve the construction of
the Kesem Dam; it would then be possible to extend the total to about 163,250 ha.

To ensure the orderly and effective progress of this development, the whole
of it from the start should be carried through in accordance with a "master plan"
which, flexible in application and in design of details, should ensure that nothing
done in the earlier stages will be inconsistent with the most effective development
of the later stages. This plan should be adjusted as soon as the necessary further
surveys and investigations can be made.

The Development of Irrigation. See Chapter X.

In order to make the most advantageous use of the available water, the
development of new areas should be planned to use the best available and most
accessible lands, and on them to ensure the optimum combination of economy, ef-
fectiveness, and reliability in watering and in cultivation. Gravity irrigation
is preferable wherever possible, though pumping may be more suitable in certain
areas. In general, unlined canals are proposed, except where evidence indicates
that percolation losses would be too heavy. Standardized layouts are proposed
for canalisation and field plots. Drainage systems are proposed, expected to be
sufficient to ensure that no area remains submerged by storms for more than 24 hours
more often than once in two years. Where necessary, protection against flooding
from the river or tributaries is to be given by dykes.

Particulars of the various individual schemes proposed to be included in

the different stages of the programme are given in Chapter X. The areas of schemes,
stage by stage, are summarized in Table 28 which, for convenience of reference, is
repeated in page 14 of this Chapter. (See Fig. 19).

Estimates of Capital Costs. See Chapter XI.

The figures there given come under two main categories; (a) those for works
of control and supply of water; and (b) those for works of irrigation development.
The particulars are given in Chapter XI inTables 29 to 32. These show clearly what
classes of works are included in the estimates, and what are not. It should be
noted that all estimates of capital costs include margins for contingencies, and for
the costs of designing and supervision of construction. The figures for the main
items may be summarized as follows :
 TABLE ,28 - PROPOSED DET2LOPMENT OF IRRIGATION BY PROJECTS AND STAGES

-- - ---
First Stage Second Stage Third Stage
Present
Projects Area
Additional Total A1ditional Total Additional Total

UPPER VALLEY

Wonji, Genet and others 6,600 0 6,600 0 6,600 0 6,600

Nuri, Eva 50 5,350 5,400 0 5,400 0 5,400

Total Upper Valley 6,650 5,350 12,000 0 12,000 0 12,000

MIDDLE VALLEY

Abadir - ll:etehara 850 9,650 10,500 0 10,500 0 10,500

Kesem - Kebena 650 1,350 2,000 0 2,000 15,550 17,550
Melki Sedi 0 6,000 6,000 2,550 0,550 0 8,550
Amibara - Angelele 50 950 1,000 15,650 16,650 0 16,650
Bolhamc; 0 0 . 0 2,500 2,500 6,400 8,900
i,:iaro Gala 0 0 0 10,650 10,650 12,150 22,800

Total Middle Valley 1,550 17,950 19,500 31,350 50,850 34,100 84,950

LUNER PLAINS

DUbti 4,000 5,050 9,050* 0 9,050 0 9,050

Small riverside areas 0 0 0 0 0 3,700 3,700
Dit Bahri 500 10,450 10,950* 5,400 16,350 0 16,350
Asayita Delta etc. 11,600 300 11,900 14,000 25,900 0 25,900
Old Awash 0 0 0 0 0 11,300 11,300

Total Lower Plains 16,100 15,800 31,900 19,400 51,300 15,000 66,300

GRAND TOTALS 24,300 39,100 63,400 50,750 114,150 49,100 163,250

* Total of 20,000 ha covers water rights granted to Tendaho Plantations Share Co. and outgrowers.

- 17 -
 18

(a ) iorks for Control and Supply of Water

Attributable Attributable
ern to Irrigation to Power Totals Remarks
E $ E 3

Meki River Diversion 10,527,000 10,527,000 Very tentativo

and subject to
revision.
Compensation Dam (alter- (10,000,000) (10,000,000 Yo estimate yet
native to Meki Div.) (1) possible.
Kesem Dam 29,932,000 6,322,000 36,2-)4,000
Tendaho Dam 22,233,000 12,806,000 35,039,000

Total 62,692,000 19,128,000 81,820,000

Protection and River
Training works in
the Lower Plains 5,400,000 5,400,000

(b) Works for Irrigation, Drainage and Flood Protection

Scheme Hectares Cost E 3 E 3/ha Remarks

Middle Valley
AbadirNetehara (10,500) 17,000,000 1702 Extrapolated figure
KesemKebena 17,550 32,240,000 1837
MelkaSedi 8,550 15,382,000 1799
AmibaraAngelele 16,650 30,376,000 1824
Bolhamo 8,900 18,784,000 2110
MaroGala 22,800 29,908,000 1312
84,9501 143690,000 1702

Lower Plains
Dit Bahri 16,350 28,272,000 1729
Dubti 9,050 14,161,000 1564 6500 ha by gravity
Rem. by pumping
Asayita Delta 25,900 30,185,000 1165 By pumping
Old Awash 11,300 12,951,000 1146 By pumping

Small Areas 3,700 4,310,000 1165 By pumping

66,300 89,879,000 1356

It is not yet possible to give estimates of the total investment,regardless

whether from public or private sources,required in each of the three proPosed stages
of development. But very tentatively, the following figures may indicate their order
of magnitude exclusive of roads, farmsteads and farm machinery.
Millions of E 3
Stage I 66
Stage II 116
Stage III _105
Total for additional 139,000 ha
as per table 28 287

(1) See para 7 above.

 - 19 -

10. Economic Appraisals. See Chapter XI.

These appraisals were made by two consultants appointed by Special Fund,

and their conclusions, based on interim data available at the time of their ap-
praisal, may be briefly summarized as follows

The proposed further development of irrigation, assumed to be some

150,000 ha additional to that now in hand, could have a benefit/cost ratio
of 1.951, at an interest rate of 6,1/0.

In addition some 115 million Kwh of electric power could be generated,

at 1/4to 1/3 of the cost from the best alternative source.

Control of floods would increas'e net incomes by about E.S. 100,000

annually.

The gross value of the annual agriculture product of the project will
be about E$ 181 million, with an increase of about ES 60 millions over the
pres'ent annual net gain.

The investment required both for initial investment and associated costs
was expected to be in the order of E$ 430 million. Using the cost
figures of the finally revised estimates, the total investment required
for the overall project remains at the same magnitude, although some dif-
ferencies appear in the estimates for the individual project areas.

The projects are expected to provide 10,000 - 15,000 family fa s,

and employment for 25/000 - 30,000 workers.

The survey and the economie appraisals are preliminary. Further

detail soil and other surveys, and pre-investment studies and investigations
will be necessary. Even so, it is believed that appraisals now made give a
reasonably approximate assessments of the costs of developing the agri-
cultural economy of the Awash Basin, that the estimates of costs are suf-
ficient and that the estimates of annual yields are conservative. This
conclusion is supported by comparison of interim and revised overall costs
per hectare.

While the Government of Ethiopia favours development of irrigation by

large scale mechanised enterprises, socially there is a case for allotment
of a proportion of the lands made available to small farmers, trained in
irrigation by experience on the larger schemes.

Economically the Awash basin is well situated, between Adis Abeba and.
the Red Sea ports, with good communications to be still further improved
by the new main road to Aseb down the right bank of the river.

In the circumstances of the basin, a short term "crash" programme would

not be appropriate. Programmes of carefully planned and selected projects,
economically sound, spread over 10 to 25 years are what are wanted.

These conclusions and suggestions of the economic appraisal can be endorsed.

Points to be noted, however, include the following
 20

To achieve satisfactorily high rates of benefitcost ratio, it is

important to include in the cropping plan of each project a reasonable
proportion of highvalue crops, according to local conditions, in each
case.

In considering how schemes of irrigated agriculture should be operated,

the implications of different methods and arrangements have to be taken
into account. The financial benefit of commercial farms in most cases
will exceed those of family farms. But the social advantages of the
latter may be outweigh their financial inferiority.

The revenues from developing high yielding areas at an early stage, may
be used to create a "revolving fund" available for the subsequent deve-
lopment of less profitable areas. But care is necessary to avoid
"skimming the cream".

B. RECOMMENDATIONS

The paragraphs which follow set out the Main Recommendations now made as a
result of the Survey.

Hydrology

The recording and interpretation of data from weather stations, and of flows,
water levels, and sediment loads at river gauging stations, should be continued
without interruption, and extended to new stations wherever required. See page 65.

River Control and Training

Studies should be made of methods of reducing losses in swamps and flooded

areas, and of stabilizing river channels in the Lower Plains, and early action
should be taken accordingly. In particular, efforts should be made to prevent
obstruction of the river channels in the Delta of the Awash, which might lead to
the diversion of much or all of the flow from the areas under cultivation. The
closing off of the head of the Isa branch of the river, and the cuttingoff of the
"neck" of the meander at that.point, is recommended as a provisional measure, to
be executed, however, under expert supervision. See pages 73 and 95.

Soil Surveys

Detailed soil marveys should be made for every irrigation project proposed,
preferably on a continuing program, and certainly in each individual case before the
final layout of canalisation and drainage is prepared- See pages 104 and 109.

Agronomic Studies

Experimental Stations for applied agricultural research should be set up in

the Middle Valley and the Lower Plains. The work in these stations should cover all
types of farm crops, Vegetables, fruit trees and date palms, and timber plantations.
Types of crops, cultural methods, prospective yields, and prices and marketing
problems should all be studied. See page 50.
 - 21 -

Cropping Patterns and Rotations

Because the development of irrigated-agriculture is relatively expensive, it

should bring returns sufficient to justify its cost. Cropping patterns should be
investigated and selected with this ccnsideration in mind. In general it implies a
pattern as intensive as is compatible with the conditions, including double cropping
where feasible. But before conclusions are reached, all factors should be considered,
including soils, climate, cultivators, management both technical and economic, yields
and prices, communications and markets etc. In order to combine animal husbandry
with agriculture, legumes and other green crops should be grown, to provide fedder
as well as green manure. This will also make possible the development of dairying.

Rotations should not be finally determined without extensive and systematic

research. Perennial crops, including citrus and fruit trees, dates, timber
plantations, etc. may be grown outside the rotation areas. See pages 50 - 55.

Regulation of High-value Crops

This factor calls for special consideration in the study of cropping patterns.
The extent to which crops of high value (e.g. sugar-cane, fruits, vegetables) can be
included in cropping patters significantly affects their benefit-cost ratios. But
the scope for marketing such crops, whether within or outside of Ethiopia, is limited.
Therefore their inclusion should be carefully controlled, both in extent and in
location, in the national interest. For example, a suitable proportion of such
crops in the pattern may justify development in an area of marginal quality. The
question of whether regulations, or even special legislation, are required, calls
for particular study. See pages 52 and 111.

Fertilisers

Trials of the effects of fertilizers were not specifically scheduled under

the Project, but these effects should be fully taken into account in planning future
agricultural research, in assessing the yields and revenues to be expected, and the
economic feasibilities of the various items of development in agriculture and
irrigation now in prospect. See page 57

Irrigation Practices and Water Requirements

The methods of irrigation and field layouts now used should be critically
examined with a view to developing improved practices. The extent of the need for
and the cost of land levelling should be further studied. The water requirements of
the various crops, in the various possible conditions of climate and soils, should
be tested. See pages 56 and 98.

Irrigation Design and Layout

To make the best use of available water, the development of new areas should
?
be planned so as to use the best and most accessible lands, and on them to ensure
the optimum combination of economy, effectiveness, and reliability, in Watering and
in cultivation. Irrigation by gravity-flow should be used wherever possible;
however in certain areas and conditions irrigation supplied by pumps will be
preferable. Standardised designs and layouts for canalisation and water distribution
should be evolved and applied. Adequate drainage should be provided and, where
necessary, protection for lands exposed to flooding from the river or its tributaries
should be given by means of dykes. See pages 98 and 99.
 22

21, Water Control by Storage Reservóirs.

Detailed studies of technical and economic feasibility should be made for the
various schemes of water control proposed. In the first place the Meki Diversion
Scheme should be studied, including its effects on the Lake Ziway catchment, and on
all aspects of control at Koka Reservoir, including power development, losses by
evaporation, losses by percolation etc. At the mamo time, the scheme for Tendaho
Storage Reservoir should be further investigated. If the Meki Diversion Scheme is
not in all respects feasible and desirable, the possibility of constructing instead
a Compensation Reservoir on the Awash River upstream of Awash Station, to adjust the
flows resulting from control for power production so as to suit the requirements of
irrigation, should be investigated. Later, the scheme for the Kesem Storage Reservoir
should be further investigated. In all cases, every relevant aspect of the conditione
should be thoroughly studied, particularly the question of foundations, by thorough
geological examinations, inCluding drilled borings and test pits as necessary.
See pages 74 - 92.

Power.

The potentialities of generating power, at all points from the Upper Valley
down to Tendaho, should be further investigated, and their technical and economic
feasibilities assessed. The use and marketing of power should also be studied,
including its allocation for pump irrigation where required and feasible, and its
sale for other purposes, with the costs, charges, revenues, and economic assessments
involved. See pages 80, 86 and 92.

Methods of Operating Irrigation Schemes

While the Government of Ethiopia in general favours the development of large

mechanised agricultural enterprises, there is a case for the allotment of a proportion
of the lands made available, to small farmers, trained in irrigation by experience on
the larger schemes. The tecnnical, economic, and other aspects of the various possible
alternative arrangements should be stucied. It is vitally necessary to ensure that
every scheme will operate under an effective organisation of the direction of all
the activities involved, technical, economic, and social. See pagos 109 and 112.

Economic and Social Considerations and Priorities

While the preliminary estimates and economic appraisals made under the Project
indicate clearly favourable prospects for development, further and more detailed soil
and other surveys, proinvestment studies, and economic appraisals should be made, for
all potential schemes now recommended, as soon as possible, and in any case before any
item of development id finally planned for execution. The results of these further
studies and appraisals will make possible adequate comparisons of the relative
priorities of the various alternatives. See pages 93 and 109.

Phases and Programs of Development

On present information, it is recommended that development in all parts of the

Basin should proceed steadily and simultaneously, in three successive phases, as set
out in Table 27, which is reproduced on pdge 15. Priorities are important and should
be carefully considered. A snortterm program would not be appropriate; a program
covering from 10 to 25 years, of carefully planned and selected schemes, economically
sound, is what is required. The revenues from highyielding areas developed at an
early stage may be used later to finance the development of less profitable areas,
by the use of a "revolving fund". But care must be taken not to "skim the cream"
from the most promising areas first, without-making suitable allocations of the
resulting revenues. See pages 110 and 112.
 - 23 -

Master Plan

To ensure orderly, effective, and economical progress in development, it

should from the start be carried through in accordance with a "Master Plan" which,
embracing the three phases mentioned above, should be laid down as soon as the
further investigations of all kinds, recommended above, have made sufficient progress.
This "Master Plan" should be flexible in application, and in design of details; it
should be periodically reviewed and whenever necessary revised, in the light of
further knowledge and experience. See pages 96 and 112.

Reclamation of Swamps

In conjunction with the studies of irrigation problems, the reclamation of

swamps, for either grazing or agriculture, should be investigated, particularly the
swamps in the Lower Plains and in the upper valley of the Borkena River. See page 114.

Improvement of Grazing Lands and Range Pastures

Investigations should be made of the extent to which surplus water can be

spread on grazing lands and range pastures, with assessments of economic feasibility.
The'provision of drinking water supplies and watering points in all such lands, by
all practicable means, should be similarly studied. In particular, the sinking of
.

test wells in the Aleydegi Plain is recommended. See page 114.

Watershed Management

All problems of soil conservation in the upper parts of the Basin should be
fully investigated, with a view to the application of adequate measures of control.
Re-forestation should be actively promoted on sloping lands, particularly in the
catchments of reservoirs for water control,,with a view to reducing sediment loads
brought down, and thus increasing the effective lives of these rezervoirs. See
pages 67, 114 and 115.

Health Studies

In view of the incidence of bilharziasis in the Awash Basin, particular care

should be given to the studies of health problems and precautions against diseases,
especially in the areas where the development of irrigation is proposed. See page 98.

Awash Valley Authority

To plan, direct, and control the manifold activities involved in the

development of the Basin of the Awash the Imperial Government has set up the Awash
Valley Authority. This, however, does not yet possess powers or resources, staffs
or finances, commensurate with the magnitude and variety of the tasks with which it
will have to deal, as summarised above. It is of urgent importance that immediate
action be taken, by legislation, by staffing, by equipping, and by budgetary
allocation, to remedy this situation. Otherwise, it is not possible to see how the
potential benefits of the developments recommended in this Report, can be realised.
The Authority may suitably be made responsible for carrying out all the varied
surveys, studies, and appraisals recommended; for preparing on them as a basis the
"Master Plan" to be approved by the Imperial Government; for directing and supervis-
ing the implementation of this Plan, and in part at least, its actual execution;
and finally for supervising the operation cf schemes of development, to ensure
their technical and economic effectiveness in the exploitation of lands and water,
which are national assets. See page 113.
 - 24 -

CHAPTER III - DESCRIPTION OF THE AWASH BASIN

Location and Extent of the Basin.

The situation of the Awash Basin in relation to the rest of Ethiopia is seen on
Maps. Nos. 1 and 2. On some maps of Ethiopia, all the area lying between the catchment
of the Webi Shebeli river to the south, the catchment of the Blue Nile to the west, the
inland depressions oC the Dankali oesert to the north, and the border of French Somali-
land to the east, is designated as the basin of the Awash, extending to some
120,000 km2. Following the first reconnaissance flights, and examination of
physiography, it was apparent that large parts of this area cannot be drained by the
Awash. Large tracts of land near the border of French Somaliland are isolated by
volcanic hills lying to the east of the Great Rift Valley, and numerous stream courses
on the north-western slopes of the Chercher Mountains do not reach the Awash, but
terminate in local depressions amongst the hills, where their waters evaporate. These
indications were supported later by photo-interpretation, and although exact limits
for the basin could not be rigidly defined on the maps, the sarvey was confined to
the areas which certainly are effectively drained by the Awash river and its various
tributarios, estimated to be about 70,000 km2.

The River.

The highest sources of the Awash lie in a mountain range lying near the
southern edge of the "High Plateau" of Ethiopia, some 150 km. west of the capital,
Adis Abeba, at an altitude of about 3,000 m. above sea level. After flowing to the
south-east for about 250 km., the river enters the Great Rift Valley, which it
follows for the rest of its course, to where it ends in Lake Abe on the border with
French Somaliland, at an altitude of about 250 m. The total length of the river is
about 1,200 km. A longitudinal profile of its course is given in Fig. 3.

The Awash is the principal river of the Ethiopian section of the Great Rift
Valley. Where it enters the Rift, at an altitude of some 1,500 m., it flows close
to the watershed between its own basin and the internal basins of the Plateau of Lakes;
indeed it is possible here to identify as a former Awash tributary a stream which now
flows into Lake Ziway, the first lake of the series.

Pursuing its course to the east, the river runs across a series of geological
faults associated with a sharp bend in the general direction of the Rift VaLey, and
then turns northwards, between the great faults which delineate its eastern and
western sides.

For the purposes of the survey, the Basin may be described under the following
sections;

Upper Valley comprising its course south-east and east down to the point
where it turns northwards along the line of the Rift. In this section
its average slope exc(!eds 67oo, and there are many waterfalls, some of
which have been used for hydro-electric power. The length is about 300 km.

Middle Valley comprising the course northwards to a point downstream of

the confluence of the Mile River, near Tendaho. In this section the
general slope is less than 10/00; there are numerous rapids where the
river crosses bars of igneous rocks, between which occur reaches of
flood plain and swamp in places. The altitudes in the Middle Valley
range from 1,000 m. at Metehara to about 500 m. at the rapids upstream
the confluence of the Mile. The length of this section is about 650 km.
FROM I: 500,000 USAF PRELIMINARY BASE
 DRAWING N3

LONGITUDINAL PROFILE
2300

Ginchi Bridge OF THE AWASH RIVER

elka Kentare

2000

Koko Dom

enji Bridge

1500

Sode

Era Fa I

elk° Bokara Foil

eteharo Diversion Dam

1000
Gotu F

Awash Bridge

Melca Wara Hertale

Awadi
Lake Gedebaso Chaleka
atoburi
Borkena
Ledi Asayita
Mile Lake Gamari
500
Tendoho
Dubti ice Bario
Lo ice
Abe

100 200 300 Km.

400 500 600 700 800 900 10 0 1100 1200
 27

Lower Plains. A short distance south of Tendaho occur a series of faults

aligned gendrally northwest to southeast, 4hich have caused the river
to turn southeast wards across the alluvial plains. Its slope in this
section is only about 0.39oo its course is meandering, deltaic, and
unstable; extensive areas are flooded, and changes of course often occur.
Several lakes exist, of which the largest is Lake Abe, which receives the
remaining flows. The length of this part of the course, to the entrance
of Lake Abe, is about 250 km.

3. Physical Features

The section of the Great Rift Valley which comprises the Middle Valley and the
Lower Plains resembles a wide open "V" facing the Red Sea. The arms of the "V" are
on one side the eastern edge of the Ethiopian High Plateau, and on the other the
northern edge of the Calla Platau, marked by high peaks such as Abuya Meda, Wotye
Meghezez, Yerer, Zikwala, Gurage, Gugu, and others. From both plateaux, the lands
fall in series of steps, in many places high cliffs, on the lines of extensivo faults.
The basaltic rocks of the High Plateau have been deeply cut by numerous rivers,
forming canyons. Along the main faults, more recent volcanic activity has covered
waterborne deposits with new volcanic formations which, in turn, have again been
eroded to form extensive cones and fans of debris below the slopes and cliffs.
Numerous volcanic cones, distributed along the main faults, bear witness to this
activity. Extensive areas have been covered with lavas, pumices, and tuffs.

In the lo-,er parts of the Rift Valley, other recent volcanic activities have
resulted in a number of hills, more or less isolated, of which some are perfectly
shaped cones and others are heavily eroded. Their distribution,-associated with the
secondary faults, is generally westeast, i.e. more or less at right angles to the
main faults. The resulting bars of volcanic formations have been cut through by the
river, to form rapids, while in the hollows between them the river has deposited
sediments. Large aluvial plains in the Middle Valley probably originated in this
way. Further down, below Dabita Ale mountain, in another trough not yet completely
filled up, are the extensive sgamps of Gewani. Still further north the alluvial
valley becomes narrow, less than 4 km. wide, and continues.for about 100 km as a
narrow marsh covered with trees and vegetation.

Near Tendaho village, the river has cut a gorge through a volcanic range,
probably associated with a series of faults parallel with the main faults, i.e. north-
south. Beyond this gorge begin the Lower Plains, which in this part were probably
once covered by large lakes, which dried up after the river had cut for itself a
final outlet through another recent volcanic range in the region of Asayita, towards
its final outlet to lake Abe.

The most outstandingphysical features of the basin are steep cliffs and
slopes in a succession of steps from the heights of the plateaux tv the plains, and
the recent volcanic activities, still evidenced by a geyser and several mudvolcanoes
in the Lower P1ains. The alluvial soils likely to be suitable for irrigation are
confined to separated regions; in respect of soils, as well as climate and hydrology,
development can be considered in clearly defined units. The alluvial plains are
reasonably largo; in contrast to other Ethiopian rivers, they are not confined narrow
strips along the course of the river, but extend to considerable widths, up to 20 km.
or even more. Further, the trough of the river in general is only moderately deep,
so that irrigation of the plains involves only relatively low diversion dams and
feeder canals of moderate length to convey water to the irrigable areas. The Awash
basin appears to be one of the few in Ethiopia where conditions are favourable for
the development of irrigated agriculture at reasonable cost.
 28

4. Hydrology Factors

On the maps and sketches made by early explorers, the Awash, in the middle
and lower parts of its course, is described as an intermittent river. Carrying large
flows in the rainy season, it used to dry up in the low season; this was due not
only to the irregular incidence of rainfall, but also to the heavy losses caused by
spill and evaporation in flood plains, swamps and lakes, and by seepage in permeable
ground and, perhaps, faults.

Since the construction of the reservoir and hydroelectric station at Koka in

the Upper Basin, the flows at that point have been largely controlled. On the average,
the power plant can discharge about 40 m3/seo. As a result, further downstream the
areas flooded are reduced, and the losses by evaporation correspondingly diminished.
It is thought that the large swamps of Gewani and Buri in the Middle Valley are
steadily shrinking, or at least are flooded for shorter periods. It may also be,
though it aeems leas probable, that the extent of flooding in the Lower Plains and
particularly in the Delta is somewhat reduced. However this may be, it is olear
that the Koka reservoir has significantly modified the hydrological regime of the
river at that point. But this does not affect the flows of the tributaries which
join further downstream. These, particularly the torrential left bank tributaries
of the Middle Valley, are still liable to flood extensive areas, and refill likes
and swamps. The resulting losses are large, and call for special measures to reduce
the waste. The lowlying alluvial lands are still exposed to inundation; flooding
which occurred on the Lower Plains in August 1964 would have resulted in heavy
damages had these lands been then fully developed for irrigation.
Further, as already mentioned, flood flows in the Lower Plains cause
shifting of the course of the river; to prevent this, river training appears
necessary. This may be difficult to achieve successfully, unless the flood flows
from the tributaries are controlled by storage reservoirs, either on the tributaries
themselves, or on the main river below their confluence with it.
Another natural factor of importance is the heavy erosion which occurs on the
highlands in the upper reaches of the main river and the tributaries. According to
the nature of the ground, this may be either sheet erosion, or rill and gully erosion,
which latter may develop into its most spectacular form of deep ravines and canyons.
klmost all the main tributaries of the Awash, particularly those descending from the
eastern edge of the High Plateau, cross lands which are subject to severe erosion;
their total area is estimated at over 20% of the total catchment. As the inevitable
consequence of this erosion, the flood flows of the Awash carry heavy loads of
sediment, which of course are deposited wnerever the velocities of the flows are
checked, in artificial reservoirs no less than in swamps and lakes. The implications
of this factor are taken into account in the discussions of later chapters, particu-
larly Chapters VI to IX.

On the High PlateaU, ground water appears to be generally available, probably

due to the occurrence of basaltic traps, and the generally horizontal formations of
the geological beds. In the upper reaches of streams, there are many springs,
rivulets flow throughout the year, and many shallow wells are found. Deep tube wells
now being sunk on the gently sloping lands in the Upper Basin in most cases strike
underground aquifers providing supplies which, though not abundant, seem sufficient
for the domestic requirements of men and beasts.

5- Traditional Climatic Zones.

One of the major factors determining climatic conditions in the Awash Basin,
as elsewhere in Ethiopia, is altitude. Ethiopian tradition identifies four major
natural zones according to altitude, climate, and to some extent, natural vegetation.
 - 29 -

These are described below.

DEGA. This is the name given to tropical highlands above 2,500 m., with
a cool and wet climate. Extensively cultivated, this zone was heavily
deforested, and now carries very few trees, except a few remnants of
former forests, and planted eucalyptus. A variety of crops are grown,
including barley, wheat, flax, horsebeans and chickpeas, but the soils
show signs of deficiencies in calcium and nitrogen. V, of the Awash
catchment lies in this zone.

WOINA DEGA. This name is given to the tropical to sub-tropical plateaux

at altitudes from 2,500 m. down to 1,800 m. The natural conditions in
this zone are well suited to rain-grown agriculture. In the Awash Basin,
this zone is at present the richest agriculturally, growing a wide range
of crops, and producing surpluses for sale on local and export markets.
130 of the Awash catchment lies in this zone.

KOLLA. This covers the agric;ultural lands lying between 1,800 m. and
1,500 m. in altitude. There are significant differences in rainfalls
between the deep mountainous valleys which receive abundant rains, and
the more open lands on gentler slopes at similar altitudes. It is
therefore convenient to divide the KOLLA into humid and dry tracts. In
the humid valleys two crops each year can be raised on the very fertile
black soils. In the dry tracts the agricultural settlement is less dense,
and the rainfalls maffice for one crop only. Both food and cash crops
are grown. 22'A of the Awash basin lies in the KOLLA, of which 6 is
in the humid valleys.

BEREHA. This name is given to semi-arid and sub-desert lowland.s at

altitudes below 1,500 m. It includes extensivo grasslands and steppes,
large tracts of rocky and hilly lands, and also alluvial plains with
good deep soils, of which some are saline in varying degrees. Because
the rainfall is too scanty, agriculture is not possible without irrigation.
One of the particular objects of the Awash Basin survey was to assess the
possibilities of developing the low lands. 58"/"; of the Awash basin lies
in this zone.

6. Population

The ethnic divisions and densities of population in the various parts of the
Awash Basin are shown on Map No. 4. In general terms, the highlands are called
Christian lands by the Muslim peoples who live at lower altitudes. They are settled
by Amhara and Galla people who follow the Christian faith. The Upper Basin of the
Awash is theborderlandbetween these two most important ethnical groups. South-east
of Adis Abeba the rural populations seem to be mainly of Calla origin, while those
south-west of the city are from Guragi tribes. The Amhara people have settled
mostly in the cities and towns. The industrial development of the Adis Abeba region .

has attracted many immigrants from the regions of Jima and Arusi to the S.W., and
Tigre to the North. In the western highlands as far north as Debre Sine, Amhara
people form the largest element in the population. Further north, the highlands and
the mountainous valleys seem to be settled mostly by Galias, and in the region of Dese
by Wollo people. These descriptions can only be very approximate, since in fact
there is considerable mingling of people of different ethnic origins.
 DRAWING N24
TRIBES AND DENSITY OF POPULATION
SCALE
20 40 60 80 100 km

o \\LGAHARI
eA
DUST! ASAYI TA \\\\\
L.A.F44180

TEN DAHO

WELD TA(

DeS.1.
CH EFA

Azelo

SOURCES
DENSITY OF POPULATION-
ETHOPIAN GEOGRAPHICAL
JOURNAL ,VOL Tr/1 , 1964
DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES- L.H RrAL.

PROF. S.CHOJNACKI, CURATOR \\\O"\

co`a\\
AF OEM

OF THE HISTORICAL AND ELIGIE

DEBRE SINA
ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM
BOUNDARY OF \AERELAZO
. .
ADAL TRISES
..\\:\\\\\-miEsoe
DEBRE B1RHAN Asebol
DES EN E
BLUE NILE
CHACHA

BASIN
SH ENO
ç. Fen al
r*

pE OAF

AB LENCHIT

E8R NAZRET
ZEYT
101-150 People per sq. km

71-100

SI-70
31-50
6-30
O-5
 - 31 -

On the right bank in the southern part of the valley, Arusi people form a large
element among both cultivators and shepherds; on the highlands population densities
are fairly high, and some signs of overpopulation are evident. East of the Nazret
region, the sedentary Galla cultivators are replaced by Galla pastoralists of the
Kereyu tribes. These are the first of the nomads to be encountered in the lowlands
of the Awash; beyond them are the Danakil, and further east, the Isa tribes. The
Danakil, or Adal in the Amharic language, call themselves Afar; they occupy the
largest part of the potential areas of irrigation development, and therefore they
merit a short account of their way of life, the more so since they are still relatively
little known to the ethnologists.

These nomadic peoples, of Semitic origin, are amongst the less developed tribes
in Ethiopia. Their household utensils are primitive; pottery is almost unknown, and
wicker baskets lined with clay and soot are used for milking and storage. Goatskins
serve for churning butter and carrying water. Iron is used only for making spearheads
and swords; iron tools are unknown. Houses are dome-shaped huts made of matting
spread over bent sticks. Fires are little used, and most food is eaten uncooked. All
work at home and with the animals is done by women, while the men, formerly only
fighters, spend their time scouting for water and pastures. Their status as warriors
is enhanced by the possession of rifles, for which they will pay high prices.

The social pattern and customary law of the Danakil are not yet well known,
but in general the basic social unit appears to be a small group of kinsfolk living
together. In the Middle Valley no one indigenous authority is generally recognised,
except perhaps some kind of tribal leaders' council. In the Lower Plains, the
successor of the former Sultan of the Aussa is regarded as the spiritual leader. In
both areas, the authority of the central Government appears to be unchallenged.

Strong feelings often arise between tribal groups, usually over grazing and
water rights. Bloody battles between the Danakil and the Issa or the Kereyu are not
uncommon.

In contrast with these primitive peoples of the lowlands, the agriculturists

of Amhara or Galla origin, settled on the high plateau, are highly civilised people
with a social organisation fairly well developed round the parish church and the
local administration. Agricultural techniques are relatively advanced, in spite of
the use of somewhat primitive implements. The Ethiopian peasant is hard-working and
sturdy, and it is these people of the plateau, possibly from the over-populated areas
in Tigre province, who offer one of the main fields for recruitment of settlers for
the prospective areas of irrigation development. In contrast, the prospects of
recruitment from the lowland tribes would appear to be limited, at least in the near
futuro, particularly in view of the low densities of population and absence of land
hunger. However, the introduction and settlement in lowland regions of "stranger"
peoples of tribal origin and faith very different from the local nomads will raise
social and economic problems, which will not be easily solved without much careful
thinking in advance, and wise and patient administration.

The absolute and relative figures of population in the Uppér Valley are hardly
relevant to the present survey, since there is little scope there for further
development. Elsewhere in the Awash Basin, only approximate estimates of the nomadir;
populations are as yet possible. It is thought that they may total anytning from
50,000 to 100,000 people, which perhaps some 25,000 to 30,000 are in the Lower
Plains with Asayita delta as their centre, and the rest are in the Middle Valley.
7. Lines of communication
Principal lines of communication linking the capital to the sea ports run
across the Awash Basin (see Map No. 5). With the new highway to be constructed
shortly and Which will follow approximately the right bank of the river, the main
development areas will be provided with good communications both with Adis Abeba
and the Red Sea ports.
 DRAWING N2 5
COMMUNICATION LINES
AND SARDO
LOGISTICS LAYOUT
L. amorl
ASAYIT
DUBT I
(ILAfonlbo
LOG I YA
Delta
TENSAR 0/.8L. Bario

SCALE
20 40 60 BO 100 km
WE L DYA 1==1M111111111

CHEFA LIAT /:BUR I

001
RA ROBE
LGeIDoso
Moro Gala
SE klBATI
`"7( Moto Re

L Herlolo

DEBRE SI

DEBRE BIRHAN

CHACHA
I ko So di
4, h.
Aurora Ale! k
SHE NO
Alegez

SULULTA

LEGEND
All weather rood
Dry season road
Abo amu 1
Paths
roko entare
o
Field base
AGER
HI YWE T TULUBO Secondary field base
Shelter
Radio
'74 Airstrip
Airport or oirfield
Ferry-Boat
 - 33 -

CHAPTER IV - OUTLINES OF EXISTING LAND USE

Patterns of Vegetation

A general map of land use was prepared on the basis of aerial photographs
and then carefully checked during numerous field trips both by car and aircraft.
The classification of natural vegetation adopted for this map follows as closely as
possible that recommended by the Scientific Council for Africa South of the Sahara,
and proposed for Ethiopia by Huffnagel in his book "Agriculture of Ethiopia".
Table No. 1 shows the areas of the main types of land use in the Awash River Basin.

The large proportion of cropland, which may appear high when compared with
the figures usually given for the country as a whole, is due to the fact that lands
under long duration fallows, as well as actually cropped lands, are classified under
this heading.

The delineation between different types of vegetation is not easy on small

scale maps and its accuracy is necessarily approximate, particularly since the
various types are in some cases closely intermingled and it is not uncommon to find
a small patch of wooded savanna or open forest in the midst of a sub-desert steppe.
Also the distinction between "shrub savanna" and"tree and shrub steppe" is unclear
and is based mainly on the density of vegetation associated with the various types
of soils. The common feature of all the lands covered by the natural vegetation,
regardless of how thin and poor it might be, is that they are all used by the
nomads as grazing lands wherever watering points are available at a reasonable
distance one from another.

On the waste lands a very scanty vegetation may be just sufficient for
nomadic herds when crossing the desert on treks between better grazing lands. But
neither desert nor bad lands can peleuanently support even the most sparse settlement
and its beasts.

Agriculture - General

There are pronounced differences between agriculture on the flat or gently

rolling lands of the plateau, and that on the steep mountainous slopes. The former
does not require skill and labour-consuming efforts for terrace building, contour
bunding and other soil conservation measures: animal-drawn implements can easily
be used for ploughing and cultivation. Also the yields on the level or gently
rolling lands are believed to be appreciably higher than on sloping grounds, as the
soils there are generally deeper. But there is no marked difference in the types
of soils, and the cropping pattern depends more on the climatic conditions than on
the configuration of the ground and the quality of the soils.

Crops.

The chief agricultural crops in the Awash catchment area are food or
subsistence crops and very few industrial or cash crops are currently grown.

Cereals

Teff (Eragrostis Abyssinica) is one of the most important cereals grown

in the surveyed area. It provides a staple food and is economically attractive
because its price on the local markets is noticeably higher than that of other
cereals. This is why the Ethiopian peasant gives his teff special treatment, plants
it on his best land, carefully prepares the seed bed and weeds the crop. ,Yields
may be over 10 quintals per hectare, and on the black soils in the Borkena Valley
yields at over 20 odha have been recorded.
 - 34 -

TALLE 1 - LAND USE IN THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

AREA Percentage of
(km2) the total area

CROPLAND 18,850 26.9

Agricultural land on level or
slightly undulating ground 11,700 11,700 16.7 16.7
Agricultural land on sloping
ground 6,850 6,850 9.8 9.8
Irrigated agricultural land 300 300 0.4 0.4
LAND WITH NATURAL VEGETATION 43,250 61.8
Short grass savanna 3,900 3,900 5.6 5.6
Woodland and bush 18,700 26.7
: Dense forest (Mountain and riparia 1,000 1.4
: Woodland and savanna 8,300 11.9
: Open woodland and bush 4,750 6.8
: Shrub savanna 4,650 6.6
Tree and shrub steppe and
subdesert steppe 19,900 28.4
: Tree and shrub steppe 6,150 8.8
: Tree and shrub steppe with
occasional trees 1,650 2.3
: Subdesert steppe 2,100 17.3
Earshes 750 750 1.1 1.1
WASTE LAND 7,500 10.7
Desert 3,000 3,000 4.3 4.3
Sand dunes 100 100 0.1 0.1
Badlands 4,400 4,400 6.3 6.3
LAXES 400 400 400 0.6 0.6 0.6

70,000 km2 100%

 35

Barley comes next to Teff as the most important crop in the Awash River
Basin. It is sturdy enough to be planted at high
altitudes, up to 3000 m and more,
and although it is not exactly brewery barley, it serves nevertheleco to make a
local beer "Tala." The yields may be as high as 15 q/ha.

Wheat grows at altitudes intermediary between those of Te, L1 .141d Barley.

The district of Debre Zeyt, which has a suitable altitude and climate is a big
producer of Wheat, the yield ranging between 11 and 13 qlha. The majority of
industries which are engaged in the processing of wheat flour and its products are
located in this neighbourhood.

Maize is grown in the Awash basin both as a rainfed and as an irrigated crop
at lower altitudes, well below 2,100 metres. It is grown on a large scale in the
Nazret plain,the Borkena valley and Asayita delta, as well as on a smaller scale on
the rolling terrains of Bofa, Bati, Dese and the upper Mile. The yield ranges from
8-9 q/ha. Maize is used for making local beverage, and also eaten cooked or roasted.
Sorghum is grown very widely as a rainfed or irrigated crop throughout the
agricultural regions of the Woina Dega, Kolla and Berehal up to the altitudes of
2,500 metres. The best sorghum, however, is'grown on lands of altitude around
1,800 metres. The Robi Chefa Kembolcha area, the rolling lands of Bati, upper
Mile) Welenchiti, AsebotMieso, and the Asayita delta are well known for the pro-
duction of sorghum, the yield being usually between 8 & 10 q/ha.

Pulses are widelS1- grown in the surveyed areas, sometimes as catch crops.
Horsebeans and Guaya (vicia Sp) can withstand the highest altitudes; broad beans
and chickpeas are often consumed green as vegetables; reas and lentils are grown
on lower altitudes.

Oilseeds harvested in the Awash basin are often grown for food. Edible
oil is obtained from the following

Noog called Niger in India (Guixotia Abyssinica Can.) is the most important
oil crop, grown at altitudes between 1,800 and 2,500 metres, generally on poor wet
soils. The average yield is very low, ranging from 4 to 5 q/ha. It has an oil
content of more than 40% when properly pressed. Noog is grown in the Debre Zeyt,
Teji and Sire areas of the Awash basin.

Sesame is an oil crop which is grown on a small scale in the Awash basin
with irrigation, especially in the Bereha lowlands.

Linseed is grown at the higher altitudes of the Dega region as an oil crop,
but not as a fibre crop. Linseed is mostly used for therapeutical purposes, for
linseed oil meal or cake.

Only a few Industrial Crops may be grown at altitudes where rainfed

agriculture is still feasible. There are various spices currentl,y used as local
condiments, some of them being exportable, e.g. red pepper and onions. Fibre crops
are ensote (Ensete Eduli), and cotton grown as a perennial shrub, but as the latter
yields only 80-100 kg/ha of lint cotton, it is used mostly for home weaving. Under
irrigation numerous gardens produce vegetables, fruits and sugar cane for home
consumption, while marketable products come from large and medium scale irrigated
farms, located at the lower altitudes (e.g. Wenji, Metehara, AworaMelka, Dubti).
 - 36 -

Agriculture in the highlands

Tillage is usually done with the local plough drawn by two bullocks or with
the hoe by hand digging. Hand digging is practised where the land is too steep to
use animal drawn ploughs or where holdings are too small.

When a careful preparation of land is needed, deep ploughing is also done by

a hoe-like tool which has a handle with two points at the end, and a pair of conical-
shaped sleeves attached to the points. This is mostly used to break virgin soils
and is followed by ordinary ploughing, especially for ensete a d eucalyptus planting.

Weeding and hoeing are done by hand, harvesting by sickle, threshing either
by hand or by trampling with animals. Storage presentsdifficulties and losses from
rodents and insects are estimated at 2og. Mud plastered wicker work store bins
suspended off the ground, earthen jars or animal skins are mostly used to store
small grains.

Irrigation is a necessity below 1500 m , whereas in the highlands only fruits

and vegetables need artificial watering. In some rare cases, irrigation is practised
to raise two crops yearly.

Soil burning - "denshering" - is popular with the Dega farmers on the high
altitudes. Rotations adapted to the soil and climate conditions are generally
practised. The rotations provide for fallowing which may be of various durations.
Along with the short duration fallows of one or two years, the land may be left idle
and grazed only for many yeare until the soil is believed to be regenerated.

Terracing, contour bunding and general soil conservation practices are widely
developed only on the steep slopes, and in certain regions, e.g. in the northern
parts of the river basin, appear to be highly efficient. Construction and maintenance
work is carefully carried out, but the drainage facilities often appear insufficient.
The agriculturists till not only the artificially levelled land, but any flat or even
sloping plain land available, regardless of how inaccessible it may be. Thus, in
many cases a handful of farms or even completely isolated fields are cultivated on
table-shaped summits surrounded by ravines several hundred metres deep. Obviously"
such isolated farming is merely subsistence agriculture and it will always be back-
ward. It is extremely difficult, indeed, to modernize and improve farming practices
of the peasants living in such isolation. Even the administration of the country
is seriously hampered by lack of access roads.

Agriculture in the lowlands

Irrigated agriculture has been developed mostly at altitudes below about

1000 m Several modern irrigation schemes are operational in the lowlands. As
well as a very modern and thriving sugar cane plantation at Wenji (which is located
at more than 1500 m), the plantations at Metehara and Awora Melka bear witness to
the potentialities of the Middle Valley. Several new projects have recently been
started with good prospects that they will be developed in the near future. However,
this development, although encouraging in its spontaneity, is characterized by a
haphazard approach, and before it becomes too advanced, it is essential to plan for
the best overall use of land and limited water resources.

In the Lower Plains Dubti,Dit Bahri,and Barga are developing into big cotton
production centres. Besides the large scale concessionary plantation, there are
increasing numbers family-size agricultural undertakings in the delta area of
Asayita. Agriculture in this region is an old venture, probably several centuries
old, developed by the once autonomous sultanato. Although probably some 10 to 15,000
ha are cultivated in the Asayita region, the farming practices are fairly primitive
 - 37 -

and the irrigation methods consist only of natural flooding; when the floods recede,
the land is planted. In fact, water supply to the agriculturists in the delta area
depends only on the hazards of floods from several branches of the Awash river,
floods which are irregular and uncontrolled.

Land tenure and farming units

Figures collected from several sample surveys and from direct inquiries
suggest that from 50 to 707/0 of the agricultural lands are farmed by tenants, on
various forms of agreement with the landlords. Holdings are generally small on the
better lands located in the valleys and at lower altitudes, the average area being
between 0.8 and 2.0 ha. They are larger, up to 6-8 ha, at higher altitudes and on
poorer lands. Yields are generally low and well reflect the rather obsolete farming
methods. The value of agricultural implements used on the farms is estimated at
about 9 E$ per holding. Agricultural revenues are also low, ranging from 130 to
250 E$ per holding, which works out a per capita revenue of 35 to 60 E$, as against
an average Gross National Product at about 100 E$ (US$ 40).

Livestock population on the holdings is fairly important: Most peasants

keep about 6 head of cattle, and a few goats and sheep. The animals graze mostly
on the fallowing lands, but there is evidence of communal grazing lands in the
mountains. Near the escarpment, it is said, peasants may use some of the adjacent
slopes and ravines, where their livestock sometimes meet that of the nomadic
pastoralists.

Livestock breeding

Livestock breeding is the main occupation of the lowlanders, where the

climatic conditions, particularly the scarcity of rainfall, are too severe for
agriculture. On the gentle slopes of the southern portion of the river basin there
is no clear-cut boundary between the settler and the nomadic populations. Pasto-
ralists are found in the vicinity of Lake Gelilea and in the open woodlands in the
upper parts of the Great Rift Valley. But, rainfall being sufficient, and the
temperature at the altitudes between 1500 and 1000 m still relatively cool, farming
may also be found in that region. A noticeable extension of cultivated lands
towards the lowlands as far down as Metehara has been observed in recent years.
Glades are cleared in the open forest, woody savanna and the bush, and new farms
start on the land which till now was merely grazed by the nomadic herds. This recent
trend is probably related to the steady growth of settled population and may be
regarded as the first symptoms of demographic pressure in this part of the country.

In contrast, on the eastern escarpment of the central plateau, where the

slopes are very steep, agriculture stops abruptly at the limit of the
higher rainfalls, and the pastoralists may graze their herds at the foot of the
very hills on which the farmers are tilling their land.

Ranching methods

Livestock breeding on these more or less waterless lowlands is limited to

the tracts within 20 to 25 km from watering points. These are principally permanent
water courses, which are rather scarce, and several lakes apparently fed either by
hot springs or by underground infiltrations from the Awash river. There are very
few wells and water holes, but artificial podds which store rainwater for a couple
of weeks may be occasionally found where natural conditions are suitable.
 38

TABLE 2. GRAZING POSSIBILITIES OF THE GRASSLANDS

Grassland Grazing days %Daily intake of gre,Jn L;rastsi1

corresponding per ha per animal required to satisfy nutri-
to the sample in respect of tive needs of one animal
No. Energy Digestible
value protein -Ehergy Protin
U.F. (kg/day) (kg/day)

145 75 21.0 40.0

2 120 75 24.0 37.0

3 40 20 17.5 33.0

4 45 45 18.5 20.0

5 85 30 20.0 60.0

6 100 110 18.0 16.5

7 45 70 14.5 10.0

The grazing rules and the wandering routes of the nomads are not well known,
nevertheless it is believed that their treks may cover yearly as much as 200 km in
each direction. The migration routes on the higher altitudes and on the gentler
slopes of the southern valley are, however, shorter, and it would appear that in this
region the pastoralists and their animals move only within a radius of 60 km.

A special case seems to be that of the Madima, the partially settled tribe
living around the Asayita delta. There, it would appear, the herds are semi-
sedentary, linked with the agricultural nucleus of the delta. Nevertheless, during
exceptionally wet seasons, like that of 1964, the nomads wander far off to take
advantage of abundant grasses.

9. Value of grasslands

AA previously seen, more than 61% of the total river basin, i.e. about
43,000 km`, are covered with natural vegetation, the lower undergrowth of which may
provide pastures. But only 3,900 km2, located mainly in the Middle Valley, are
classified as fair to good grassland. Laboratory analysis proved that among these
grasslands there are some relatively rich pastures which may support a fairly dense
livestock population, e.g. one head of cattle per 4 hectares, and others much poorer
where no less than 9 hectares are required to feed one beast. (See Table 2). In
general, and this is a common feature with the natural pastures of Africa, the
availability of digestible proteins is the governing factor.

Grasses growing on the wide traots described under the heading of "wooded
savanna" seem to be of (similar) reasonable quality; those growing on the"shrub
savanna" and the steppes are less abundant and probably of lower nutritive value.
It is believed realistic to admit that, taking into consideration the scarcity of
watering facilities, the grazing lands in the Awash basin may support on the average
one head of cattle on 15 to 20 hectares. The higher of these figures would appear to
correspond to the present load on the pastures as, it is believed, the number of
 - 39 -

cattle grazing on in the Middle Valley and Lower Plains may be around 200,000
animals. It should be noted, that this number might probably be increased if more
evenly distributed watering facilities were available. Also the livestock population
may be substantially increased if along with improvement of drinking water supply,
supplementary fodder resources from irrigated pastures are made available.

Living standards of nomadic tribes

No systematic investigation was carried out to assess the revenue of the

pastoralists. In general it would appear that they are living outside the market
economy and that their living standards are rather low. Their monetary revenue
comes mainly from the selling of hides, and pays for purchases of clothing and a
few cereals. Animals are very seldom sold. Milk and milk products are consumed by
the shepherds and their families.

Production from the land

The foregoing brief discussion of problems related to land use and living
standards in the Awash river basin leads to the conclusion that revenues from the
land are low both in the high lands and the lowlands.

Extension of agricultural production is governed by the climatic conditions.

The variety of crops grown on the highlands is limited by the altitude and practi-
cally no exportable and only few cash crops may be grown on a large scale, unless
under irrigation and at lower altitudes. The contribution of livestock breeding in
the Awash Valley to the national economy is almost non existent at present. There-
fore, the development of agriculture and animal husbandry in the surveyed area
appears likely to be primarily dependent on the development of land and water in
the middle and lower reaches of the basin.
 40

CHAPTER V SOIL SURVEY AND LAND CLASSIFICATION

1, Soil Survey General

The soil survey was carried out to achieve an inventory of development

possibilities in the lowlands and, with relation to land use studies, to ascertain
the production potentialities in the highlands. Fig. 6 shows the areas surveyed.

It was carried out in three successive phases

General reconnaissance of the lands of the whole river basin.

The results of this were mapped on a general map to the scale
of 1:1,000,000 included in Vol. 2.

Reconnaissance soil survey of the lowlands to select potentiality

irrigable areas on maps to the scale of 1:250,000 included in Vol. 2.

Semidetailed soil survey within the limits of potentiality irrigable

areas to ascertain the irrigation suitability classification. The soil
and irrigation suitability classification was mapped on the scale of
1:100,000. See Maps Nos 7 and 8.

The comprehensive report on the soil survey and the attached relevant maps
are presented in Volume 2. Only a very brief summary is given below.

2. General Reconnaissance of Soils

In order to ascertain general information on the soils in the river basin,

a general reconnaissance of lands carried out covering the whole catchment area.
Table No. 3 gives the percentage results classified by soil groups.

It will be seen from the table that large tracts of the river basin are not
cultivable. In the highlands mostly Vertisols and relatively small areas of
Regosols are used for agriculture. There are no alluvial soils in the highlands,
and only limited areas of alluvial soils are cultivated under irrigation in the
Middle Valley and in the Delta area.
 GENERAL AP OF SOIL SURVEYS IN
THE AWASH BASIN (IMO!! L

mbc L

SCALE
20 40 60 80k

LEGEND

GENERAL SOIL SURVEY

6 eo k):4 e
(working 'cale I :1000 000) covering the
whole of the catchment oreo G:a.

RECONNAISSANCE SOIL SURVE Y

' (working scale II 250000)
l
SOIL SURVEY
DEÈRE ((
\
(wo king scale
SEMI-rDETAILED I : 100000) SiNAsr:z.e"
--Termeber pass); .1-,---\--, \,...
SE MI -DETAILED SOL SURVEY
I o
il:::.:.::gi
1worhing scale i : 50 00(1)
.,,,..,,,,Y
;
tf..... OULECH
-: L
miEso

\ . . 6'7'1 E R8ii'AE
/-,,,,,,_,.,,fi
I
\,
° A NNCEER
Aseibot
/
C) i anl:_\
(
CO
C HA CHA

\
\' \ Awora

0 _ \V
t;25czersk----A
LI
X' si-4Etra
j,,,
,..4
G.
1.
, 1

NIET A

%\7 , r '''' ' ,

I\ ', )
i\ ...., ...
\`... SENCÌA, A --, ---

N ZNET
 42

TABLE 3- GEYERAL SOIL RECONY.AISSANCE

Soil group /c of area

Alluvial soils (young soils on alluvial deposits) 2.4

Vertisols (black or brown soils containing swelling clay) 15.2

Vertisols associated with Lithosols 19.1

Semi arid brown soils 12.6

Saline and salinealkali soils including Regosols 6.4

Rydromorphic soils (developed under water) 3.0

Regosols (eroded soils in arid regions) 15.9

Lithosols (with stony and rocky surface) 25.4

Perusal of the general reconnaissance soil survey map shows that there are
three main areas where irrisbla soils may be identified:two of them are located
in the Middle Valley and consist of a succession of plains stretching from Metehara
to Angelele and of isolated plains in the vicinity of the central Gewani swamps.
The third lies in the Lower Plains stretching downstream from Tendaho. Reconnais-
sance in these areas was carried out during the second phase of soil survey.
(See map 6).

3. Reconnaissance Soil Survey in the Potential Development areas in the

Lowlands.

This was done to select potentially irrigable areas for more detailed
surveying. It included the examination of soil formation conditions, classification
by the various soil groups and subgroups, and topographical aspects. The reconais-
sance soil survey covered about 2,000,000 hectares both in the Middle Valley and in
the Lower Plains and it showed that

Skeletal soils take up about half of the surveyed area.

Old alluvial and colluvial areas are comparatively extensive in both

regions. They cover an area twice the size of the recent alluvial area.

Alluvial soils cover a bigger area in the Middle valley than in the
Lower Plains.

Vertisols come next, again covering a bigger area in the Middle valley
than in the Lower Plains.
 - 43 -

Appreciable quantities of hydromorphic soils are observed along the

Awash in the Middle Valley.

A comparatively large area is taken up by marshlands in the

Lower Plains.

Predominant among soils on old alluvia and colluvia are semi-arid

brown soils, vertisols and regosols in the Middle Valley and mainly
saline and semi-arid brown soils in the Lower Plains.

Recent alluvial land most suitable for irrigation is thus limited in extent
compared to with that of the old alluvial areas.

The reconnaissance soil survey was followed by an initial classification

in respect to irrigation suitability. These land classes are in terms of present
suitability for development under irrigation/ as follows

Class A : land suitable for development under irrigation.

Class B : arable land non-irrigable in its present state except under

certain special conditions.

Class C : non-arable, non-irrigable land, i.e., rock, very stony ground,

dunes, swamps, very saline land and "badlands".

Table No. 4 gives the summary on land suitability for irrigation.

Table RECO1AIS3CE SOIL SURT,I, SUIT.BILITY FOR IRRIGATIO"

1iddle Valley Lower Plains Total area

(re
ha ha

Class A 125,000 10.9 75,000 6.6 200,000 17.5

Class B 601,000 52.7 125,000 10.9 726,000 63.6
Class C 20,000 1.8 195,000 17.1 215,000 18.9

Total alluvial and

colluvial area 746,000 65.4 395,000 34.6 1,141,000 100.0

Lithosols 375,000 46.0 441,000 54.0 616,000 100.0

Total mapped area 1, 121,000 836,000 1,957,000

4. Semi-Detailed Soil lúrvey - Selection.

On the basis of the reconnaissance soil survey and of the preliminary land
classification, it was found that the Middle Valley and Lower Plains of the Awash
basin contain fairly large areas of recent alluvium which could be irrigated under
gravity. Irrigation could also be extended to some of the older alluvia and
colluvia not so saline as to require excessive leaching water applications. The
following areas were selected for subsequent semi-detailed soil survey :
 - 44 -

In tha Middle Valley

The Metehara, Melka Sedi, Amibara, Kesem-Kebena and Bolhamo irrigation

area, cover an overall grosa area of about 100,000 hectares. These are
mainly Class A land.

Decisive elements considered in making this choice were land quality,

irrigability under gravity, and access into and from the area concerned.
Thus, for instance, the large Aleydegi plain, where soils on old alluvia
and colluvia may be considered partly as suitable for irrigation, was
excluded from further investigations, because it lies about 70 m higher than
the river and would require uneconomic pumping.

In the Lower Plains

The choice was more difficult for this region because of its poor
accessibility and vulnerability to flooding by the Awash at high water.
Furthermore, an appreciable amount of this land is so saline as to require
the application of above-average quantities of water for its development.
Alkalinity in the low-lying parts of the area ("bottom-lands") is also
rather a problem. Seome of these various adverse features affect each of the
areas selected.

The Dubti area was selected among others because of its recently
introduced cotton growing activities.

The Dit Bahri area offers a larger expanse of level land which would
appear to lend itself well to irrigation under gravity.

Finally, crops are already being raised in the Asayita delta as the
floods recede and the presence of farmers there and the possibility of
extending irrigation to the north of this area were considered to warrant
its selection for a semi-detailed soil survey.

5. Semi-Detailed Soil Survey -

i) Soil Classification within Class A Land - Soil ypes and Areas

This was carried out on sketch maps drawn from 1:40,000 aerial photographs,
eventually reduced to the scale of 1:50,000. The final mapping was done to
a scale of 1:100,000.

The purpose of the survey was to enable soil series and phases (where
applicable) to be defined and the corresponding units to be mapped with the
accuracy required to give at least a clear definition of patches of land of
25-30 hectares. About one profile for every 200 or 300 hectares of land was
analysed in the Middle Valley, and one for every 300 hectares in the Lower
Plains, except in the Dubti area where one profile was analysed for every
150 hectares, because of the occurrence of closely intermingled saline soils.

Besides the analysis, soil samples were tested in respect of salinity

hazards for base exchange capacity, available moisture, infiltration rates
and structural stability. Several samples were subject to X-ray examination
in order to determine the nature of clay components in the soils.

Table No. 5 gives a summary of the distribution of soils as identified

by the semi-detailed survey. (See page 41).
 TABLE 5 - sunaRY DISTRIBUMON OF SOILS ON THE SEMI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEY

Soil Groups Middle Valley (Total), Lower Plains Total

Area (ha) % Area (ha) (ha)

i. Soils on recent alluvia 86 4 0 33.0 00 3*. 182,140 36.4

Alluv al soils 43,530 16.6 52,000 21.7 95,530 19.1
Vertisols 37,810 14.4 16,000 6.7 53,810 10.8
Hydromorphic soils 2,250 0.9 6,&_0 2,5 8,250 1.7
Rydromorphic soils on
alkaline materials 2,850 1.1 900 0.3 3,750 0.7
Organic soils 20,800 8.7 20,800 4.1
ii. Soils on old alluvia and
colluvia 98,890 38.0 76,000 31.7 174,890 34.8
Vertisols 25,800 9.9 - - 25,800 5.1
Semi-arid brown soils 40,570 15.5 _ _ 40,570 8.1
Regosols 24,420 9.3 24,420 4.9
Sandy regosols on dunes - 7/300 3.0 7,300 1.4
Regosols and salino soils 1,300 0.5 - 1,300 0.2
Saline soils 4,550 1.9 34,000 14.2 38,550 7.7
Salino alkali soils 2,250 0.9 34,700 14.5 36,950 7.4
Lithosols and skeletal
soils 76,670 29.0 68,300 28.4 144,970 28.8
TOTAL 262,000 100.0 240,000 100.0 502,000 100.0

- 45 -
 -46-

The soils on recent alluvia are deep to very deep, those overlying the
old alluvia and colluvia reasonably deep, but sometimes their depth is
limited by gravel beds and calcareous crusts in the Middle Valley, or by
saline marls and old stony alluvium in the Lower Plains.

There is no apparent difference in the soil texture between the two

considered regions Middle Valley and Lower Plains :the clay content is
medium to moderately high. Fine textures are found mainly in the depressions.
The lime content of the Middle Valley soils is low, particularly in the
alluvial soils, whereas in the Lower Plains soils are more calcareous.

The organic matter content varies considerably in the two surveyed regions.
Almost 60% of samples tested show organic matter content less than 1% for the
Lower Plains, against Tg, only of samples from the Middle Valley. However,
the Middle Valley soils are not particularly rich in organic matter; about
65% of samples tested show its content ranging from 1 to 2%.

Infiltration rates vary between 1 and 2 cm/h in the alluvial soils, and
are less than 1 cm/h in Vertisols. Natural drainage conditions are in
general better in the Middle Valley than in the Lower Plains. A common
feature of most of the surveyed soils is a rather low rate of available
moisture. In 85% of samples tested, the available moisture rates ranged
from 6 to 13% which is fairly low.

Saline and salinealkali soils are found mostly in the Lower Plains,
where they amount to more than 280 of the surveyed areas and are
located mainly on the old alluvia and colluvia. In the Middle Valley
saline soils .occur in patches mostly in relation to hot and saline
springs. The results of the leaching tests carried out on certain
medium saline soils in the Lower Plains appear to suggest that a
modest proportion could be improved by leaching.

The fertility of the soils belonging to the groups listed as recent

alluvial and Vertisols is satisfactory, although phosphorus content is not
very high. Nitrogen rates are adequate, except in the alluvial soils at
Dubti and Dit Bahri and in the Vertisols on the left bank in the Lower Plains.

ii) Land Classification for Irrigation

On the basis of the semidetailed soil maps the classification of land

according to its suitability for irrigation was carried out. Some of the
principal soil characteristics defining the land suitability for irrigation
have already been reviewed in the foregoing discussion. Other features had
also to be taken into consideration.

Certain areas in the irrigable plains are subject to prolonged flooding,

e.g. substantial portions of the alluvial soils in the Lower Plains. In the
Middle Valley, the extent of temporary flooding has recently been limited
by the control exercised by the Koka Dam; it thus now offers a relatively
minor problem. But runoffs from surrounding rocky hills cause, temporary
floodings of the Vertisols in the valley bottoms, and on the colluvial and
alluvial soils at the foot of these hills. This is the case in the Metehara
area and in a portion of Melka Sedi.

In connection with flooding and runoff, local erosion is often observed

in the Middle Valley, mainly on the hillsides. Generally there are no
definable slopes but soils over the old deposits, shaped in cones of
alluvia and colluvia from the torrential tributaries may have a slope of up
to 2 or 3%.
 - 47 -

Vertisols and hydromorphic soils affected by temporary flooding develop

a
network of deep channels and surface holes due to the excessive desiccation
of swelling clay. ("gilgai" effect).

These features have been additionally taken into consideration when

processinE land classifications. The criteria used correspond to the
international standards as proposed in the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
ljanual. Soil classes are defined as follows

Class I - Good irrigable land

Class II - Moderately good irrigable land

Class III- Marginal irrigable land

Class IV - Not irrigable, except under special conditions.

Class V - Undetermined suitability for irrigation

Class VI - Permanently non-irrigable land

Table No. 6 gives the summary on land classification for irrigation purposes;
and appended 1:100,000 scale maps No. 7 and 8 show the distribution and location of
land classes.

TABLE 6 - SEEI-DETAILED SOIL SURVEY - LAND OLAS3IFICATIOU FOR IRRIGATION

Rest of
Metehara Middle Valley Lower P ains Total area
ha ha ha "'go
ha

Class II am
1/ - - 24,700 7.0 - - 24,700 7.-
Class II 4,200 1.2 27,700 7.7 30,000 8.4 61,900 17.3
Class III 7,300 2.0 50,700 14.2 39,000 10.9 97,000 27.1
Class IV 11/100 3.1 29,000 8.1 33,000 9.3 73,100 20.5
Class V 5,600 1.6 4.300 1.2 15,000 4.2 24,900 7.0
Class VI without
lithosols and 2,500 0.7 18,300 5.1 54,700 15.3 75,500 21.1
skeletal soils
TOTAL ALLUVIAL
AND COLLUVIAL 30,700 8.6 154,700 43.3 171,700 48.1 357,100 100.0
Lithosols and
skeletal soils 7,300 69,300 68,300 144,900
TOTAL MAPPED
AREA 38,000 224,000 240,000 502,000

1/ Good irrigable land which cannot be classified as Class I only because of low
moisture availability.
 -45-

None of the land in the areas considered is found to be up to the standards

of Class I. Soils along the right bank of the Awash in the Middle Valley might have
been included in this class, but their water-holding capacity is so low that they
would require frequent applications of small quantities of water. Although they
cannot be included in Class I, they nevertheless still represent the best soils in
Class II, and have been given the map reference II am. They appear to be potentially
the most proddctive in the entire valley, with reasonably low farming costs. With
irrigation methods adapted to the low available water in the soil and suitable crops
for the local climate, they should be able to produce high yields.

In the Class II range, about 17.3% of alluvial and colluvial lands were
surveyed in the Awash river lowlands. The factors limiting the development of this
land may be in the Middle Valley s

i) On the left bank

Mainly slight salinity and microrelief problems, or temporary flooding.

On the right bank

Drainage problems due to the presence of fine-textured soils or vertisols,

temporary flooding, microrelief, and possibly also salinity (near Debu).

Drainage is also the limiting factor in the fine-textured vertisols of

Metehara area.

Short duration flooding, moderate drainage, high Na/T ratio, high value of pH
and low organic matter content are to be reckoned with in the Class II alluvial areas
located in the Lower Plains.

Class II land in the Middle Valley is potentially more productive than in

the Lower Plains, because it is less alkaline, contains more organic matter, and is
affected by few or no salinity problems.

In the Class III lands Were included the deep Vertisols and hydromorphic
soils at the Kesem-Awash confluence and in the Angelele area as well as medium
salinity soils occurring in patches in Kesem-Ktbena plain, because of certain
drainage problems, microrelief and of need for a stricter salinity control.

The risk of flooding and the existence of basalt gravel beds in the soils
are the limiting factors in the Class III lands in the alluvial and colluvial areas
of Metehara.

In the Lower Plains Class III land occupies the low-lying areas most often
affected by flooding, which contain slightly saline, fine to moderately fine-
textured soils in the deeper horizon. In Asayita and Dit Bahri the water table may
rise fairly rapidly and increase the salinity of the soil.

Class IV land is more difficult to develop under irrigation and it will

require special treatment. Thus, in the Middle Valley it occurs at higher elevations,
not readily commanded from the river, or when located in the alluvial areas, lacks
adequate drainage and is subject to severe flooding. Where land is too saline or too
alkaline to be economically leached, or too shallow, like in Metehara region, it is
included in Class IV.
 - 49 -

Most of the Class IV land in the Lower Plain is flooded whenever the Awash
is in spate and features numerous channels and depressions. Some of this land may
be reclaimed if efficient flood control is achieved, but its development will call for
considerable levelling and establishment of a fairly close drainage system. Certain
areas of Class IV in the Lower Plains will be more difficult to reclaim because of
their salinity and alkalinity, e.g. bottom lands in the Dit Bahri area.

Lands affected with excessive salinity and/or alkalinity, too shallow, or

with a serious levelling problem were included in Class V.

Class VI lands are considered as permanently unfit for irrigation, and they
account for 21.1% of the surveyed alluvial and colluvial area.

6. Conclusions

By way of conclusion it may be pointed out that the soil survey operations
revealed a considerable scope for the development of irrigated agriculture: more
than 180,000 ha of suitable lands are ideatified as Class.II and III. Moreover some
portions of floodible Class IV land in the Lower Plains may also be developed provided
that efficient flood control is achieved by adequate damming. Storage reservoirs
will be also essential to increase the water resources, as those currently available
are insufficient for the development of all irrigable lands. The estimates of water
resources indispensable for this purpose will have to be made in relation to the
potential crop pattern which can be reasonably suggested for the development areas
on lands identified as in Class IIam, II, III and to some extent in Class IV.
 50

CHAPTER VI - PROSPECTIVE LAND USE UNDER DEVELOPMENT

General considerations

Scrutiny of the soil maps, as well as those of irrigation suitability, will

indicate that large tracts of good soils are located in the Middle Awash Valley.
Moreover, certain lands located on both river banks upstream of Metehara may also
prove to be of similar good quality. These were not selected for the semi-detailed
soil survey, because in the early stages of the Project operations it was already
realized that the currently available water supply in the upper reaches of the
.Middle Valley would certainly not be sufficient for all the irrigable lands available
in this region.

In the Lower Plains the situation is different, as here, in order to use the
water contributed by the large tributaries draining the lower part of the catchment
area, notably the Borkena and Mile rivers, relatively poorer soils had to be selected.
The fact that commercial development in the region had already started, along with
the existence of indigenous agriculture in the Asayita delta, had also to be taken
into consideration.

Thus, the agricultural value of the two development regions would appear
to be unequal and therefore the prospective patterns of land utilization will be
different for the Middle Valley and the Lower Plains. The range of the crops which
can be grown in both regions being probably similar the main problem is to select
an adequate intensity of cropping pattern for the respective regions.

Management

If high expenditure is called for the development of irrigated agriculture,

it should bring high returns. This demands a cropping pattern as intensive as is
compatible with the natural conditions; whenever possible, double cropping. Normally
natural climatic conditions are no impediment for the development of double cropping;
serious difficulties may however arise from the management point of view.

In the first place there is a need for assessment of agronomical implications,

such as selection of most suitable growing period, the necessity for maintenance
and/or improvement of soil fertility, and the development of appropriate irrigation
practices. Assessment of these, as well as selection of types and rates of appli-
cation of most suitable fertilizers, is related to extensive experimental and applied
research work which will have to be carried out in the development areas. However,
experimentation being a long and difficult process, it will be impracticable to
postpone the actual development until such time as all the results of experimentation
are known.

It is essential, too, that the knowledge acquired from experimental work be

applied on the farms without delay. Efficient extension services will be indis-
pensable to guide and help the farmers in their task of developing intensive irrigated
agriculture. The difficulties inherent in the operation and management of irrigated
settlement schemes, in spite of an effective and highly organized extension service,
are well known and should not be underestimated. On the other hand, it is the
general experience that capital-intensive commercial farms, usually staffed by well
qualified technicians, are better adapted to deal with delicate development problems
in the areas as yet uncultivated.
 - 51 -

In fact) it would appear that less risk is involved in starting double

cropping, highly intensive irrigation projectson commercial type farms. Natural
conditions for the development of intensive irrigation farming would appear more
favourable in the Middle Valley rather than in the Lower Plains. The operational
difficulties of an intensive irrigation project may be more easily overcome on the
commercial than on the family farms. Inasmuch as high productivity on agricultural
investment is regarded as the development target, it would appear that commercial
farms will have to be given prioritylat least provisionally, in the Middle Valley.
Since less extensive irrigation seems more suitable for the settlement schemes, the
promotion of family sise farming would appear advisable in the Lower Plains.

3. Crops

Most types of crops grown under irrigation would seem suitable for the
Awash valley. Generally speaking, the selection of crops and rotations will be
subject to economic rather than agronomic conditions.

Fibre crops will probably be given preference in view of the shortage of

supply and the steadi1y growing market for home fibres. Cotton is already
successfully grown in the area, but careful experimentation is needed in
order to select most suitable varieties and the appropriate growing season.
In fact, varieties currently planted have a relatively long vegetation cycle
and the interval between the picking and planting time for a second crop in
the same year is rather short.
Kenaf (Hibiscus Canabinus) is also a fibre crop which finds a ready
market and may probably be grown with success.
In view of great demand for coarse fibre needed in the bag manufacturing
industry, sisal may be introduced in the irrigation cropping pattern. This
plant, however, being successfully grown without irrigation, irrigated sisal
plantation should be allowed only where it will not impede the development
of more economic crops.
Oil seeds for industrial processing will probably have a large share in
the crop plans of irrigated farms, as vegetable fats are in high demand on
world markets. Ground nuts would appear of special interest provided that
the most suitable varieties are determined and developed. Soya beans, sun-
flower, safflower and small grain oilseeds will have to be tested, but
prospects for their imalusion in the crop plans appear reasonable. Sesame
and castor beans are grown on a small scale and with low yields; again
research into suitable varieties is essential.
Pulses are an important export product of Ethiopia and further development
of the market seems possible. Therefore lentils, peas and particularly
haricot beans, which have a short vegetation period, may be successfully
involved in the rotation as catch crops.
Cereals will probably be of little interest to the large scale irrigated
farms, as food is in ample supply in Ethiopia and export possibilities -
for the time being - are rather slim.
the
Maize and sorghum however will certainly be grown by the settler on
planted with these cereals in the Asayita
delta and already sizeable areas are
delta. There will be need of experimental work in order to introduce short
vegetation period and more productive, perhaps hybrid, varieties.
Development of vegetables, fruit and sugar cane production is related to
the establishment of plants and to the home and foreign market situation.
The areas under these crops while initially limited, have reasonable prospects
of subsequently increasing.
 52

4. Other Factors

Regulation of High Value Crops

As the above are high value crops and their inclusion in the crop
pattern weighs considerably in maximisation of benefits it may appear
advisable that regulations covering the growing of such type of crops be
enacted. While a'good development policy may consist in giving all the
investors the opportunity to have a fair share in the benefits of high value
crops, inclusion of high value crops may provide encouragement and justi-
fication for development in the areaswhere more investment will be needed.

Animal Husbandry and Forage Crops

Integration of animal husbandry in the irrigated farming pattern should
be given particular attention. This may provide a helpful means to the
promotion of living standards of the pastoralists and prove to be a realistic
and efficient approach to the settlement policy with respect to the nomadic
populations.

Implementation of rational forage crops is essential for agronomical

reasons in order to maintain the fertility status of the soils and build up
their organic matter content, which anyhow is only moderate in the irrigable
plains. It will not be easy to achieve unless forage is consumed on the
farms, the pastoralists being usually reluctant to purchase fodder for their
livestock. In fact there is little chance that the nomads will be willing
to purchase hay or silage produced on the irrigable farms. It would appear
more realistic, therefore, that the farmers endeavour to start buying cattle
when the dry season is advanced, and nomadic stock has to be kept close to
the watering points in the river or in the canals. The purchased cattle may
then be intensively fed on the irrigated pastures with the help of harvested
fodder. Not only irrigated forage crops, but also other sources of animal
food will be available in the irrigated farms, such as byproducts of
processing plants. Thus all stages of the fattening business may be carried
on in the irrigated areas. Market for meat cattle may be easily found as
Ethiopia is at present striving to export its meat and several related
projects are already operational (e.g. the Shashemene abattoirs).

Dairying
Progressive development of dairying may also be contemplated since many
dairy products are currently imported to Ethiopia, and their consumption is
bound to increase with the growing living standards.

Green Manuring
Until the proportion of animal husbandry in the irrigated agriculture
business is large enough to allow irrigated forage crops to be sufficiently
extended to take caro of the maintenance of fertility status and organic
matter rates, green manuring should be strongly recommended. Species like
sweet clo,ver (Melilotus sp.) or Sesbania which are excellent green manures
and, at the same time, provide reasonably good grazing lands may be considered
as double purpose (green manure and fodder) crops and their introduction
appears advisable. At any rate inclusion of soil improving crops in the
rotational system should be vigorously promoted, and fallowing practices
strongly discouraged. An appropriate water rates policy may prove very
usefUl in this respect.
 -53 -

5. Rotations

Selection of the rotational pattern and respective proportions of different

crops cannot be suggested without extensive and systematic experimentation. Nor can
the starting date of the agricultural cycle yet be determined because of the lack of
adequate agronomical information. The examples of rather intensive rotations given
on Charts Nos. 9 and 10 herewith should be regarded merely as suggestions for experi-
mental work.

They include a cash crop, fibre crops or oilseeds, every year and pulses
and/or cereals as alternative catch crops; legumes, like pulses or ground nuts
occur often, and forage crops or irrigated pastures are introduced in the rotation
in order to maintain soil fertility. It is emphasized however that suggested types
of rotations cannot be implemented without an extensive and eystematic use of ferti-
lizers. The selection of types of fertilizers, methods and rates of application,
etc, will depend on the result of field trials.

The rotational pattern for the Middle Valley differs from that suggested
for the Lower Plains mainly in the cropping intensity. The former ranges from a
cropping intensity of 1.75:1 to 2:1. The latter, because of the less favourable
natural conditions and of larger proportion of less mechanized family size farms,
provide for 1 to 1.5crops yearly. The proportion of cotton in the rotations is
high, generally about 4070 of the land would be earmarked for this crop.

Perennial crops, like orchards, citrus and banana plantation, sugar canes
sisal, etc. are not shown on the rotation charts included. Usually they stay in
the field for more than four years, which is the period of the longest Guggested
rotations. Obviously, care must be given to maintain a high fertility status of
the soils either by periodic green manuring or by interrow cultivation of legumes.

6, Arboriculture

Several hot springs of appreciable discharge are located in the Middle Valley
and some of them result in marshy areas with a brackish or slightly saline water
table. A thick.growth of gild palms may be observed on the outskirts of such
marshes. It is very probable that highly productive date palm trees (Phoenix
dactylifera), which are known for their tolerance to saline water, may replace the
unproductive ones. The same experiment should be made on the Lower,Plains, where
date palm trees of a poor variety are grown on the spoil heaps along the channel
banks in the Asayita delta area. Only relatively small expenditure and a simple
layout will be required to start the planting of date palm trees which may contribute
considerably to the welfare of the local people.

A riparian forest grows on marshy areas on both banks of the Awash river,
which will be difficult to reclaim for irrigation purposes. The largest such
riparian forest is located in a long narrow strip downstream of the Gewani swamps.
The existing vegetation consists of valueless trees and shrubs which may be advan-
tageously replaced by productive varieties. Eucalyptus and poplars are reputed
quick growing and useful species for the production of paper pulp and for the packing
industry respectively, and both grow well with a high groundwater level.

Other species may be selected and suggested by the forestry specialists.

In any case experiments in introducing productive trees in the marshy areas which
will not be put under irrigation appear to be highly advisable at an early date.
 SUGGESTED CROP ROTATION SCHEMES
MIDDLE VALLEY
1st agricultural year 2nd agricultural year 3rd agricultural year 4th agricultural year

EREA_S
CCTTeN oR PU SES CLOT OJ EELS
I

GR E
G-0 ND CA TOR B A S MANU E
coîîor U S OR RED P PFER CR FODiER COTTON PULSES

G,REEN NA UFE
P LS S P PPER CRAS
qcyr Or RED
1 1------
9R PASTUR S
_

G OLND LsEEDS
L. C REA S P LES C T ON 01 SEEDS PA T RES

I
COTTON NUTS
L ammmummom
<<
00r
f=11-1

1>
AMJ J ASONDJF MA M JJASONDJF M A M J J ASONDJF MA M JJASONDF 'co*
-2
For the water requirement computations, the agricultural year has been positioned as shown on the above calendar
Normal irrigation Slight irrigation Io
I Land occupation (c)
 SUG G ESTE D CROP ROTATION SCHEMES
LOWER PLA I NS

st agricultural year 2nd agricultural year 3rd agricultural year 4th agricultural year 5th agricuttural year

MAIZE
TON OR PULSES PASTU
E

G RO Uk1D NUTS CO TDN

qo TON C ER OR PU'LS ED PEPPER PAS U ES

MA ZE
CO TON OF U_S=S ROUND NLTS

MiCUND NIUTS C TTO NO

CiDT TON COT TCN 0 LSE E D OR PULSEE CAST R 6E4 NE E MAN RE
_

A oN A J JA SO N J FM A MJJ A O N DJ A A 0N AM AS 0 N D A

For the water requirement computations , the agricultural year has been positioned as shown on the above calendar
Normal irrigation Slight irrigation
Land occupation r
 56 -

Improvement of grazing lands

Simultaneously with the development of irrigated agriculture, action should

be initiated for the improvement of grazing lands. Before a long range programme of
basic improvement of the pastures is devised, through introduction of new species
and regeneration of existing productive grasses, it will be necessary to prevent
local overgrazing and establish new watering points. A programme of sinking shallow
wells in the beds of intermittent water courses is suggested in an Appendix to
Volume II. The building of reservoirs and ponds to collect runoff during the rainy
season, and of small dams on seasonal watercourses, may considerably improve the
productiveness of the pastures. Farmers and irrigation authorities may perhaps
help the nomads to initiate the establishment of new watering points, and occasion-
ally use their heavy equipment for construction of the reservoirs.

Spreading flood waters from intermittent streams over range pastures

topographically best suited to flooding is another way of increasing the productive-
ness of some grasslands. Very simple structures consisting of small barrages across
intermittent streams and a network of drainage ditches will help to spread flood
waters at little cost. Again, the heavy equipment from irrigated farms may be advan-
tageously used for such works.

The establishment of irrigation systems in the Middle Valley and the Lower
Plains of the Awash basin will, by consuming the water at present draining into them,
contribute substantially to a partial reclamation of the marshlands such as those
at Gewani, Boyale, Dit Bahri, and in the Asayita Delta.

The pastures on the reclaimed marshes may be fairly productive as the full
scale control of flows makes it possible to regulate the amount of water entering
the marshlands. Thus, water levels can be regulated and desirable rates of moisture
maintained in the soils all through the year.

Irrigation Water Requ rements and Water quality

As usual in preliminary surveys, no adequate data on the consumptive use

of irrigation water in the main development area were available. The estimates of
water requirements had therefore to be made on the basis of formulae abstracted
from climatological data : Turc's formula was given preference. Evapotranspiration
data obtained were subsequently applied to the suggested crop pattern and the final
figures of water requirement.s were computed in relation to the potentially commanded
area. Allowance was made for an irrigation efficiency coefficient of 70f, in the
Middle Valley areas and of 60c/40 for the areas located in the Lower Plains.

For purpose of estimation, it has been assumed that the suggested crop
patterns will comprise the rotation discussed in the section of this chapter in
equal proportions, so that the final water requirements for the crop pattern may be
considered as an arithmetic mean of the specific water requirements for each
suggested rotation.

The following table No. 7 shows the average monthly and yearly figures
of computed water quantities needed in the development areas of the Awash Valley.
 - 57 -

TABLv, 7 - IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENTS

Cubic meters per hectare of cOmmanded area

Months A M J J A S 0 N D Year

Middle Valley 1645 1585 1195 1220 1940 2135 1140 770 1365 1020 955 1770 16,740
Lower Plains 845 875 880 705 285 1075 1935 1615 2075 2010 1590 1455 15,345

It will be noted that, in spite of significantly higher potential

evapotranspiration rate in the Lower Plains than in thé Middle Valley, water
requirements computed for the latter are greater. This is due to the much more
intensive cropping patterr applicable to the Middle Valley, 1.75 to 2 crops a, year,
as against the less intensive cropping pattern of 1 to 1.5 crops yearly suggested
for the Lower Plains.

Also the nominal specific rate of flow was computed for the peak monthly
water requirements for the considered cropping pattern, on the assumption that the
effective time of water application during the peak month will be 18 hours a day.
It was found to be very similar in both development areas, and for all practical
purposes a figure of 1.1 litre per second per hectare of commanded area was accepted.

The water quality of the Awash River and its tributaries, springs and lakes
has been checked for salinity and sodium content. It has been found that, in
general, river water is suitable for unrestricted use on all soils, unless of very
low permeability. Surface water in the lakes fed by the rivers in the Middle Valley
and Lower Plains is only slightly sodic and, with moderate leaching of the cropped
lands may be used for irrigation purposes. Reservoir stored water in these areas
will probably be of similar quality. The use of spring and underground water, as
well as that from the lakes fed by the saline springs cannot be recommended for
irrigation.

9- Fertilizers

The Project as scheduled in the Plan of Operation did not include specifical-
ly trials of the effects of fertilizers. It is clearly necessary however, that
these should be fully taken into account in planning future agricultural research,
and in assessing the yields and revenues to be expected, on which economic benefits
will depend, and economic appraisals will be made.
 ._ 58-

CHAPTER VII - CLIMATOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

Arrangements

With the purpose of correlating actually measured flows at a number of

points on the main river and its tributaries, with the rainfalls observed on the
respective catchment areas, a network of rainfall and river gauging stations was
established. Observations from 120 rain gauges, out of which 95 were installed by
the Project team, were used to compute rainfall maps. Seven climatological stations
recorded data on temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, insolation, evapo-
ration, wind velocity and direction. Thirty river gauging station% were established,
out of which three had cable ways and eight had light cable ways,24 gauging stations
were equipped with automatic water level recorders. Systematic measurements of
sediment load were also carried out at each gauging station.

The hydrometric and climatological network was installed in the course of

1962. Observations and measurements lasted for three rainy seasons. The purpose
of the first seasonls measurements was mainly to adjust the stations and to complete
the installations in the light °fin-service experience. Results from two other
seasons' measurements were processed and, a series of normal values, usable for the
Project, were estimated both in respect of the climatological and the hydrological
data. On the basis of these normal values, a hydrological balance for the Awash
River Basin was drafted. For budgetary reasons, the systematic hydrometric survey
did not include the deltaic region downstream from Dubti. The relevant component of
the hydrological balance is therefore a tentative estimate.

The results of climatological and hydrological studies are fully discussed

in Vol.III of this Report. Only a brief summary of the principal findings is given
below.

Climatology

i) Rainfall

Rainfall conditions in Ethiopia are governed by seasonal movements of the

Inter-Tropical Front. These movements are mainly due to the cyclic variation
of the stints position, and are modified by somewhat irregular behaviour of
the Egyptian high. One characteristic feature of rainfall conditione in
Ethiopia is the relative constancy of their seasonal timing, which they
derive from the movements of the Inter-Tropical Front.

The very pronounced overall relief features of the Awash basin (which is
part of the Great African Rift extending from Lake Nyasa to the Dead Sea)
impart a westerly direction to the moist air stream supplying the major
rainfall to the basin. During a well-established rainy season, this air
stream comes in from the south-west and proceeds north-eastward down the
Awash Valley, gradually exhausting its potential rainfall on the way. The
marked changes in the relief of the Awash basin and the exposures of the
valley hillsides decisively affect the rainfall experienced during a normal
year. The effect of these major factors is the same throughout a given
region, in which rainfall during the year is found to vary linearly with
altitude. The gradient of this relationship typifies the region.

The month-by-month distribution of rainfall during a normal year can be

used to give a picture of rainfall conditions. By expressing the rainfall
for each month in relation to annual rainfall, it was found that the pro-
portional rainfall distribution over the various months of the year is
practically the same at several gauging stations. This justifies the
 - 59 -

subdivision of the Awash basin into a number of different climate areas, each
with its characteristic month-by-month rainfall distribution. (See Map No. 11).

A characteristic feature of rainfall conditions in the Awash basin is

that there are two rainy seasons in the year, one a period of minor rains
from March to May/ with the other - the main rainy season - beginning in
July and lasting till September. The secondary rainfall minimum, in June,
is more pronounced in the arid northern part of the basin. It is hardly
appreciable in the upper basin in the south, where the rains are practically
continuous from March to September.

The following are a few significant normal rainfall figures

Upper Basin upstream from Koka dam 0 1/000 mm

Middle Valley between Koka and Hertale 850 mm
Lower Valley between Hertale and Dubti ..................... 610 mm
Lower Reaches between Dubti and Lake Abe 215 mm

The average normal annual rainfall figure for the whole of the Awash basin
thus works out at about 710 mm.

During ihe seven-month period from March to September including both

rainy seasons, the Upper Awash basin receives over 90% of its total annual
rainfall) while the Middle Valley and Lower Plains only receive about 85%
of their respective annual amount. Rainfall during the dry season is thus
proportionately more appreciable in the arid zone than in the humid sub-
tropical part of the basin.

Rainfall in the basin almost always occurs in distinct individual heavy

downpours affecting areas a few ten square kilometres in extent. These
downpours often start as comparatively moderate showers which then gradually
increase in intensity. At its climax, the downpour suddenly ceases. In the
arid zone, the day's rainfall - and frequently also the month's - occurs as a
single downpour not lasting for more than four or five hours. Hillsides with
a humid sub-tropical climate may receive repeated showers during the same
day - three at most at the same place - the total duration of which may be
anything up to 12 or 15 hours, though with none of theta individually lasting
more than eight or nine hours.

The very irregular discontinuous rainfall distribution in the form of

local downpours shows the effect of relief features on rainfall conditions
in the Awash basin; this results in irregular daily inflows from the
tributaries of the Awash during the rainy season.

As a general rule, the daily intensity of rainfall is not particularly

high in the Awash basin; the highest, recorded, 140 mm in a day, occurred in
the Lake Abe region, and its probability is estimated as about once in 500
years. An even lower probability can be assumed for a rainfall of 120-130
mm/day in the high valleys; though this figure was actually recorded, this
was at the beginning of the rainy season so that it should be viewed with
some caution. The computation shows that during a well-estimated rain rainy
season, rainfall amounts of 120 ram/day in the wettest part of the basin
would on an average only be experienced once a hundred years. In the most
abundantly supplied part of the Awash basin, above an altitude of 1,400 my
daily rainfall values in fact more frequently fluctuate between only 30 mm
and 40 mm.
 -6o-

Data from the two fully recorded rainfall cycles, 1962/63 and 1963/64,
can be compared with the estimated normal value. The former season with
values about 127 above normal in the Upper Basin, was about 807. below normal
for the remainder. The latter, while showing slightly sub-normal values
for the Upper Basin, is substantially above normal (25) in the Lower Basin.
In the subsequent studies of dam reservoirs and water-planning, the hydro-
logical cycle November 1962/October 1963 has been used as a basis.

ii) Air Temperature

Data on the maxima and minima temperature for any longer period were
not available in the meteorological records. The duration of observations
taken on the Projectrs meteorological stations for two or three years is too
short for the records to be representative. The figures quoted herewith are
merely examples of variation of temperatures which may be observed and should
not be extrapolated.

TABLE 8- SOME TEMPERATURES OBSERVED IN 1962-64

MINIMA AND MAXIMA CENTIGRADE

Stations Maxima Minima

Adis Ababa 28.5 6.0

Koka 34.5 7.0
Chefa 35.0 5.0
Robi 36.5 5.5
Metehara 39.5 7.0
Awora Melka 39.5 5.5
Gewani 41.8 8.1
Tendaho 45.6 6.0

The temperature only very exceptionallyfalls to 00 C on the highest

peaks above the Awash Valley. These peaks only very seldom receive prec:
pitation in solid form (usually hail) which invariably melts very quickly
on the ground. Flows in the Awash basin are thus exclusively due to
rainfall.

Normal annual air temperature variations are inversely related to

altitude. With the rainfall conditions, this feature sharpens the dis-
tinction between individual climate levels or "stages" in the Awash basin.
Within a given climate stage in the basin, annual air temperature varies
mainly with altitude.
As a secondary consideration, the high hills met by the prevailing
south-westerly winds cause a very distinct "Foehn" effect in certain limited
areas of the basin. In the areas sheltered from south-westerly winds by the
high hills surrounding the Awash basin, annual temperature are appreciably
higher than in other basin regions at a similar altitude. Consequently,
the "Foehn" effect is shown up by reduced rainfall in the sheltered areas,
which, therefore, have a more arid climate than other more open areas at
the same altitude.
 - 61 -

The following are a few significant normal annual air temperature figures
for the basin

TABLE 9- AWASH BASIN - AVERAGE ANNUAL TEMPERATURES

Regions exposed to prevailing Areas sheltered from south

south-westerly winds T°C westerly winds ("Foehn" effect) T°C

High tableland (plateaux), No "Foehn" effect, as there are

average altitude 10,000 ft. 13.5 no high hiils above this region

Upper Awash Basin, around Upper Awash Valley and the

5,500 ft. altitude, between secondary rift north of Debre
Debre Zeyt and Koka. 19.5 Sina, averaging about 5,500 ft. 21.0
in altitude
Upper Valley around Chercher piedmont area towards
4,000-ft. altitude, between Dire Dewa, average altitude
Koka and Awash Station. 23.5 4,000 ft. 23.9

Middle Awash Valley, around

3,000 ft. altitude, between
Awash Station and Awora Melka 26.2
No "Foehn" effect, as no high
Lower reaches of the Awash, hills dominate this region
around 1,500 ft. altitude,
near Tendaho 29.0

By considering monthly to annual air temperature ratios, temperature

conditions were defined in comparable terms for various points in the basin.
Associated with rainfall conditions, temperature conditions typify regional
climates, and show up the appreciable difference between them.

As a general rule, monthly air temperatures are at a minimum in December

and January, then gradually rising to a maximum value at a time of the year
depending on the aridity of the locaa climate in each region. Thus, in the
most arid reEions of the Awash basin (Middle Valley and'Lower Plains) peak
monthly temperatures (155 to 205 above annual average) invariably occur in
June, between the two rainy seasons. In the less arid regions, the highest
monthly temperatures occur during the two months of.the "secondary" rainy
season from March to May; they are only about 105 above the annual mean.

Monthly air temperatures decrease sharply with the onset of the main
rainy season and reach a secondary minimum throughout the basin near the
end of the rains.

in) Evaporation

(a) The results of evaporation measurements with a tank sunk into the ground
at a few points in the Awash Basin have enabled normal evaporation rates to
be estimated from the surface of a small and very shallow free surface of
water.
Normal annual evaporation rates measured in this way were found to
depend closely on altitude, thus confirming the important effect of altitude
in the division of the Awash Basin into several distinct climate regions.
 - 62-

TABLE 10 - NORMAL ANNUAL EVAPORATION

MEASURED BY SUNKEN TANK
(m)

Altitude Maximum, at a point Minimum, at an Ratio minimum

(m) distant from any exist- existing major to maximum
ing major evaporating evaporation evaporation
surface surface (5)
2,500 1.60 0.60 38

1,500 2.85 2.25 79

900 3,60 8.25 90

500 3.90 3.65 94

(b) Normal evaporation rates from an extensive and fairly deep reservoir
were deduced from the corresponding evaporation rates determined with a
sunken tank, by the application of various correction factors. (See Vol.III).
The following are a few normal annual evaporation rates for a large deep
reservoir

TABLE 10a - NORMAL ANNUAL EVAPORATION FROM A LARGE DEEP RESERVOIR

(m)

Altitude Maximum, at a point Minimum, at an Ratio minimum

(m) distnt from any exist- existing major to maximum
ing major avaporating evaporation evarration
surface surface 5)
2,500 1.30 0.40 31

1,500 2.40 1.85 77

goo 3.00 2.70 go

500 3.30 3.05 93

3. Regional climates in the Awash Basin

The local climate mainly depends on altitude. Analysis of the main climatic
factors (rainfall, air temperature and evaporation) has confirmed the general out-
lines of the climate subdivision traditionally accepted in Ethlopia.

As this traditional classification is entirely based on altitude, however,

it makes no allowance for the by no means inconsiderable regional variations from
the general climate, caused by the very marked relief changes in the Awash Basin.
In typifying a definite region in the basin, therefore, it is necessary to allow not
only for altitude but also for orographic effects, and especially for the exposure
 - 63 -

of the valley hillsides to the prevailing south-westerly winds.

The traditionally accepted Ethiopian classification for climate regions in

the Awash Basin is set out in detail in the following table 11.

TABLE 11 - CLIMATIC ZONES

Ethiopian General type Altitude Rainfall and temperature

Classification climate area range features

BEREHA
sub-de sert Arid below 600-700 m Temperature gradient -
-0.34°C/100 m

BEREHA
semi-arid Semi-arid between 600-700 m Temperature gradient -
and 1100-1200 m -0.84°C/100 Rainfall
a) as for an arid region
throughout

) temperature gradients
subjects to change by
"Foehn"

KOLLA
dry or humid Sub-tropical between 1100-1200 m Hillside exposure governs
and 1700-1800 m climate dryness or humi-
dity. Possible "Foehn"
effect.

No "Foehn" effect.
Changing temperature
gradient

WOINA DEGA Sub-tropical between 1700-1800 m Temperature gradient

humid and 2400-2500 m without "Foehn". -0.445
-0.445°C/100 m Possible
"Foehn" effect.

DEGA Sub-tropical- above 2400-2500 m No "Foehn" effect.

humid and cold Temperature gradient
probably not varying
appreciably about
-0.445°C/100 m
 580 57! .A92 589 685
i ii
I
i 1

Monthly inflows ( hm 31 1 1
i I

1 1

1
i i
I I

I
I 1

I i
AWASH \ INFLOWS RECORDED AT VARIOUS 1

I
\ GAUGING STATIONS 1
1

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I'

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\
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I 1

lij I 1

i
I

1 I

i
.I

Ì 1

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11\ 1

ii\
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lit 1\ I I

\ / \I
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111
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\ I 11 I
,

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k I
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11 ,/'\ II I
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ll / 1 \ \
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AWASH
,.
\ /.
Station 11

I\ . "
11

\
1_
/1-..
-
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KOKA Vf'
(through
turbines) 1
I

DUB1_:-----
r ---\\
MELKA GORGE /
1 \J\I
/ V
3 '
HERTALE 4:2.--C-311A1616S2 10INID JIFiMA[M111JIJIAISIOIN
66 D Fi 1A11411,1 9640.11AIS/0
DRAWING N2 12
 - 65 -

Hydrology - General.

The hydrology of the Awash Basin, as at present known, is fully discussed in

Volume III. In the present chapter is given a brief outline of the main relevant
figures, with comments, in order to provide to the reader a general picture of the
water resources available, and thus enable him to appreciate the validity and signifi-
cance of the proposals for development discussed in later chapters.

From the data observed at the various river gauging stations for the hydro-
logical years 1962/63 and 1963/64, annual flow balances for these years were computed.
The results were then studied with reference to the relevant records of rainfall at
stations in the Basin, some of which covered considerable periods of years¡ the
maximum reliable period being the record of rainfall at Adis Abeba from 1946 to 1964.
After statistical analysis of all available climatological data, appropriate corree.
lations were established. Using these, it was found possible to estimate reasonable
figures for the "normal" total annual flows at various points. Information is as yet
insufficient to break down these into "normal" monthly flows. However, Fig. No. 12,
showing flows at various points observed in 1962-1964, gives some indication of the
very wide variations which occur in the flows at different times of the year.
Already, however, the flows from the Upper Valley are regulated and modified by the
action of the Koka reservoir, the effects of which can be traced right down the
course of the river to the Lower Plains, though gradually diminishing in absolute
and in relative magnitude. It will be realised that records of measured flows in,
at most, 3 years, and rainfall records at stations which are few in number compared
with the vast extent, some 70,000 km2, of the whole Basin, are not sufficient to
provide more than a tentative and approximate estimate of "normal" flows. Further,
it is the extreme conditions, and notably the extremely low conditions, which may
occur, that cause the real difficulties. Systematic and comprehensive observations
of both river flows and rainfalls, over a good number of years, will be necessary to
make possible really satisfactory assessments of flows, losses, and so on. It is
important that these observations at all requisite stations, by reliable observers
under trained supervision, should be continued without any break or interruption.
Additional stations should be equipped and put into use as required. Further, the
analysis of observations by skilled staff, year after year, must be continued
regularly, if essential data of flows are to be available as the basis for sound
planning of development.

Analysis of Normal Annual Flows

The estimated amounts of inflows, losses, and outflows, in a normal year,

for various reaches of the river, are shown on Map No, 13. In what follows, the same
figures are set out in tabular form, with the object of giving a reasonably repre-
sentative picture of the hydrology of the Basin as a whole.
 66

TABLE 12 r- ANALYSIS OF ANNUAL RUNOFF IN "NORt,IAL" YEAR

i) Upper basin to Koka Dam. Catchment 11.250 km2 hm3

Inflow to reservoir 1,750
add rainfall on the reservoir 145
1,895
less evaporation estimated at 315
less losses by percolation 380
695
Passed through turbines to river dowstream of dam 1,200

Upper Valley : Koka dam to Awash Station. Catchment 7,320 km2

Inflow from catchment 1,400
add Awash flow from (i) 1,200
2,600
less water used and evaporation losses 125
less percolation losses 15
140
Flow at Awash Station 2,460

Middle Valley: Awash Station to Hertale. Catchment 15,310 km2

Inflow from catchment 1,595
add springs 10
add Awash flow from (ii) 2,460
4,065
less losses by spill, evaporation,percolation and
use 1,225
flow at Hertale 2,840

Middle valley: Hertale to Dubti. Catchment 29,990 km2

Inflow from catchment 1,915
add springs 70
add Awash flow from (iii) 2,840
4,825
less losses by spill, evaporation, percolation
and use 1,335
Flow at Dubti 3,490
===..

v) Lower Plains : Dubti to Lake Abe.Catchment 7,250 km2

Data are not yet available for a proper estimate of
the flow balance. But a tentative breakdown of the
future normal balance (without Tendaho dam or further
development) may be approximately as follows
Inflow from catchment 10
add Awash inflow from (iv)
3,490
3,500
losses in swamps, flood plain and lakes, usea
for irrigation 1,440
Evaporation from Lake Abe 2,060
3,500
 - 68 -

6. Comments on Hydrological Factors.

Thl. losses by percolation from Lake Gelilea, estimated to be about

380 hmi, are a serious diminution of the available flow. In the interests
both of irrigation and of power, every effort should be made to find out
the causes, and to apply remedial measures so far as possible. If the
ftiversion of water from the River Meki is possible (as discussed in Chapter
VIII), this will result in higher levels of water in the Lake. If, as
appears probable, the rate of percolation loss is related to the water level,
this would mean that part of the water diverted from the Meki, at consider-
able trouble and expense, would merely go to increase the losses. Every
effort should be made to avoid this. It appears that part of the amount
lost, up to perhaps one quarter, may come back to the river between Koka
and Wenji, as "return flow". But even so, it will be most desirable to
reduce the losses by percolation from the Lake.

As already mentioned in paragraph 4 above, Koka Reservoir already

exercises a marked regulating effect on the flows of the Awash downstream
óf the dam. This is illustrated by the following figures, recorded at
Awash Station, 150 km further down.

1953-58 1960-64
no reservoir reservoir in use

m3/s m3/s
Absolute minimum flow 0.1 20-24
Minimum flow - 1st decile 0.2 23-30
Maximum flow - 9th decile 380 200-250
Absoluto Maximum 1000 325

Upper Valley - Koka to Awash Station

In this region the factor of run-off is appreciably higher than in the

Upper Basin above Koka, due in some measure to the steep hillsides and the
considerable rainfalls in the Chercher area. The river here flows in a valley
relatively free of silt, with outcrops of porous formations and/or faults
which encourage leakage.

Middle Valley - Awash Station to Hertale

Vegetation in this region is sparser than in the region from Koka to

Awash Station, and has less effect in modifying inflows. There are indi-
cations that the soils have a somewhat lower capacity for water retention.
Losses in the flood plains and marshes downstream from Melka Sedi are
)onsiderable.

-) Middle Valley - Hertale to Dubti

The hydrological conditions of this reach are similar to those of the

.each upstream of it, though with even heavier losses by spill etc;, and a
lower capacity for water retention. Substantial inflows come from springs,
notably in the region of Gewani, and to a lesser extent downstream. Largo
losses by percolation do not appear likely to occur, since in this reach
sedimentation is considerable.
 -69

vi) Lower Plains Dubti to Lake Abe.

In this region, because of the complex nature of the natural channels

of the river, and the variability of its flows from one year to another,
measurement of discharges WR.Q not attempted during the Survey. Below Dubti,
no appreciable runoff from local rainfall reaches the river, except very
occasional and intermittent flows from wadis into Lake Abe, which are unlikely
ever to contribute more than perhaps 10 1mm3 to the annual flow. The levels
in Lake Abe will rise and fall according to the balance between the inflows
reaching it, and the evaporation losses corresponding to the levels at any
time; approximately, the levels may range from about 245 to 253 m above
sea. level.

7. Flood Characteristics.

Flood spates in the Awash and its major tributaries may occur in frequent
succession, according to the incidence of rainfalls. The fact that individual rain
storms are limited both in duration and in extent has a moderating effect on the
resulting flood peaks. During spates, the spilling of water on to the considerable
area of flood plains below Awash Station also moderatesthe peaks in the Middle
Valley and the Lower Plains. From physical evidence of past very high floods at
various points in the Awaah Valley, combined with the observations of flows made in
1962-1964, it has been found possible to estimate the peak rates which have actually
occurred in the past. Statistical analysis indicates that the probability of such
flood rates must be considerably less than once in 1000 years.

Already, of course, the existence of the Koka reservoir modifies all flood
peaks. It has been possible to recalculate the maximum flood rates to be expected,
allowing for this. These are shown in Table 13.

It is both prudent and reasonable to allow for an exceptional maximum flood

discharge when designing any hydraulic development project. In the present case, the
figure for each site along the Awash downriver from Koka should be between the
limits given by the morphological flood discharge and its reduced value. For river
sites not affected by the Koka dam, the maximum flood should be assumed equal to the
morphological flood.

Proposed maximum flood discharge assumptions for various points in the basin
are tabulated above the recurrence frequency of all these floods is well in excess
of 1,000 yers.

8, Erosion and Sediment Load

i) Field Erosion

Problems related to erosion in the cultivated lands are discussed in Vol. II.
It has been found that slope, runoff evacuation and marked dryness of ground during
long periods are the main factors of erosion in the farmland. It is accelerated by
lack of protective vegetation cover, deforestation, overgrazing on the harvested
fields and inadequate tilling at the end of the dry period. Unprotected fields are
severely ravaged by rills and gullies during the heavy showers at the beginning of
the rainy season. Besides, on the relatively gentle slopes no control measures, such
as terracing, bunding or contour ploughing are applied, as frequently happens on
steeper slopes.

Suggestions for erosion control methods indicate the need for improvement of
cultivation practices, drainage, reduction of velocity in the fl9w in gullies and,
first of all) the necessity for planting protective bands of trees across the slope.
 TABLE 13 - ESTIMATED MAXIMUM FLOOD DISCHARGE DATA FOR VARIOUS POINTS ALONG THE AWASH

(Average probability - onoe in 1.000 years)

Before Koka Dam Koka Dam in Service

Position in Basin area M9rphological flood

Maximum flood
Basin area Maximum flood reduced
hydrographic from sourcE downstream discharge
by influence of Koka
network ( 2) proposed for
from Koka
spil],ways
(1/s/ ) (m3/s) (km2) (1/s/km2) (m3/s)
(m-Vs)

ivers not affected 12y_ Luke

elilea Koka Reservoij

MaLI to MEKI Village 2,430 124 300 300

KESEM to AWORA MELKA 3,135 450 1,400 1,400
KEBENA Gauging Station 1,245 1,040 1,300 1,300
AWASH to KOKA Dam 11,250 92 1,050 1,050

vers affected b Lake Gel* e

AWASH to METEHARA 15,450 72 1,100 4,200 210 880 i,u00

AWASH to AWASH Station 18,570 60 1,100 7,300 130 970 1,050
AWASH to MELKA SEDI 20,750 55 1,150 9,500 110 1,030 1,100
AWASH to MELKA WARAR 26,150 44 1,150 14,900 70 1,050 1,150
AWASH to HERTALE 33,880 26 900 22,650 36 800 850
AWASH to TENDAHO 59,500 18 1,070 48,280 21 1,000 1,000
AWASH to DUBTI 63,870 17 1,100 52,650 19 1,000 1,000

- 70 -
 71

However, erosion being a national problem, the measures suggested should fit
into the national programme for erosion control.

Implementation of such a programme implies

the establishment of a national organization for water and soil

conservation;
the subdivision of the country into regions, each covering one big
watershed;
the training and placement of technical staff specializing in educating
farmers on cultivation practices and capable of directing operations for
the control of waterways;
appropriate legislation effectively enacted.

ii) Specific Degradation of a Whole Watershed

It appeared useful to complete studies of field erosion by studying the

final effect of erosion in a whole watershed, in the form of sediment transportation
by rivers.

This reflects the capacity of a watershed, considtred as a whole, for

losing or retaining eroded materials.

On the basis of sediment load measurements at the g;tuging stations, it was

possible to determine thm concept of "specific degradation", i.e. ratio between the
net exportation of sediments to the area of individual subbasins.

The following Table No. 14 shows thm normal vgaues of "specific degradation"

TABLE 14 AWASH BASIN SEDIMENT LOAD AND SPECIFIC DEGRADATION

Rainfall Catchment area Normal Sedimen load

(106
stations Limits Area Specific egradation
(km 2) tons) (t/kmVyear)

Gefersa
Awash at Melka Kentare 4,440 3.752 845
Hagere Hiywet

Adis Abeba
Akaki Akaki at Akaki Village 982 0.295 300
Debre Zeyt Mojo at Mojo Village 1,205 2.110 1.750
Awash between Melka
Kentare
Siltu and Melka Gorge 3,283 2.948 900
Koka Awash at Melka Gorge '7,723 6.700 870
Nazret Meki at Meki Village 2,432 0.365 150
Wenjii
 - 72 -

TABLE 1 4 - SEDZKENT LOAD AND SP'CI C DEGRADA ON (Cont'd)

Rainfall Catchment area Normal sediment load

stations Limits Are (106 Specific

(km) ) tons) degradation'
t/km2/y ear

Sire Geleta (Gauging station) 745 0.210 280

Awash between Koka and
Gelemso Metehara 4,240 0.870 205
Awash between Metehara
Awash-Station and Awash - Station 3,050 1.250 400
Awash between Koka and
Awash Station 7,290 2.120 290
Sheno Upper Kesem (Gauging
Station) 40 0.052 1,300

Megozes Kesem at Awora Melka 3.570 1,140

Ankober Kebena (Gauging Station) 1,245 1.520 1,220
Chacha Awash between Awash St
Station
Debre Birhan and Hertale 15,339 3.070 200
Sela Dingay Awash between Koka
and Fertale 22,629 5.190 230
Debre Sina Jawaha (Gauging Station 565 1.96o 3,480
Chefa Jara (Gauging Station 193 0.054 280
Kembol cha Borkena (Swamps Inlet 388 0.570 1,460
Dese Borkena (Swamp Outlet 1,735 o o
Fayk Mile (Gauging Station 4,350 3.66o 840
Weldya Awash between Fertale
Wichale and bubti 29,988 27.600 920
Bati Awash at Dubti' 52,617 32.790 620

Data collected were processed in relation to physical relief and rainfall

factors; on the basis of this analysis, the Awash basin has been subdivided, from
the specific degradation point of view, into five main regions
Regions Normal Specific Degradation
Eastern slopes of the Central Plateau about 1,200t/km2/year

Southern gentle slopes of the Central Plateau about 850t/km2/year

Arid Lowlands downstream of Gewani Swamps about 850-900t/year

North Western slopes of Chercher Moutains about 400t/km2/year

Middle Valley between Koka Dam and Gewani Swamps about 150t/km2/year
The main factors of the specific degradation are physical relief and especially
lack of vegetation cover; climatic factors, in particular rainfall intensity,
appear to be of secondary importance. This may be seen when comparing the most
heavily eroded, extensively cultivated Mojo basin with the adjacent southern slopes
of the Plateau, bearing more abundant natural vegetation. The same is true of the
well-covered sloping hillsides of Chercher mountains where specific degradation is
 -73-

much lower than in other mountainous regions with similar rainfall.

iii) 3ediment Load in the Rivers

Soil particles worn away from agricultural lands are conveyed by the flow
of streams and rivers. Before they deposit in lakes) storage reservoirs or swamps,
the sediment load of the rivers is usually responsible for the instability of river
beds.

An attempt has been made to delineate the main deposition areas in the
Awash basin. Water discharged from the Koka power plant is almost clear; the
sediment load conveyed from the upper reaches of Awash River is therefore deposited
in the Gelilea Lake. Fortunately the bulk of Koka catchment area is subject to
relatively slight erosion.

The catchment area of the Middle Valley includes the severely eroded eastern
slopes of the High Plateau, but in general the specific degradation of this area is
the lowest in the Awash basin. Extensive swaMps and floodable areas act as effective
silt-traps; they appear to be rather more efficient in the Middle Valley, upstream
of Hertale gauging station, tIlan downstream of this point.. A possible explanation
is the relatively well developed hydroEraphic network of natural channels in the
large Gewani swamps. Flow velocity in these channels is high enough to convey out
of the swampy area large part of sediment load, which do not deposit in the area.
Besides a considerable part of the sediments conveyed by the torrential tributaries,
which usually do not reach the main river, is probably deposited on the alluvial
plains, especially on the left bank. This explains the relatively low sediment load
measured at the Hertale gauging station.

Also, in the extensive swamps stretching from Gewani to the confluence with
the Borkena river depositing of sediments is probably active. However) the sediment
load increases considerably in the river during its course through the severely
eroded region downstream of Gewani swamps. This is certainly in relation with
extensive tracts of vegetationless "badlands" located close to the rilrerbed on
both banks.

The Lower Plains are natural deposition areas. This results in the very
flat ground slope which communicates an extreme instability to the riverbed and its
numerous shifting meanders. There is little hope of stabilising the riverbed in
the Lower Plains unless floods are brought under effective control. The observations
of the 1964 floods, however) may suggest that the removal of fallen trees and débris
which often obstruct the riverbed, may to some degree provisionally reduce the extent
of the inundations) prevent the building up of new channels, and the diverting into
these new channels of a substantial part of the flow.
 74

CHAPTER VIII - WATER CONTROL FOR IRRIGATION AND POWER

Need for Development of Water Resources

Hydrological survey has shown that the flow of the Awash River itself is fairly
regular at its entrance into the Middle Valley, whereas the regime of the tributaries
is subject to wide variations in the rainy and dry season. The correlation of data
from the old staff gauge in the gorge near Awash Station with the records of the
hydrometric stations installed in 1962 in the same gorge reveals that, under its
natural regime, the Awash River used nearly to dry up with the flow as low as 200 l/s.
Since the construction of Koka dam, the lowest rates of flow recorded at Awash
Station have seldom fallen below 30 m3/s. Accordingly, pealf floods, formerly reach-
ing 700 m3/s, are now much reduced; maximum floods of 300 mJ/s are only recorded
when flooding occurs in such major tributaries as the Arba Dima.

The Koka Dam has therefore considerably evened out the Awash flow, and an inter-
mittent river converted into a permanent one. This experience shows the
considerable effects that may be expected from subsequent flow regulation projects.
But the tributaries continue to dry up during the dry seasons and the floods occurring
during the rainy seasons may account for as much as 955 of the total annual flow.
This water is lost for any economic use. Moreover, the regulating effect of Koka dam
gradually diminishes downstream, where large inflows from tributaries contribute to
swell the seasonal floods of the river. Additional dams will therefore bé needed to
store the flood waters and to ensure that the best possible use can be made of exist-
ing and potential water resources.

The possibilities for and the feasibility of water resources development in the
Awash basin, and ways and means for improving irrigation water supply and subsidiary
hydro-power production are fully discussed in Vol. IV of this Report. Besides new
facilities for storage, consideration has also been given to the idea of increasing
water supplies in the Awash Basin by providing additional flows from adjacent river
basins.

Finally the prospects of adapting the present Awash flow, so far regulated only
for hydrcp-power needs, so that it may assist irrigation requirements, are given
attention.

Storage Dams - General

(i) Criteria for selection

Dam site investigations were conducted on the main river and the tributaries.
While a number of potential dam sites are discussed in Volume IV of this Report, only
the more promising sites which were subject to more detailed studies will be mentioned
in this Chapter. (See Map 14).

In the selection of potential dam sites for further investigation the following
main criteria have been applied:
The principal purpose of new storage dams will be the supply of irrigation water
and flood protection with power production as a subsidiary function;
Stored water should not submerge good cultivated lands;
Dams should be located close to potentially irrigable areas.
 75

In relation to these criteria several potential dam sites identified under the
Project's operations have been discarded. Some possible dam sites in the gorges of
the Middle Valley appear more suitable for power production than for irrigation
purposes. A dam site on the Awadi River would have too small a storage capacity.
One on the Borkena River would result in drowning excellent cultivated lands. Those
on the lower Awash at the confluence with Ledi or on the Mile River, are too far from
the potential irrigable areas.

Some of these, and perhaps other dam sites identified by the Project's team can
perhaps be developed in the future when high returns from irrigated agricultural will
warrant suffloient repayment rates, but their construction can hardly be justified in
the present stage of the country's economic development.

(ii) Scope of technical investigations for selected dam sites

Three potential storage dam sites have been selected for more detailed investig-
ations. They are located on the left bank tributaries Kesem and Kebena, and on the
Awash itself at Tendaho.

In order to calculate storage capacity, contour maps of the reservoir areas were
drawn to a scale of 1:20,000. Detailed surveys of the dam sites were subsequently
carried out to the scale of 1:1,000 and served for geological and civil engineering
investigations.

The very special features of the geological structure of the Awash basin called
for a particularly careful geolOgical survey. This was carried out not only for the
foundation studies, but also in respect of possible leakage problems. After a
thorough surface survey, relevant programmes of test borings for the purpose of deep
reconnaissance and permeability assessments were prepared and executed at the Kesem
and Tendaho dam sites.

1Vdraulic and civil engineering investigations, necessary to establish the

relevant water balance, included analyses of inflows, both natural and those resulting
from irrigation development upstream, reservoir evaporation, irrigation water require-
ments and potential hydro-power output. The hydrological year 1962/63 has been taken
as the reference year, because its hydrological conditions have been found to be close
to those in a "normal" year.

A set of preliminary design documents and costings were prepared and are appended
to Volume IV.

3, Kesem Dam

(i) Topography and Capacity

Kesem storage dam site is in a gorge cut by the Kasen river, a large left bank
tributary, to a depth of about 70 m, and abozipt 200 m wide at the mouth. Its location
is shovn on Map 14. The following table gives the main characteristics of the
potential reservoir.
 - 77 -

TABLE 15 - KESEM DAN CAPACITIES

Water Surface Storage

Depth of the reservoir capacity
(m) (ha) (hm3)

55 1400 190

64 1850 270

69. 2300 370

74 2850 500

Geology

The gorge is cut in volcanic outflows which consist of alternations of hard rocks,
mostly andesite and basalt, and soft layers of volcanic tuffs and ashes. As regards
foundations, the alluvial layer in the riverbed is only 5 m thick, and the conditions
for constructing a rock-fill dam are reasonably good. High permeabilities have been
found in some sections of the abutments and therefore a substantial grouting curtain
will be needed, fortunately of limited extent.

No particular risks of leakage from the reservoir along its boundaries were
apparent, provided that water storage is kept at a level corresponding to a dam height
not exceeding 70 m. Above this level secondary dykes would have to be constructed at
one point on the boundary cf the reservoir. The recommended water depth at .he dam
site is therefore 69 m, which will provide a storage capacity of about 370 hm

The geologist concludes that a rockfill dam would appear to suit best the
geological structure of the dam site. A concrete dam may also be constructed provided
that the alluvium in the river bed is cleared down to the bedrock.

Hydrology and Water Balance

The total normal inflow in the storage reservoir, as computed by the statistical
rainfall and runoff studies, is estimated at about 600 hm, out of which about 90
percent are discharged dUring thé rainy months of July, August and September. The
selected capacity of the reservoir is therefore insufficient to ensure full annual
regulation and a part of the hish flow during the rainy season will have to be dis-
charged.

The total silt load contained in te flow corresponds to a mean annual inflow
into the reservoir of about 3,000,000 m of sediment. Almost all of this is carried
during the period of heavy floods, and.it may be possible to route the flood-waters
through the dewatering conduit and'carry some of the sediment out of the reservoir.,
Howeverlthis will be at most a small proportion of the silt load, and the life time
of the storage dam, which may be estimated at about 100 years if all the sediment load
was deposited in the reservoir, may only slightly be increased.
 - 78 -

The probabilities of peak floods have been estimated as follows:

A flood of at least 840 m3/s may probably occur once in 10 years

A flood of at least 1100 m3/s may probably occur once in 50 years

A flood of at least 1180 m3/s may probably occur once in 100 years

A flood of 1400 m3/s is considered as the maximum possible

The spillway may be designed for a maximum discharge of 1500 m3/s. However,
except in emergency, the rate of spilling should not exceed 500 m3/s, because of the
risk of flooding in the irrigable area.

Net losses by evaporation from the water surface a e estimated/following the

findings of the meteorological survey,a4 about 20,000 m /ha per annum.which works out
to a total annual loss of about 35.5 hm for the average surface of the reservoir
(1770 ha).

Water Use and Yanagement

Estimates of rrigation water requirements suggest that a minimum storage

capacity of 300 hm in the reservoir will help to irrigate about 22,500 ha of land,
approximately 5,000 ha more than is available in the Ksem-Kebena Plain. This
irrigation water can also be used for power generation as the tail race head still
commands the irrigation areas by gravity.

Water planning studies have shown that a supply of irrigation water to a .slightly
smaller area of 22,000 ha would allow a monthly hydro-power production of about 3,5 MTh.
In order to achieve this minimum firm power produotion, the power plant would discharge
over 4 months more water tha can be taken up in irrigation; the total annual excess
outflow would be about 16 hm

This excess outflow has been provided for in the following water management
schedule for the dam:, which provides for a continuous intensive irrigation of 22,000
ha and for a power plant output of 3.5 GWh per month, (Table 17) overleaf.

Civil engineering

The following alternativos were considered: a concrete hollow dam or a rockfill

one, the latter is cheaper and was given preference.

For construction purposes a diversion gallery 400 m long will blave to be built on
the left bank. The gallery with discharge capacity of about 500 vis will eventually
be used as an outlet conduit. The power plant will be installed also on the left
bank at the foot of the Jam. The spillway, equipped with two sector gates, is
located on the right bank.

A grout curtain, needed to prevent leakage, will be injected into both banks.
Its total surface is estimated at 100,000 m2.

I'able 16 shows the principal characteristics of the scheme.

 TABLE 16 - REGULATION OF KESEM RESERVOIR (Irrigation 22,000 ha)

1,:onths (1962-63) 0 N D J F E A M J J A S

Storage contents at the beginning 367 350 325.5 285.5 248.5 212 103.5 162 124.5 78 166 367
of the month Vi(hm3)
Water consumption R (hm3)
(Irrigation+Power+Evaporation)- 17 24.5 40 37 36.5 28.5 21.5 37.5 46.5 -88 -304.5 -36
-inflow

Spilling Sp(hm3) 103.5 36

Mqan head of water E (m) 68.6 67.6 65.9 63.8 61.7 59.6 57.8 55.5 51.5 53.2 63.2 69.0

Power productivity P(013.) 3.51 3.53 5.71 5.10 4.80 3.51 3.47 5.24 5.38 3.55 3.51 4.60

- 79 -
 - 8o-

TABLE 17 - KESEM DAN - PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

Irrigation possibilities 22,000 ha

Firm power productivity per annum 42.5 GWh

PERFORY C
Damping of floods to a limit of 500 m3/s

Height of crest above river level 74 m

Length at the crest 220 m

Width at the crest 10 m

DAM AND
Volume of rookfill dam 900,000 m3
POWER PLANT
Spillway capacity 1,500 m3/s

Freeboard above exceptional maximum water level 2m

Installed power 12,000 KW

T.W.L. above river 69 m

Normal maximum capacity 370 lim3

Corresponding surface 2,300 ha

RESERVOIR
Total inflow of silt per annum 3 hm3

Net evaporation from the reservoir per annum 35 hm3

4. Kebena Dam

Kebena River, an important tributary of the Awash, runs across the alluvial plain
parallel to the Kesem at a distance of about 15 km.

It commands the same development area as the Kesem river, and no other areas to
which Kebena water may be more easily conveyed have been identified. Thus damming
of the Kebena would only be justified if the cost were significantly less than that
of the Kesem dan. Topographical examination and surface survey of the geological
structure of the site showed at an early stage that construction costs of the dam
would be relatively higher than those expected for the Kesem dam.

It was therefore decided not to implement the programme of test borings suggested
by the geologist. The view that the Kebena dam will be relatively expensive has been
confirmed by subsequent hydraulic and civil engineering studies, as may be seen in the
section dealing with estimates in Chapter XI.

The principal characteristics of a po.tential concrete gravity dam on the Kebena

River are shown in Table 18.
 - 81 -

TABLE 18 KEBENA DAM PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

( Irrigation possibilities 5,000 ha

PERFORMANCE
Firm power productivity per annum 12 GWh

Heisht above river level 65 m

DAM AND
Length on the crest 125 m
POWER PLANT
Volume of concrete dam 135,000 m3

Spillway capacity 1,200 m3/s

Installed power 3,800 KW

Normal maximum capacity 50 hm3

Corresponding surface 220 ha

RESERVOIR
Evaporation from the reservoir per annum 4,5 hm3

( Total inflow of silt per annum 1,0 hm3

5. Tendaho Dam

(i) Topography and Capacity

The dam site is located in a narrow section of the river between two volcanic
hills,"which rise about 50 m above the river bed; the crosssection widens gradually
upwards from about 200 m at the base of the hills. A saddle on the left bank hill,
through which runs the highway to Aseb, is only 30 m above the river level.

The reservoir area appears to be long and rather narrow, with a gentle side slope
in its upstream part. An extensive part of the lake would therefore be covered by a
shallow sheet of water if its.surface were not limited.

The storage capacity and surface area of the potential reservoir in relation to
the height of the dan are given in Table 19.
 - 82 -

TABLE 1 TENDAHO DAM ALTRiTATIVE CkPACITIES

Water depth Surface

(m) of the reservoir Store e capacity
(km2) hm3)'

26 63.5 376
28 81 516
30 104 716
ò'2 131.5 970

34 about 165 about 1300

36 about 210 about 1800

The figures on the two bottom lines have been extrapolated.

(ii) Geology

The volcanic hills on both sides of the river consist of alternating basaltic
outflows and layers of slag and volcanic ashes mixed with dusty material of uncertain
origin and with soft tuff. There is a general conformity of the formations on both
hills, although the thickness of layers varies noticeably. Permeabilities found in
the abutment areas are reasonably low and a small grout curtain will be needed only
for the more pervious formations.

Test borings in the river bed did not reveal any volcanic rocks and a thick layer
of sedimentary formations was identified. It is not clear whether the volcanic
formations of the hills overlie.a large sedimentary plain, or whether the Awash river
has filled up a deep valley with alluvia. The sediments consist mainly of clayey
loams and fine sands with occasional beds of conglomerates. No evidence of water
table was found in this terrain. The sediments are fairly impervious and there is
small chance of seepage from the reservoir bottom.

The reservoir sides, however, showed high local permeabilities associated with a
system of faults on the right bank. Fortunately the pervious area seems limited to
the vicinity of the faults. Similar faults are identified on the left bank, mainly
in the saddle area. Although no test borings were drilled in this area, the
probability is high that leakage is serious also in this area. Thus grout screens
will be needed on both banks. Theexact extent of them may be ascertained only by
further test borings.

The geologist supports the feasibility of a rockfill dam, but rules out a
concrete one and recommends a series of supplementary test borings for the purpose of
'determining the scopeof operations to prevent leakage.
 - 83 -

(iii)drol_tsy.o- and Water Balance

The period of hydrometric measurements includedffor Lower Plains,a year with

heavy floods and inundations. During this year, 1964, the total flow at the Dubti
hydrometric station was found to be about 3700 hmi, as against a flow of less than
2500 hm3 in the previous year 1962/63, and as the corresponding rainfall was considered
to be slightly less than normal, it was decided to adopt the 1962/63 year as the
standard for water management of the reservoir. Because of the shortness of the
observation period this solution was believed to give margin of safety than any attempt
to compute the theoretical flow of a normal year.

The total silt load brought into the reservoir area was estimated at an average
of 29,000,000
t, or at a volume of about 20 hm3 per annum. If all the sediments were
deposited in the reservoir, it would be filled up in about 50 years. In fact, the
sediments consist mostly of fine to very fine particles which do not aeposit readily,
and there is a fair probability that some part of the sediment load may be carried
out of the reservoir during the period of high flows. The construction of silt traps
on the Awash and Mile rivers may help to extend the life time of the reservoir.
Evaporation is fairly high in the Lower Plains and an annual loss of about
30,000 mi/ha of water surface should be reckoned with. The following table gives the
estimates of evaporation losses in relation to the mean head of water and correspond-
ing mean reservoir area.
TABLE 20 TENDAHO DAM EVAPORATION LOSSES

Mean depth Mean surface Annual loss.

of water of reservoir by evaporation
(m) (km2) (hm3)

26 63.5 189

28 81 214

30 104 310

32 131.5 392

34 164 491

36 210 625

With a high evaporation rate there might be risk of excessive water salinization
in the reservoir. Analysis revealed that the total soluble salt content in the
samples taken at the Dubti hydrometric station was around 0.35 g/i. Subsequently it
was computed that for the suggested water operation plan the mean annual salt content
in the discharged water will probably not rise aboyé a range between 0.40 to 0.42 el,
so that its water quality for irrigation purposes will not be affected.

The probability and frequency of peak floods is discussed in Vol. III, and to
ensure that these can in all cases be safely dealt with, the discharge capacity of
the spillway should be 1000 m3/s. But in order to avoid flooding in t4e Lower
Plains, it is desirable that the total discharge should not exceed 300 m-Vs. Thus
the reservoir capacity must be large enough to so damp out the floods, that all
discharge above 300 m-/s may be temporarily stored. It has been calculated that a
very high and long lasting flood which occurred in 1964 might have been stored in a
reservoir designed for a normal maximum capacity of 970 hin, with a freeboard
allowance of 3 m.
 TABLE 21 - REGULATION OF TENDAHO RESERVOIR

MontSs (1962-63) N D J F M A M J J A S 0

Vi(hm3) 970 871 759 675.5 549 418.5 455 517 373.5 376.5 609 955.5

E (hm3) 26 23.5 21 20.5 21 19 23 24 14.5 18.5 30.5 32.5

B (l=3) 105.5 96.5 56 58 58.5 47 19 71.5 128.5 107.5 138 133.5

R (hm3) 25.5 35.5 66 68 76.5 86 100 71.5 44 47 10 5.5

C (hm3) 99 112 83.5 126.5 130.5 -36.5 -62 143.5 -3 -232.5 -346.5 -30

H (m) 30.45 29.65 28.95 27.95 26.35 25.75 26.50 25.70 24.50 26.10 29.05 30.05

P (GWh) 8.87 8.70 7.85 7.82 7.90 7.61 7.01 3.17 9.40 8.97 9.55 9.47

Vi - Storage capacity at the beginning of the month

- Net evaporation from mean monthly surface of the lake
- Irrigation water requirement for 66.500 ha
R - Supplementary discharge for power production and water spre3din
C - Water consumption - less inflow
- Mean head of Water
- Potential power output

- 84 -
 - 85 -

Water Use and Management

A water management plan for the reservoir is fully discussed in Vol. IV.
Noticeable modifications of inflow rates into the reservoir are bound to occur as a
result of irriEation development and relevant flow regulation in the upstream areas.
Three assumptions, each corresponding to a specific case of possible development in
the Middle Valley, were successively analyzed and water management plans established
for each of these. For the second case, the assumption was made that no
complementary water resources will be developed in the Basin, e.g. from Meki River,
but that the flow of the main river is modulated in accordance to the expected
irrigation requirements of about 50,000 ha.

As the Tendaho dam is likely to be operational at this intermediary stage of

development, main features of the relevant water management schedule are given in
Table 21. The maximum normal water depth at the dam site, i.e. 32 m, has been taken
into consideration in both regulation and power production requirements. The total
area of irrigable lands commanded by the dam and available for development without
reclamation is estimated, in accordance with soil-survey findings and irrigation lay-
out, at 66,300 ha. Supply of irrigation water for this area of land is provided for
in each alternative water management schedule. Significant variations, however,
result in power production potential, as this is bound to decrease with higher water
consumption in upper reaches.

The lowest potential power output figures found in the three water management
plans have been selected for dimensioning the power plant (21,000 KN) and estimates
for the firm potential power output (91 Gun per annum). The latter includes power
earmarked for pumping irrigation water (22 GWh) on an area amounting to approximately
45,000 ha. (See Map 18).

Civil engineering

The dam consists of two parts: a rockfill dam across the river and a concrete
structure on the left bank.

Power plant offtakes and dewatering gate are installed on the concrete section of
the dam. The spillway, equipped with two sector gates, is established on the left
bank.

The area of grout curtain needed to prevent leakage is estimatéd at about

80,000 m2.

Table 22 shows the principal features of the dam.

 - 86 -

TABLE 22 - TENDAHO DAM - PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

Irrigated areas 66,500 ha

Total annual potential power output 91 GWh

PERFORMANCE
PoWer earmarked for pumping of irrigation water 22 GWh

Damping of floods to a limit of 300 m3/s

Height above river bed 35 m

Length at the crest 280 m

DAM AND
Width of the crest 7m
PONER PLANT
Volume of rockfill dam 300,000 m3

Spillway capacity 1,000 M3/s

Freeboard above normal maximum water level 3m

Installed power plant 21,000 KW
( T.W.L. above river 32 m
Normal maximum capacity 970 hm3

RESERVOIR Corresponding surface 131.5 km2

Total inflow of sediments per annun 20 hm3

Evaporation from the reservoir per annum 274 hm3

6. Meki Diversion Scheme

(i) Topography

The idea of supplementing the Awash water resources by diverting a part of the
flow from adjacent basins has been mentioned in the reports of various previous
reconnaissance missions. With the establishment of the Koka dam and power plants,
the possibility of constructing a relatively short canal to lead the waters of Lake
Ziway into Lake Gelilea with a minimum difference of elevation of about 45 m, appeared
sufficiently attractive to justify preliminary investigations. These were initiated
by the Project team, although not included in the plan of operations.

A series of interconnected marshy depressions was located between a small Awash

right bank tributary, the Dubeta, amd the Meki River which flows into Lake Ziway from
the North West. Preliminary observations revealed that the depressions probably
mark the alignment of an old channel connecting the two rivers. (See Map 15).
 - 88 -

Subsequent topographic operations have shown that for some distance the ground
slopes towards the Meki river, which may be due to an orogenic movement. The canal
would have to be about 18 km long, and would cross elevated rround before reaching
the Dubeta river. Consequently, relatively substantial excavation would be necessary;
a short section of the canal would be about 22 m deep.

On the other hand the slope of the Dubeta is significantly steeper than that of
the Meki, so that control of current velocity in the canal would be needed.

Hydrology and Water Control

From observations made at a hydrometric station installed in 1963 specially for

this purpose, the total flow of the Meki river from November 1963 to October 1964
inclusive was found to be 230 hm-. 95 percent of he recorded flow occurred in 5
months of the year.

It appeared reasonable to contemplate eventually the diversion of some 200 hm3

annually into Lake Gelilea above,Koka Dam, achieved by stages over several years.
Such an amount would raise the water level in Lake Gelilea by about 1.0 m, which
appears safe with present freeboard at Koka Dam of 2.5 m above Top Uater Level. In
point of fact at the highest water level yet attained in the Lake, the freeboard was
3.0 m.

Additional amounts so stored in_ the Lake could be used either to increase the
flow passed through the turbines for power, or specifically for irrigation.

In the former case, the prodUction of power plants dependent on the Koka Dam
would increase by about 15 percent, i.e. by 16 GWh at the existing station (Awash I),
and by 74 GWh when the two stations now under construction (Awash II.and Awash III)
come into operation, provided the leakage from the reservoir continues in the same
proportion as at present. The supplementary flows would make possible the irrigation
of some 10,000 ha additional in the Middle Valley.

In the latter case, the supplementary water would all be released from Koka
Reservoir during the months of low flow. This, it is estimated, would make possible
the irrigation of some 40,000 ha of additional land. Some increase in the output of
firm power could be expected, but its amount cannot yet be estimated.

Civil enp;ineerinp;

Civil engineering works would involve mainly the excavation of the initial canal
which is expected to take progressively its final section and stable slope by erosion.
In order to prevent too active a regressive erosion, however, a series of sills will
be needed in the channel of the Dubeta rivers.

The off-take structure may be provided with two roller gates and. the Meki river
dammed with a Submersible weir formed of gabions.

The total volume of excavation is tentatiVely estimated at 7,200,000 m.

The project seems attractive, but no detailed engineering studies should be

initiated until a few important problems are first elucidated.
 - 89 -

(iv) Further investigations required

The catchment area of Meki river is about 2,400 km2 and accounts for 1/3 of the
total catchment area to Ziway Lake, which usually discharges its water into the
brackish lake of Hora-Abyita. Diversion of a part or all of the Meki flow will
result in lowering of the Ziway Lake water level and, consequently, in a reduction
of its discharge. A hydrological survey of the Plateau of Lakes will be needed in
order to appreciate the effects of diversion of the Meki flow on the hydrological
balance of the Lakes.

The permeability of terrain across which,the diversion canal is to run must be

carefully investigated. The surface soils consist of very light volcanic ashes and
extensive gully erosion has occurred. It is possible however that the alluvial
layers deposited in the old river bed are deep enough to ensure reasonably low
permeabilities in the future channel. A series of test boringn will be needed to
ascertain the permeability of deep layers.

Although the capacity of the Lake Gelilea is sufficient to store the additional
volume of water, with the level of the lake rising by about lm, there remains the
need for a thorough study of the possible effect of higher water levels in the
reservoir on the present considerable leakage losses.. This is discussed below.
7. Management of Available Water Resources

In relation to the possible improvement of water management in the Koka

reservoir, two major problems should be considered:

Siltation control

- Water loss prevention

(i) Siltation control

An efficient control of the rate of siltation is of paramount importance

because of the reduction of reservoir capacity following deposition of sediments at
the bottom of the lake. Long before the reservoir is completely silted up, the
reduction of its capacity will result in a progressive reduction of power
productibility and the supply of water for irrigation.

Data recorded at the Projectts hydrometric station s ggest that the total volume
of sediment load brought into the reservoir is about G hm per annum. As this volume
amounts to about 0.33 percent of the capacity, it suggests that the reservoir would
be completely filled with sediments in about 300 years. It should be pointed out,
however, that this estimate is based on only a ver short period of observations.
The forecast of the life-time of the reservoir must be confirmed by systematic
surveys by depth sounder, which will help to establish the reservoir capacity,up to
date,to locate the main areas of deposition, and to check the progress of sediment
deposit.

To a limited degree siltation control may be improved by diverting a part of the

sediment-laden inflows into the marshy fringe areas of the ru:ervoir. These marshes
may be progressively reclaimed by isolating them from the main body of the reservoir
by d;ykes and warping with sediment-laden kater.
 - 90 -

(ii) Water loss prevention

Since the Koka dam went into effective service, it has been obvious that the
water losses in Lake Gelilea are higher than expected. This is due to somewhat higher
evaporation rates than initially reckoned with, and, apparently, to considerable see-
page from the reservoir. The cumulative annual water loss would appear, on the basis
of 3 years' observations by Project hydrologists, to be as high as 700 hm', equivalent
to a continuous rate or flow of almost 22 mi/s. Evaporation losses are estimated at
about 320 hm", the balance is probably due to leakage.

Unfortunately, effective measures to reduce evaporation cannot yet be assured,

the development Of suitable methods being still at the experimental stage.
Evaporation is more active in the shallower fringes of the water body, where water
is warmer, than in the deeper section. Moreover, vegetation usually grows in the
shallow water, and its transpiration adds to the evaporation losses from the open
water surface. The suggestion to reclaim the marshy fringes of the lake, referred
to above would appear, at the moment, about the only possible measure to reduce the
evaporation losses.

Seepage losses, Computed as balance between total inflows and outflows (turbine
flow + evaporation loss), may be estimated at an equivalent of a continuous discharge
of about 12 m.)/s. Such a flow might have produced about 35 GITh/Year of eleetricity
at the Koka plant; this figure illustrates the magnitude of the problem, which is
still far from being sufficiently elucidated. As the areas where losses of water
occur are very scattered, direct measurement of the total-leakage is not easy. It
is believed that seepage occurs mainly through the bottom of the reservoir. A
closer study of leakage areas should be given a top priority as it may reveal a
possible means of reducing, at least partially, the loss of water.

8. Compensation Dam

The discharge from Koka dam is regulated according to the needs of power
production. Apart from daily and weekly variations of the discharge, no apparent
law governing the monthly outflows could be detected, but it may be assumed-that,with
increasing power demand, the volume of water discharged will become less irregular
from one month to another. Such uniform regulation does not agree with irrigation
requirements, which vary considerably at different seasons of the year. In the table
below a critical period of 5 months of.particularly low flow is analyzed.
TABLE 23 ANALYSIS OF AWASH FLOW IN LOWER PERIOD

Description 1962 1963

Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.

Observed River Flow at Awash

Stationhm3 80.0 59.5 68.0 63.0 104.0
Requirements for NuraEra
25.0
and Metehara areas (15,000ha)hm3 15.5 23.5 23.8 18.5
Balance of flow available hm3 64.5 34.5 44.5 40.0 85.5
Net rate of use in m3 per ha
(assuming 205 return flow) 765 1415 1315 1270 955
Hectares irrigable (3) ; (4) 84,000 24,500 34,000 31,500 89,500
 91
The wide variations in the remaining monthly flows and the irrigable areas are
obvious.

Compensation for these variations may be achieved by establishing a reservoir in

which surplus water in the wet months may be stored to supplement the flow in the
dry ones. The effective storage capacities required in order to ensure such
compensation during the critical period referred above are listed in Table 24 in
relation to the areas in the Middle Valley below Awash Station which might have been
irrigated with each given capacity.

TABLE 24

COMPENSATION RESERVOIR CAPACITIES AND AREAS IRRIGABLE

Area (ha) Capacity (hm3)

24,500 o

25,000 0.5
30,000 8.0
35,000 21.5

40,000 41.5

45,000 59.5
50,000 82.5

55,000 103.5

The decision to provide such a reservoir and the selection of the capacity to be
given to it will depend to a great extent on the general plan of development. With
the available water supply substantial areas of land may already be irrigated.
Future economic development may justify priority implementation of the Meki or Kesem
projects, as each of them would increase the available resources of water. Finally,
a steady increase in power consumption, together with the harnessing of other rivers
for power Production, may allow the water management plan for Koka Dam to be so
modified that the_monthly flow at the entry into the Middle Valley will never fall
below 70 to 80 hm3. This flow would provide sufficient water to irrigate about
50,000 ha in this region, i.e. the greater part of the lands to which Awash water
can be economically applied. An appropriate agreement with EELPA (Ethiopian Electric
Light and Power Authority) to guarantee an adequate discharge at the Koka Dam may
obviate the need for a monthly compensation dam.

In case such an agreement cannot be reached, a possible site for a dam has been
tentatively located in the deep gorges cut in the basaltic formation near Awash
Station. Only a very rough topographical reconnaissance was made and this revealed
thq.t a 40 m high dam constructed near the railway bridge may probably store about 50
hm, which is believed to be the maximum capacity to be contemplated for the
reservoir. More detailed studies and geological investigations will be needed
before this project can be appraised.
 - 92 -

9. Zidro-Power Potential of the TILiDer Basin

Three falls and several rapids between Awash III power plant now under
construction and Awash Station, have been inspected by the Project team. The
'cumulative head at these falls and rapids is estimated to be about 158 m. It would
appear possible to construdt a series of power plants using the flow regulated by the
Koka dam. The following Eives a rough estimate of the total power potential available
in the Upper Valley of Awash River4

TABLE 25 - TJPP1R VALLEY - ESTIMATED POWER POTENTIAL

Power site Average head Annual

(m) Productivity
(GUh)

Koka plant.(Awash I) - in service 36 110

Awash II and III - under construction 119 360

Awash IV - at design stage 58 180

Three downstream sites - first priority 50 150

Rapids - second priority 50 150
Totals 313 950
 - 93 -

CHAPTER IX - PRIORITIES IN PLANNING WATER USE

Areas possible

It is apparent that the amounts of water available with the present degree of
water control, i.e. that provided by the Koka Reservoir,are sufficient for the irri-
gation of some 66,000-67,000 ha in the whole Valley. The hydrological studies made
so far indicate that had sufficient additional water control been achieved by a
suitable selection of the projects discussed in chapter VIII, with programmes of
water management strictly adapted to irrigation requirements, in the conditions of
the year 1962/63, the irrigation of some 200,000 ha might have been possible. It is
believed that the conditions of 1962/63 approximated to those of an average year.
But in view of the very limited period for.which records of flows are available,
at present it appears wise to assume a smaller figure for the total area irrigable
in the Basin. Further, on the basis of soil survey and preliminary engineering
investigations a total of 163,250 ha is adopted as the target,to include those lands
of good quality to which water can most easily be conveyed, as well as all the areas
nor irrigated.

Areas possible with various combinations of water control schemes.

Numerous computations were made by SOGREATT to determine the maximum area

irrigable in the Upper Middle Valleys, and the Lower Plains, respectively, with
various combinations of schemes of water control. The results are shown in Table 26.
For ease of comparison of the various alternatives there are set out in two groups,
those without Tendaho Dam and those with it. In some cases, the figures of area are
determined by considerations of soils and accessibility to irrigation and not merely
by amounts of water likely to be available: these are made clear by notes attached
to the Table. Rates of costs per ha of area are based on the estimates of capital
costs given in chapter XI 5 theyoover the costs of schemes of water control only.

The main points revealed by study of the Table May be summarized as follows

In respect bOth of areas irrigable, and of cost per ha, one of the most
advantageous projects of water control is the Meki Diversion Scheme, provided
it is techniCally and economically feasible, which is still uncertain. It
appears highly desirable to initiate as soon as possible the further
investigations required to determine this. (See Figs. 14 and 15)

If the Meki Diversion Scheme is feasible, the decision as to whether its

benefit in water should be used primarily for power (P) or primarily for
irrigation (I) is a matter for Government to decide, on comparison of the
respective economic and social advantages of these two alternatives. For
the further purposes of this Report, it has been assumed that the decision
is in favour of irrigation.

If the Meki Diversion Scheme proves not to be feasible, the Compensation

Heservoir will provide a useful, but much less beneficial, alternative.

Tendaho Dam is essential to make possible the maximum development of the

Lower Plains, at reasonable rates of cost.

Kesem Dam can contribute to the increase of area in the Lower Plains,
and alone will make possible the irrigation of certain areas in the Kesem-
Kebena area of the Middle Valley which are not accessible to irrigation from
the Awash itself. The cost per ha. of development irrigated from Kesem Dam
will be relatively higher than with other schemes of water control.
 TABLE 26 - MAXIMUM AR2,S afICH C..-)ULD HAVE BE2N IRBICA020 IN 1962/63
ITH VARIOUS 302h1423 FOB WATER CONTROL

Maximum Areas Hectares Average Unit

Schemes of Water Control Canital Cost Remarks
F.'S/ha
Upper and Lower Whole Awash Increase on
Middle Valley Plains Valley (1)

A. Without Tendaho Dam

1) Moka Dam ony as at pres,nt 46,050 20,0004* 66,050 Alternative - :J./ 54,250, LP 12,750, Total 67,000 ha
2) Moka + Compl- Dam 56,300 20,000** 76,300 10,250 875 UMV 70,200, LP 7,700, Total 77,900 ha
Moka + Keki (P) 56,200 20,000** 76,200 10,150 1 040 e 011V 65,500, LF 11,150, Total 11,250 ha
4 Moka + Maki (I) 81,400* 27,400 108,300 42,750 '245
5 Moka + Kesem 71,250 20,000*. 91,250 25,200 1,190 Alternative - UMV 80,150, LP 12,150, Total 92,300 ha
(6) Moka + CompE + Maki 1:1 67,150 20,000.* 87,150 21,100 920 e UMV 81,400, LP 1,400, Total 88,800 ha
(7) Moka + CompE + Kaki I) 81,400* 41,500 122,900 56,850 340
(8) Moka + CompE + Kesem 81,500 20,000.* 101,500 34,450 1,095 Alternative - UMV 93,850, LP 9,100, Total 102,950 ha
(9) Moka +Kesem + Kaki (P) 81,500 20000** 101,500 1,140 o UMV 89,300, LP 13,100, Total 102,400 ha
35,450
(10) Moka + Kesem + Maki (I) 96,950* 40,000 136,950 70,900 , 570
(11) Moka + Compa + Kesem + Maki rP) 92,400 20000** 112,400 46,350 1,065 Alternative - 1111V 96,950, LP 16,000, Total 112,950 ha
(12) Moka + CompE + Kesem + Maki I) 96,950* 60,900 157,850 91,800 540

1 B. With Tendaho Dam

(13) Moka + Tend 54,250 66,300* 120,550* 54,500 410

(14) Moka + CompE + Tend 70,200 66,300* 136,500* 70,450 450
15) Koka + Maki (P) + Tend 65,500 66,300* 131,800* 65,750 500
16 Moka + Maki (I) + Tend 81,400* 66,300* 147,700* 81,650 400
17 Moka + Kesem + Tend 80,150 66,300* 146,450* 80,450 650
18 Moka + CompE + Kaki (P) + Tend 81,400* 66,300* 147,700* 81,650 510
19 Moka + CompE + Kesem + Tend 93,850 66,300* 160,150* 94,100 650
20 Moka + Meki (P) + Kesem + Tend 89,300 66,300* 155,600* 89,550 700
21 !Coke. + Meki (I) + Keeem + Tend 96,950* 66,300* 163,250* 97,200 645
22 Moka + CompE + Maki (p) + Tend 96,950. 66,300* 163,2504 97,200 740

* Maximum limited by extend of land found suitable in respect of quality of soils and commandibility for irrigation.

** Area in Lower Plains assumed at 20,000 ha, being full amount of water right now granted. If this area ie less,
area in Upper and Middle Valley can be increased - See Remarks column.

Legend - Moka Moka Reservoir as now existing.

CompE Dam . Compensation 2eaE of about 50 hm3 capacit'y to reconcile water use for hydropower.
Maki Maki Diversion Scheme Priority for hydropower.
Maki I - " " irrigation only.
Kesem K;sem ResE with a capacity of 350 hm3.
Tend Tendaho Res E with a capacity of 960 hm3. - 94 -
 - 95 -

It should be noted that only Tendaho and Kesem Dams were investigated by the
Survey in sufficient detail to establish provisionally their feasibility. The Meki
Diversion Project and the Compensation Dam were the subject of preliminary reconnais-
sance and examination only.

3. Factors affecting Relative Priorities of Irrigation Development.

The chief problem affecting the timing and magnitude of the various future
stages of irrigation development is whether the Middle Valley should have priority
over the Lower Plains, or vice versa, or whether both should be developed at the
same time.

The Middle Valley has a better climate, being at a greater altitude and
better soils and appears to be more suited to the development of intensive irrigated
agriculture or commercial type farms. Yields will be higher, and agricultural
benefits greater. The abstraction of irrigation water here has the advantage of
decreasing the flows further downstream, and thus of diminishing the amounts spilt
into swamps and flood areas with consequent loss.

Communications, though needing improvement, are not bad; many of the

irrigable areas are not unduly far from the railway. No reason appears so far to
indicate difficulties in finding sufficient cultivations for development in the
Middle Valley.

In the Lower Plains the soils are definitely less fertile, and the climate
is less favourable; as a result, the potential crop patterns are appreciably less
intensive, and the yields to be expected are somewhat less. A very important factor
is the instability of the river channels in this region, which are liable to change
their sectiOn or even their course completely, or break out*in new branch channels;
many areas are subject to serious damage by flooding. However, these dangers and
difficulties can be obviated by the watei control to be provided by the Tendaho Dam;
it can be said that the construction of this Dam is a pro-requisite to considerable
development of irrigation in the Lower Plains) certainly beyond the 20,000 ha of
commercial farming and "outgrowers" for which water rights have already been granted
and the 10,000 - 15,000 ha of "flood" cultivation in the Asayita delta by small-
holders. No reason has appeared so far to indicate difficulties in finding culti-
vators for development here, any more than in the Middle Valley. Cosmmunications
with the rest of Ethiopia and other countries are provided by the Adis Abeba-Dese-
Aseb road; another main road from Adis Abeba to Aseb is to be built shortly.
Socially and politically, development in the Lower Plains appears to be highly
desirable, and offers in the long run the prospect of establishing family size
farms, which should be supported by sound services for agricultural extension and
credit.
Un grounds purely of technical and economic benefit to Ethiopia as a whole,
the balance of advantage appears definitely to lie with the early development of
areas in the Upper and Middle Valley to the maximum possible without Kesem Dam
(which, necessary for full ultimate development in these 14gions, involves relatively
high expenditure and may be contemplated at a later stage). But the extent and
timing of such development in the Upper and Middle Valley cannot be definitely planned
until it can be determined whether the Meki Diversion Scheme in some form or other is
possible, or whether only the compensation reservoir must be assumed and if so,
where and of what capacity. The need for surveys and investigations to determine
these questions will operate to defer to some extent the rate of development in the
Upper and Middle Valley.
 - 96 -

In the Lower Plains, Government is already committed to water rights for

about 20,000 ha at Dubti and Dit Bahri, plus existing small-holders cultivation in
the Asayita area, say some 11,000 ha. These developments are at present subject
to the risks of flooding, instability of channels, etc. To some extent it might be
possible to control these by local river training works etc. But the efficacy of
such works could never be certain and their cost would be considerable. Further, ,
the construction of the Tendaho Dam would control these risks much more effectively.
It would also make possible the ultimate extension of irrigation to a total of at
least 66,300 ha and possibly 70,000 ha in the Lower Plains. Clearly, then,
on technical and economic grounds alone the construction of Tendaho Dam at a fairly
early stage of development would be fully justified.

The construction of Kesem Dam can be deferred until it becomes apparent

that it is essential for the full ultimate development of irrigation.

4. Stages of Development Proposed

Taking into account all the considerations discussed above, three successive
stages ofdevelopment are proposed, on the general lines set out in Table 27.

TABLE 27 - PRESENT AND PROPOSED STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Target Areas of Development hectares

Stage Water Control Upper Middle Lower Totals

Valley Valley Plains

Present Koka Reservoir

6,650 1,550 16,100 24,300
only

Koka Reservoir
First only 12,000 19,500 31,900 63,400

Koka Reservoir, + Meki

Second Diversion Scheme (or 12,000 50,850 51,300 114,150
compensation Reser-
voir) + Tendaho
Reservoir

As second stage +
Third Kesem Reservoir 12,000 84,950 66,300 163,250

Technical considerations affecting the implementation of development in

these stages, including particulars of individual areas and schemes, and the works
and costs involved, are discussed in chapter X - Development of Irrigation.

5, Master Plan

Once the necessary further surveys and investigations have resolved the
present remaining uncertainties affecting water control and irrigation development,
it will be possible to prepare a "Master Plan",at least in its main outlines, for
the whole Awash Valley, in such a form as to fit into the national development
plan for Ethiopia, and make the optimum possible contribution to the country's
economy. In this of course, the financing of development will have to be taken
into account, with a realistic schedule of investment.
 - 97 -

Within the framework of the master plan, the timing of the successive stages can
be fleXible, to be suited to circumstances.
 -98-

CHAPTER X - DEVELOPMaTT OF IRRIGATION

Present Development.

As yet relatively little use has been made of the water resources in the
Awash Basin for irrigation. In the Upper Valley, the 6,000 hectares plantation at
Wenji for sugar cane has been very successful from all aspects. Other schemes of
modest size include those at Genet*and Nura-Era. In the Middle Valley, 850 hectares
at Abadi-Metehara, and 650 hectares at Kesem-Kebena, with a small area a,t melka
Warar, are developed. In the Lower Plains the Tendaho Plantation Share Co. has
developed 4,000 ha at Dubti, and 500 ha at Dit Bahri; in addition some 11,600 ha
in the Asayita and old Awash areas are under cultivation by small holders with
crude means and only moderate yields: in the Lower Plains the main cash crop is
cotton. The total present area under irrigation from the Awash is about 24,300 ha.
Under the present relatively liberal regulations for the use of land and water, much
of this development has so far proceeded with little planning and preparation and
technical or administrative coordination. The Awash Valley Authority was recently
set up as a controlling body, responsible for planning the hydraulic and agri-
cultural development of the basin as a follow-un to the investirt;ations of the
present Survey. Until this planning materializes in action, it is to be expected
that for several years at least, developmtnt will continue on the lines followed
so far.
Principles affecting the Extension of Agricultural Development.

It is clearly very desirable that the development of all new areas should
benefit from the latest technical means and knowledge, so as to ensure the best
combination of economy, effectiveness and reliability. Only the lands of suitable
quality (in this case Class II and III), and those most easily provided with water
and cultivated, should be considered for development.

Methods of Supply. In general, supply schemes operating by gravity are

recommended; these involve canal headworks with, or without, a diversion
weir or barrage across the river. Pumping is recommended in some cases,
for instance for the modernization of the irrigation in the Asayita delta;
with small units drawing water from existing channels, and supplying each
from 150 to 200 ha of land. Large pumping units are advisable in cases
where gravity irrigation would involve long and costly feeder canals, e.g.
the cases of the Bolhamo area in the Middle Valley and the Old Awash area
in the Lower Plains.

Canalisation. To reduce costs, in most cases earth canals are proposed,

as the ground through which they will pass appears to be sufficiently
impervious. A fairly high average velocity of flow (0.75 m/s) is proposed,
to reduce as much as possible the risks of sedimentation, and as a pre-
caution against bilharziasis. Structures on canals should provide for the
best available techniques of water control and distribution, in order to
simplify operation and reduce losses.
In the layout of canal systems, each area has been divided into units
of, at most, 40 ha ( = 1 gasa) each. It is proposed that these should
where possible be rectangular, with standard dimensions of 400 m x 1000 m
which are suitable for either furrow or strip irrigation where slopes are
gentle. Figure No. 16 (in the folder) shows a typical layout with small
pumping unit, as proposea for the Asayita delta.

* TETSETE GENET in the TIBILA PLAIN

 - 99 -

iii) Drainage. Systems of drains are proposed, to

ensure the collection and
disposal of natural runoff and surplus irrigation water within the irrigable
areas. The specific rate of 2.5 litres/sec/ha is proposed, which should
ensure that no area of land remains submerged for more than 24 hours, more
often that once in 2 years. Runoffs from catchment lying above irrigable
areas should be passed through them to discharge freely downstream.

iv) Flood Protection. Where necessary, d,ykes should be provided to protect

irrigable areas from flooding by spill from rivers and streams, or to divert
flows of natural runoff.
The application of these principles to individual schemes is described in
Vol.V.

Individual Irri ation Schemes - Upper Valley.

The chief development possible here will be the extension of the Nura-Era
scheme to an ultimate area of 5400 ha. No more irrigation development in this region
would appear advisable, unless the Meki river diversion for irrigation project is
implemented. The Upper Valley is a marginal region for rainfed agriculture, and
further development of irrigation here should only be authorized after water is
provided for arid and semi-arid regions.

Individual Irr ion Schemes - Middle Valle .

Schemes on the principles outlined above have been evolved for five areas in
the Middle Valley, with preliminary estimates of cost to make possible tentative
economic appraisals. They are shown in schematic form on Map Yo. 17 (in the folder).
Notes on these five schemes follow

Kesem-Kebena. When the Kesem dam is built, this area, ultimately of

about 17,550 ha could be irrigated from headworks at the present water intake
at Awora Kelka, supplying a canal system fanning out towards the Awash.
These subsidiary areas would require dykes to protect them against flooding
from these rivers; joining up with the system of dykes along the Awash.

Melka Sedi. The area here some 8;550 ha, could draw water from the
Awash by a weir and headworks on the right bank at the outlet of the gorge
below Awash Station. These works would raise the water level at low stage
by some 3 m 7 and would supply a main canal aligned along the foot of the
hills above the Aleydegi plain. Because the banks of the Awash here have
built themselves up by spill, a branch canal along the higher ground beside
the river will be necessary. Dykes will be needed to give protection from
flooding by the Kesem and Kebena rivers, and if necessary from the raised
water level resulting from a diversion work at Melka Warrar see iii) below).

Amibara-Angele. This area, ultimately some 16,650 ha, lies on the right
bank immediately downstream (ii). It could be supplied either

a by an extension of the Melka Sedi canal system.

b by a barrage with gates on the rock hill at Melka Warrar, below
Mount Dofan.
Investigation indicates that the latter would be the more economical
solution, and it would still avoid undesirable interf'erence with the
drainage of areas upstream. Here, as in (ii),,a branch canal along the
raised ground beside the Awash would be necessary. Extensive dykes
would be needed to protect the lower parts of this area against
flooding.
 - 100-

Bolhamo. This area of 8,900 ha, on the left bank opposite Amibara
is delineated by an amphitheatre of the hills through which no permanent
river runs. Water for this area will have to come from the Awash at the
Melka Warar barrage, via the Amibara riverside canal, to a pipe on the
bridge across the Awash.

Maro-Gala. This area lies further north than (i) to (iv), along the
western edge of the Gewani swamp. Its ultimate area is some 23,000 ha, and
it is compact in shape. It could readily be supplied with water from a
headworks on the Awash at the lower end of the gorge bear Mount Dabita Ale.
Four fifths of the area could be irrigated by gravity, and the rest, on its
upstream side, by pumping. Arrangements for drainage and protection against
flooding could probably be simple and relatively inexpensive.

Comments. Because these schemes in the Middle Valley can almost entirely
be supplied with water by gravity, they are in general fairly inexpensive.
The Melka Sedi and Amibara areas further are favourably located, and there-
fore merit priority development. The Bolhamo and Kesem Kebena areas have
lower priorities, the former because of its higher initial and operating
costs, and the latter because of its dependance on the large and somewhat
expensive Kesem Dam.
Metehara-Abadir areas covering some 10,500 ha in the Middle Valley have been
surveyed in detail by Israeli and Dutch experts. No schematic irrigation
layout was prepared for this region by the Project team in view of the
expectation that the Metehara project would be developed on a concession
basis.

5. Individual Irrivation Schemes - Lower Plains.

As already indicated the Lower Plains are deltaic, with a complex and
unstable network of channels. Every year during the high water period the rivers
overflow and the lands are flooded. This, it is true, results in beneficial
deposits of sediment, but it also conduces to modifications of the branch channels,
and even to the formation of new channels, with consequent changes in the pattern
of irrigable lands. Something of this sort probably happened in the northern part
of the Asayita delta, as a result of which a considerable area of arable land had
to be abandoned. The Boyale branch is now gradually forming a new channel for
itself.
Apart from uncertainties due to flooding and unstable river channels,
irrigated crops in the Lower Plains are affected because *adequate supplies in the
river are only available during the relatively short period of high flows. The
primary purpose of building a dam at Tendaho is to regulate the flows in the Awash
so as TO be able to satisfy the irrigation requirements of the maximum possible area
of land and at any time of the year. This dam, however, will also control the flood
peaks, and thus remove the main factors causing instability of the channels. This
will also result in the partial reclamation of extensive marshes, which may become
grazing lands. The retention in the reservoir of much of the sediment load of the .

Awash will affect the regime of the channels downstream which are likely to be eroded.
However it should be possible to counter this by suitable works for river training
and stabilisation, and by the use of flow distributorsat channel bifurcations, e.g.
at the heads of the Bogale and Issa branches, Such water spreading should improve
the grazing on lands between the irrigable areas, to replace those taken into the
latter.

The layouts of Individual Schemes are shown in schematic form on Map No. 18.
(see folder). Notes on them are as follows :
 101

Dubti. This area, now under development by the Tendaho Plantations

Share Co. under a concession for 6,000 ha, has a canal system fed partly by
gravity intake, and partly by pumps. The area could be extended to some
91.050 acres, and could also supply water to private cultivations outside,
as far as the Boyale branch and swamp.

Dit Bahri. The development of this has just begun, also by the T.P.S. Co, undei
a concession for 6,000 ha. No diversion weir across the river appears necessary,
but the headworks, in view of.its vulnerability and importance, should be suitably
protected.

Minor riverside areas between Dubti and Dit Bahri will have to be
irrigated by small pumping units.

Asayita delta Here lands are cultivated by small holders as the floods
recede, in somewhat primitive fashion, with shortterm crops. The area
comprises a whole network of meandering natural channels. To make the best
use of the area these should be realigned and intermediate channels should be
opened. But this cannot well achieve the best possible results until the
Tendaho reservoir controls the flows, and reduces flooding and instability.
It will then be possible to use small pumping units drawing from the network
of channels, and supplying tertiary irrigation units of say 150 to 200 ha,
thus providing an adaptable means of modernising cultivation and improving
yields in this area. The ultimate area is forecast at some 26,000 ha .

Old Awash Area. This is surrounded by a former channel of the Awash,

from which it was still being irrigated a few decades ago. The restoration
of this area to effective agriculture will involve the diversion of water
supplies to fill this old channel, or better, the excavation of a new canal
along the same route. A single pumping station of some 900 kW at its head
is proposed to boost the water level in the system, which in present conditions
seems likely to be inadequate. The ultimate area may be about 11,300 ha .

Comments. Power for all pumping required is expected to be available

from the Tendaho Dam. It is clear that development of the Lower Plains can
only be done on a relatively limited scale, until this Dam is constructed.
After its construction; reclamation of marshes may add not only grazing lands,
but perhaps even irrigable lands, which being at present flooding have been
either classified as Class IV land or not surveyed.
6. Stafees of Development. Table 28 and Map 19 show summary particulars of the
development of the various individual projects or groups of projects, in the various
parts of the Basin, as now existing and as sugeested for the three stages of
Development discussed in Chapter IX para 4.

The First Stage, possible with the degree of water control already provided
by the Koka Reservoir, would increase the total area to over 63,000 ha, more than
2Y2 times its present figure. This may be expected to take a number of years, which
will give time for the necessary further investigations required (see para 7 below),
9f Irri-
and their results considered. In the Lower Plains, before the promoters
gation can fully achieve their present nominal entitlement, much less expand further,
it will be essential to construct the Tendaho Dam: the decision to build it should
therefore be taken in the First Stage.

Before the Second Stage begins, it will be very desirable, and should have
of the whole
been possible, to prepare the master plan for the ultimate development
The implementation of the stage will call for further water control to make
Basin.
more water available for use in the Middle Valley; this will preferably be the
 TABLE 28 - PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION BY PROJECTS AND STAGES

First Stage Second Stage Third Stage

Present
Projects Area
Additional Total Additional Total Additional Total

UPPER VALLEY

Wonji, Genet and others 6,600 0 6,600 0 ' 6,600 0 6,600

Nuri, Eva 50 5,350 5,400 0 5,400 0 5,400

Total Upper Valley 6,650 5,350 12,000 0 12,000 0 12,000

MIDDLE VALLEY

Abadir - Metehara 850 9,650 10,500 0 10,500 0 10,500

Kesem - Kebena 650 1,350 2,000 0 2,000 15,550 17,550
Melki Sedi 0 6,000 6,000 2,550 8,550 0 8,550
Amibara - Augelele 50 950 1,000 15,650 16,650 0 16,650
Bolhamo 0 0 0 2,500 2,500 6,400 8,900
Maro Gala 0 0 0 10,650 10,650 12,150 22,800

Total Middle Valley 1,550 17,950 19,500 31,350 50,850 34,100 84,950

LOWER PLAINS

Dubti 4,000 5,050 9,050* 0 9,050 0 9,050

Small riverside areas 0 0 0 0 0 3,700 3,700
Dit Bahri 500 10,450 10,950* 5,400 16,350 0 16,350
Asayita Delta etc. 11,600 300 11,900 14,000 25,900 0 25,900
Old Awash 0 0 0 0 0 11,300 11,300
Total Lower Plains 16,100 15,800 31,900 19,400 51,300 15,000 66,300

GRAND TOTALS 24,300 39,100 63,400 50,750 114,150 49,100 163,250

* Total of 20,000 ha covers water rights granted to Tendaho Plantations Share Co. and outgrowers.
 104

Meki Diversion Scheme, if found feasible, or alternatively a compensation reservoir

on the Awash below Koka Reservoir and tha power sites further downstream. Unless
the Meki Diversion is possible, no further irrigation development is recommended in
the Upper Valley; this is a marginal area for rain-watered agriculture and further
agriculture development would involve the cleaning of extensive areas of woodlands,
and also would tend to reduce the power potential of the Awash flows.

The third Stage would achieve the full development of irrigation in the
Awash Basin, up to a total of some 163,000 ha For this, further water control
would be needed in the construction of the Kesem Dam.

The costs of development, both of water control works and of irrigation

schemes, are estimated and discuesed in Chapter XI.

7 Commente on Suggested Developments. The layouts and designs suggested for

the varioue projects in the three stages of development outlined above are entirely
preliminary. Knowledge of the topography of the areas to be developed is not yet
sufficient for the preparation of more definite layouts. In the Middle Valley, areas
for development are well defined by natural features such as foothills etc., and
they occur in more or less separate units of moderate size. In the Lower Plains,
on the other hand, natural boundaries are less well defined. Land classification,
following the soil survey, provided the first criteria for delineating tentative
schemes of irrigation development. Except in email areas, littLe is known of the
topogx.aphy of this area, and the Map No. 18 should be regarded as providing merely
a schematic concept of a possible layout.

It is olear the.t before a comprehensive plan for the development of

irrigated agriculture can be prepared, further extensive surveys and engineering
studiee must be undertaken. This is primarily the responeibility of Government,
or at least of a Government sponsored authority. Detailed layouts and designe for
the execution of individual projecte may be prepared either by Government authority,
or by concessionaries or owners of the lands) as may be found most appropriate in
each particular case.

The development of irrigable lande in the Middle Valley appears; to be

technically relatively simple. Even where areae are adjacent, separate layouts
for irrigation can be prepared without difficulty, provided due allowance is made
for the neede of other areao, e.g. for feeder canals, drainage, etc. In the Lower
Plains in contraet, development ehould be regrded as technically more difficult;,
it will be deeirable to outline a comprehensive scheme for the whole region before
attempting to prepare definite layouts for individual projects. The technical
etudies involved will be more complexe and will need more time than thoee for the
Middle Valley.
 105

CHAPTER XI ESTInATES OF COSTS AND ECONOMIC APPRAISALS

1. Estimates of Costs

Estimates have been prepared of the costs involved in the development of the
principal projects discussed in this report. The basis on which these estimates
have been framed are set out Vol. IV and V.

Since the engineering inveo.tigabions made so far have been of a preliminary

nature and detailed designs have not yet been made, the costing is necessarily
approximate. In projects where no geologicei or soil mechanics investigations were
carried out, it has been assumed th.::.t no particular foundation problems will be
encountered. For the Kebena dan, it was assumed that similar precautions to those
foreseen on the Kesem dam site would be necessary. For the Meki River Diversion,
the assumption was made that the permeability and erodibility of the bed of the
diversion canal will be sufficiently low to make lining unecessary.

No provision was made for changes in the basic rates of cost of materials, plant
and equipment, labour, taxes, customs, etc. Ilachinery prices were taken at those
prevailing in the world market at the end of 1964. Data of unit prir,es for civil
engineerinE works as quoted by contractors in Ethiopia were systematically collected
and kept up to date during the field operations of the Project.

Irrigation schemes costestimates incluae all engineering and land preparing

works which are a responsibility of ei,her the Public Authority or Government, or the
landwners or farmers. Investment in the field distribution systems, i.e. farm canals
and drainage ditches, and in land levelling, is usually the responsibility of
landwners or farmers; this ezounts to about 1/3 of the total estimated investment
cost. .

The allotment to individual projects of the cost of shred civil engineering

works such as protection dykes or large drainage canals is often a difficult operation.
A tentative allotment has been made for Hiddle Valley development afeas, with
resulting uneven distribution of this burden. Other cost allotment patterns might
also be applied. For Lower Plains development areas, the engineering works common
to all subareas are to be allotted to all irrigable land and evenly distributed.

The cost of roads and power transmission lines is not included in the irrigation
development estimates. Expenditure for road building is to be added for purposee of
economic analysis. The nosts of trangmission lines and that part of dam costs
attributable to the generation of.energy may be omitted if :ne power price for
pumping includes delivery cost.

Annual charges must also be computed for economic analysis.

by
Since neither the date and period of constructing the works, nor the method
is
which they would be financed, nor the rate of interest is known, no allowance
included for interest on capital during the period of construction.
has
To the totals of costed major items, which include general expenses, there
of work, and an
been added 30'/, which should cover the cost of design, supervision
allowance for engineering contingencies.
 106

TABLE 29 ESTMATED COSTS OF STORAGE D.AL' S

Height of TWL above low river 69 m 32 m

Capacity of reservoir 370 hm3 970 hm3
Kasem dam Tendaho Eam

FA;

ATTRIBUTA= CO IRRIGATION

Civil engineerin,:. 22,066,000 15,435,000

Mechanical equipment 959,000 467,000

Road relocation 1,200,000

23,025,000 17,102,000

Contingencies, design and supervision 30%. 6,907,500 5,130,600

29,932,500 22,232,600*

ATTRIBUTABLE TO POWER

Civil engineering 1,584,000 4,747,000

Electromechanical equipment 3,279,000 5,104,000

4,863,000 9,851,000

Contingencies, design and supervision 30. 1,458,900 2,955,300

6,321,900 12,806,300

GRAND TOTAL 36,254,400 35,033,900

* Protective and river training works downstream of Tendaho dam to be

affected to the whole development area are estimated at E!; 5,400,000
 - 107 -

TABLE 30 TENTATIVE FOXI'CAST OF COST OF KEBENA DAM

E$

Civil engineering ......... .............. 16,200,000

Electro,andor mechanical equipment ...... 2,237,000

18,437,000

Contingencies, design and supervision 300 5,533,000

23,970,000

TABLE 31 ESTMATE OF COSTS OF DIVERSION OF MEKI RIVER

E$

Civil engineering ....... 7,896,400

Electro andor mechanical equipment 201,600

8,098,000

Contingencies, design and supervision 30';': 2,429,000

10,527,000
 TABLE 32 - IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT - PARTICULARS F WORKS AND ESTILATES OF COST

Middle Valley Lower Plains (1)

Items
Abadir- Kesem Melka Amibara- Bolhamo Maro-Gala Totals Dit Asayta ,ad Small Totals
Metehara Kebena Sedi AnE;elele (2) Bahri Delta Awash Gravity Pumping ' Areas

Areas - hectares 10,500 17,550 8,550 16,650 8,900 22,800 84,950 16,350 25,900 11,300 6,500 2 550 3 700 66 300

PARTICULARS OF V RES

100 341 43 _ _ _ _
Main and Secondary Canals - Km 85 45 57 54, 74 94
119 119 65 284 56 62 45 _ _ _
Main and Secondary Drains - Km 61 39
Protection Dykes - Kin 35 69 69 29 33 216 15 - - -
Excavation - Thous m3 1,850 4,300 4,300 2,350 1,650 10,150 2,150 1,800 750 - - -

ESTIMTES OF COST

Headworks or Pumping Stations - Thous. ES 1,400 618 1,686 1,305 1,700 6,709 380 4,592 1,520 _ _
Canal Systems, Main secondary
and tertiaryu
Field Channels II
11

m
8,256
2,035
5,579
992
10,104
1,931
6,583
1,032
9,579
2,644
40,401
8,634
8,385
1,896
4,432
3,094
3,638
1,311
_
-
_ _
-
0
Protection Dykes ,m 5,610 1,349 3,330 1,923 2,171 14,333 1,023 0 0 - -
Land Clearing a 2,071 702 1,080 698 912 5,463 2,220 2,386 668 _ _ _
Land Levelling
-,
.0 5,235 5,700 21,863 7,344 8,805 2,825 _ _ _
m 5,428 2,592 2t 908
o

Totals o 24,800 11,832 23,366 14,449 23,006 97,453 21,748 23,219 9,962 _ _
c

Design, superv sion and

u 3,550 7,010 4,335 6,902 29,237 6,524 6,966 2,989 - - - -
counting 30/, 7,440

(3) (4) (5)

GRAND TOTALS 32,240 15,382 30,376 18,784 29,908 126,690 28,272 30,185 12,951 11,239 2,922 4,310 89,879

(3) (4) (5)

COST PER HECTARE ES 1,837 1,799 1,824 2,110 1,312 1,702 1,729 1,165 1,146 1,729 1,146 1,165 1,356

Notes : Figures do not include cost of river training and protection works (eee table 29)
2 Estimates of volume of works and of coot are related to the Middle Valley without Abadir Metahare (84,950 - 10,500 = 74,450 ha)
41 Coät per heätare assumed to be El 1,71:6 as fär Babl
glI
5) " " . . . " ES 1,165 " " Asayita Delta

At June 1965, 2.5 ES were equivalent to 1.0 OS.

- 108-
 109

2. Economic Aypraisal.

An appraisal of the economic feasibility of the various developments proposed

by the Survey was made by two consultants appointed by Special Fund, Dr. L.G.Allbaugh,
Economic Production Economist, and Mr. R.M. Arbuckle, Agronomist. An abridged version:-
of their report, submitted to Special Fund in January 1965, is attached to this
volume as Appendix No. 3. Their main economic conclusion on the projects proposed
may be summarized as follows

Assuming the additional area to be developed for irrigation on the Awash

as 150,000 ha, the overall benefit/cost ratio would be about 1.95:1, at
interest:

In addition, some 115 million kilowatthours of electric power could be

produced annually, at 1/4 to 1/3 of the cost from the best alternative
source:

Control of floods would increase net incomes by about E$ 100,000 annually:

The gross value of the annual agricultural product of the whole project
is expected te be E$ 181 million with an annual net gain over present
production .of about E$ 60 million:
(i)
The investment required for these results is expected to be:

E$ Million

Initial Dams, irrigation works, roads etc. 250.6

Associated Costs by farmers (including E$ 62 179.7

millions for land levelling and quaternary
canals).
Total 430.3

The projects are expected to provide some 10,000 to 15,000 family farms,
and employment for some 25,000 to 30,000 workers:

Secondary benefits, not as yet estimated, will arise from services,

transport, and processing industries:

The data of the survey, and the economic evaluations made in this appraisal,
are entirely preliminary, and further detailed soil surveys and pre-
investment studies and investigations are necessary. Nevertheless, it is
believed that the findings of the economic report give a reasonably accurate
assessment of the possibilities of developing the agricultural economy of
the Awash region, that the estimates of costs are sufficiently liberal, and
that the estimates of yields used are conservative,:
e. \
\ix) While the Government of Ethiopia favours development of irrigated lands by
large scale mechanised enterprses, under skilled management, from a
social point of view it also appears desirable to allot a próportion of the
available lands to small farmers, already trained and experienced in the
practice of irrigation on the larger schemes:

(1) See comments in para. 3 below

 - 110-

(x) Economically, the Awash Basin is well situated, between Adis Abeba the
capital, and the por t of Aseb. The projected road on the right bank of
the river to connect Nazret with Tendaho would facilitate the transport
of agricultural products, or manufactured goods, in either direction as
appropriate:

Before present haphazard agricultural development proceeds too far, it is

desirable to prepare a master plan of development. For this purpose, the
Awash Valley Authority should be strengthened financially and technically,
to enable this autonomous body to carry out effectively all parts of its
highly important task:

For the full development of the Valley, it is important to make full use
of its water resources, for power, to be used for irrigation pumping, for
industrial development, and for domestic use:

Priorities are important. In Ethiopia there is no urgent food shortage and

no population pressure on the land, and no great pressure for land
settlement. The major probleLls are those of long-term economic development
. to increase production. Short-term "Crash" programmes are.not appropriate,
and programmes for 10 to 25 years, of carefully planned and selected
projects, economically sound, are what is wanted.

3. Comments on the Economic Feasibility Report.

(i) Estimates of Cost. The estimates of cost used for the benefit/cost
analyses of the Report were provided by the Sub-contractors to the Survey
at a relatively early stage of the final engineering studies. Inevitably,
they differ in various respects from the final estimated costs, given in
paragraph 1 of this chapter. The changes made in arriving at the latter
result from better knowledge of the climatological and hydrological
conditions, which revealed the need for supplementary works for drainage
and for protection against flooding, in the areas to be developed. However,
comparison of corresponding figures shows that had the final revised
estimates been used for the benefit/cost analyses, the general picture of
economic feasibility of the project as a whole would not have changed
significantly. This is illustrated by the figures in Table 33.

TABLE 33 COMPAitISON OF INVESTMENT REUIRED PER HECTARE

Investment required per hectare of gross area

(including water control works and roads)
Region
As derived from final
As used in Economic
estimates of cost, given
Feasibility Report
in Tables 29, 30 and 32.

E$ E $

Total Eiddle Valley 2,420 2,368

Total Lower Plains 1,699 1/773

Over Whole Project 2,084 2,090

 The figures in both columns have been calculated in the same way, so as to
be fairly comparable, The economic consultant remarks that "on the basis
of the actual costs of irrigation systems already constructed, the
investment estimates are liberal".

(ii) Incidence of High-value Crops. The figures of benefit/cost ratio in the

econoLiic appraisal are considerably influenced by the extent to w;lich crops
of relatively high value are included in the various cropping plans assumed.
The scope 176r introducing high-value crops such as sugar cane, fruits, and
vegetables, is restricted, first because the home market for such products
is limited, and the possibilities of expo-t are nt present small. Further
with increased production, the prices to the grower would tend to fall.
In contrast, general crops, such as fibre crops, oil seeds, pulses, etc.
are in steadily growing demand in Ethiopia, and their future prices seem
less subject to unforeseen fluctuations. Table 34, derived from the
economic appraisals made, compares the benefit/cost'ratios for the two
types of cropping plan, applied to various parts of the potential develop-
ments ia the Awash Basin.

TABLE 34 - BE1TEFIT/C0ST RATIOS FOR =BEAL ATD HIGH-VALn CROPS

Benefit/Cost Ratios
Gross Area
Development Hectares General Crops Only High value Crops incl.
Rate of Interest Rate of Interest

Kesem-Kebena 17,550 0.7:1 0.9:1 1.24:1 1.58:1

Yelka Sedi 0,550 2.7:1 3.4:1 2.73:1 3.39:1
Angel ele 4) 750 1.4:1 1.7:1 1.41:1 1.75:1
Middle Awash ric) dams * 42,000 2.4:1 3.2:1 5.50:1 6.93:1
Middle Awash Total 80;000 1.4:1 1.9:1 2.38:1 2.97:1
Lower Awash 70,000 1.3:1 1.6:1 1.23:1 1.56:1

Total Awash Project* 150,000 1.3:1 1.7:1 1.95:1 2.421

* These areas include 5,600 ha plantaion of sugar cane at Metehara.

In Table 34, crops of high value are acsumed to be grown on about 1/7 of
the gross areas to be developed in the Middle Valley. The figures show the
advantages of growing these. If the full development of Awash Basin lJnd
and water resources is considered desirable from a national viewPoint.
their inclusion in a relatively higher share provides the needed justi-
fication for development of the marginal areas. The Table also demon-
strate, however, that even on general crops only, the Awash development
as a whole will be economically profitable.
 112

Incidence of Settlement.

Another problem affecting economic appraisals is the difference in the benefits

to be exr,ected from lar7escale commercial schemes, as compared with those from family
farms. Settlement is always relatively costly. The difficulties inherent in the
operation of irriEation schemes with numerous smallholders will be increased by the
fact that as yet irrigated agriculture is practised only on restricted areas in
Ethiopia. Prospective settlers will in most cases be inexperienced, and will'have
to be taught almost everything about the art of irrig7ating. For this reason, in
appraising the benefits of family farms, lower yields have been assumed, and longer
time lags before.full production is attained. As a result, returns from family
farming are less than those from commercial farming, and the inclusion in a project
of a high proportion of family farms will lower its overall benefit/cost ratio. For
example, in the development of the Lower Plains, the benefit/cost ratio of 1.3 at 67,
interest, given in Table 34 above, would have been 1.6 if the allotted to settlement
had been taken as only 14,000 ha, instead of 5C,C00 ha as actually assumed.

PlanninF of Development.

Priorities of development cannot be determined solely on grounds of intrinsic

physical and economic feasibility. Considerations of national economy, and social
and political factors, also have to be taken into account. 2or e:-.Lam:)1e, the promotion
of settlement schemes may be important for the longterm econo.rdc and social develop-
ment of the country, even if the development of commercial schemes instead would
initially produce larger revenues and more foreign currency.

The complex nature of the problems involved in determining priorities in the

Awash Basin calls for very careful planning and coordination of development policy.
For example, the revenues from highyielding areas developed at an early stage may
perliaps be used later to finance the development of less profitable areas; in this
way, a kind of "revolving fund" may be formed, which may help to complete the develop-
ment of the Basin as a whole.

A danger to be guarded against is that of "skimming the cream" from the most
promi3ing areas first, without .suitable allocation of the resulting revenues. This
would make The returns on later developments appear to be relatively even less
attractive. An appropriate policy of differential rates of water charges may offer
a convenient and effective means of adjusting, as between the various types of
projects, the otherwise uneven burden of investment costs. In fixing rates, it will
be necessary to cover the costs of providing services and infrastructure, e.g. dams,
headworks, and main canals, and to provide revenue for continued development, all with
due regard to the benefits obtainable in each particular case.

Master Plan.

If the Imperial Government wishes to develop to the full the potential resources
of the Awash Valley in the most effective and beneficial manner possible, two things
are particularly essential. In the first place, it will be necessary to prepare a
aMastor Plan" of development, in contrast to the somewhat haphazard methods of
development which have been applied hitherto. This plan will ensure that each item
of development is designed so as to fit in properly with others in the coordinated
whole, giving the most efficient use of the resources involved and the.funds invested,
which are national assets of the country as a whole. Further, it will make sure that
the development of any item in the earlier stages will not in any way cause diffi-
culties in the subsequent development of other items at later stages.
 113

7. Awash Valley Authority.

In the second place, it will be equally necessary to ensure the effective

implementation of the Master Plan, and the subsequent operation of the various
schemes of development, in accordance with the stipulated conditions, so as to
produce the benefits expected, for Ethiopia as a whole, and for the people engaged
in these schemes in particular. With these objects in view, the Imperial Government
has set up the Awash Valley Authority. But the Authority does not yet possess
powers and resources, in staff, in equipment, in funds, in organisationland in
control, commensurate with the great magnitude of the tasks and responsibilities
which it is called upon to face. It is of urgent importance that action to this
end be taken as soon as may be possible. Otherwise, it is not possible to see how
the potential benefits in prospect can be fully realised.

It is recommended that the Authority may suitably be made responsible for

carrying out the varied surveys, studies,and appraisals, proposed in this Report;
for preparing on them as a basis the Master Plan, to be approved by the Imperial
Government; for supervising the implementation of this Plan and, in part at least,
its actual execution, and finally for supervising the operation of the various
sobemos of development, to ensure their technical and economic effectiveness. The
planning of the organisation of the Authority is itself a matter of great importance.
 - 114-

CHAPTER XII ADDITIONAL REMARKS

This report deals mainly with the development possibilities in the lowlands
of the Middle and Lower reaches of the basin and is concerned particularly with the
land and water potential for irrigation.

However several important actions which should be undertaken with the aim of
improving the agricultural and livestock production in the Basin are not overlooked.

In the lowlands

There is considerable scope for stepping up the standard of livestock

production by improving grazing lands and providing supplementary watering points.

Measures recommended by water planning provide for the reclamation of several

swamps and marshes. In the first place extensive swamps in the deltaic region may
be partially reclaimed after the Tendaho dam is constructed. The water management
plan for the Tendaho dam and irrigated areas provides for water to be spread on the
reclaimed grazing lands. Detailed plans for watering of the pasture lands cannot be
drafted before the series of recommended studies in the Lower Plains can produce the
necessary basic information.

Extensive grazing lands in the Awash Valley lack necessary drinking water
resources. A tentative scheme for underground water investigation in the Aleydegi
plain was prepared under the project, and its implementation is strongly recommended.

In the h' h plateau

Although most of the arable lands are already under cultivation an appreciable
potential for agricultural development, however, exiSts also in the upper reaches of
the basin. One of the most attractive projects appears to be that of the reclamation
of Borkena Swamps. About 10,000 ha of marshland could be cultivated after the swamp
is drained. On the basis of observations made on the cultivated land on the shores
of the swamp, it is believed that the reclaimed soils would be fertile. Suitable
climatic conditions with a fairly high and well distributed rainfall, good communi-
cations and easy access should enable prosperous agriculture to be established in
this area.

According to a preliminary survey a reduction of the water level in the swamp

may be achieved by deepening the river bed at the outlet for a length of about 400
meters.

There is also wide soope for improvement of agricultural production in the

upper reaches of the basin. It can be achieved by improvement of existing farming
practices, modernizing of implements, use of fertilizers of improved seeds, and also
by applying appropriate soil conservation measures. A programme of such measures
should be drafted on a national level its implementation calling for appropriate
legal and administrative measures.

Soil conservation measures are closely related with those which should be
taken in order to arrest the deforestation of the basin. The lifetime of hydraulic
structures, both for hydropower production and for irrigation, depends on action
being taken to reduce land degradation in the basin. The necessity for replanting
tree species, in particular in the vicinity of the capital city calls for immediate
consideration.
 115

Reforestation, soil conservation, swamp reclamation, improvement of farming

practices on cultivated lands, underground water investigations and improvements on
grazing lands, are activities which will increase the economic effects of irrigated
agriculture development in the Awash River Basin.

Improvement of farming practices may be the greatest factor on raising the

living standards of the great majority of the population. This, however) will be
difficult to achieve unless experienced and well equipped extension services
encourage and help the peasants in the transition from traditional subsistence
agriculture to the modern, marketoriented farming.

There is little doubt also that enacting of appropriate agrarian legislation

providing for greater security and larger share in benefits for the tenant farmers
will be an important incentive for improvement of land and farming practices.
 116

APPalIX I

PLAN OF OPERATION

UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN ETHIOPIA

SURVEY OF THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

Special Fund Allocation: US$ 930,100

Government Counterpart Contribution (equivalent of): US3 327,000*

Durations 3 years

Executing Agency: The Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations

Cooperating Government Agency: Awash Valley Authority

For the purpose of the survey of the Awash River Basin to be undertaken by
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations acting as Executing
Agency for the United Nations Special Fund, this P:tan of Operation shall be the
Plan of Operation referred to in Article I, paragraph 2, of the Agreement signed
on 13 July 1960 by the Government of Ethiopia and the United Nations Special Fund.

I. PURPOSE AND DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT

A. The Putpose of the Project

1. To obtain data on the water potential of the Awash River and its tributaries
for irrigation and hydropower, and to establish the suitability of soils within the
area commanded by the river and its tributaries for irrigation farming. Such basic
information is required for the judicious utilization of land and water resources of
the basin and for safeguarding national interests when granting water rights to water
users.

B. Background

2. In recent years great interest has been shown by private companies, foreign
as well as Ethiopian, and by the Government itself, in large scale irrigation farming
and power schemes in the Awash River Basin.

3- As the amount of water available in the Awash for irrigation purposes is

limited, the Government is anxious to establish, at the earliest possible date, the
full development potential of tne river before granting water and land rights.

4. At the same time the Government also wants to know the extent and location
of soils within the basin suited for irrigation farming.

5- Coordination between utilization of water for the generation of power and

for irrigation purposes is also an important requirement for which a good knowledge
of hydrological and soils conditions is indispensable.

* Government contribution towards local facilities (in cash) are not included in this
figure.
 - 117-

The Awash River originates in the highlands south and west of Addis Abeba at
an elevation of about 2,500 meters. For a distance of approximately 800 kms the river
flows in an easterly and north-easterly direction to end in a chain of lakes situated
on the desert lowlands of Dankalia. The main Awash is joined along its course by
several tributaries, all of which experience high floods during the rainy season and
critically low flow during the rest of the year. The Awash is characterized by several
water-falls, especially in its upper and middle course. Previous reconnaissance
surveys have shown that there are potential power sites and new irrigable areas on
several sections of the river valley. On one of those sites, situated at Koka, the
Government has recently completed a storage dam and hydroelectric power station. Some
irrigated agriculture already exists in the Upper Awash, which will be affected by the
Koka Dam and reservoir. The dam impounds a reservoir of about 260 square kms of
surface area and has an estimated storage capacity of 1,600,000,000 cubic meters. The
total generator installation is of 43,200 kilowatt.

The present irrigated areas in the valley consist both of estate plantation
devoted mainiy to sugar cane, rice, cotton, groundnuts and fruit crops, and small
peasant cultivation, mainly in the lower reaches devoted to growing a variety of
crops, mainly cereals.

C. The Project

The project consists of:

(1) The survey of the water resources of the Awash river and its main
tributaries, including studies of possible improvement of the water-
regime by flood storage. Survey of the water potential will include:

the establishment of a network of river gauging stations;

carrying out of observations at these stations during the entire

duration of the project;

strenthening of the meteorological network and correlation of

meteorological data with hydrological data.

(2) Preparation of a water management plan based on the results of the

hydrological study mentioned in item 1. This water management plan
has to be worked out by taking account of the water requirements for
irrigation, the operational requirements and economics of hydroelectric
power plants. The utilization of groundwater as a supplementary source
of supply should be taken into account to the extent to which data are
made available by the Government.

(3) Soil Survey. This part of the project consists of a reconnaissance

survey of the potentially irrigable areas commanded by the main river
and its tributaries. The total area to be investigated first by a
reconnaissance type of marvey is estimated to be about 500,000 hectares-
This first survey will eliminate areas not suited for irrigation farming
and will then be a continued as a semi-detailed survey to cover an area
which is estimated to be about 100,000 hectares. A detailed soil survey
of pilot areas of about 20,000 hectares will be carried out in the final
stages of the soil survey. As a result of this survey land classification
maps will be prepared which will include not only irrigable soils, but
also areas suitable as pasture land. A reconnaissance soil survey of
the potential grassland areas, some 200,000 hectares, is also included
in the project.
 118

The study of the dam sites suitable for storage as well as for generation
of power. This investigation will include engineering studies as well
as geological'investigations for dam foundtions and reservoir conditions.
It will also include preliminary type of design and preliminary cost
estimates for dams and prn,er stations. More detailed investigations are
envisaged for one or two selected sites.
Sedimentation studies in the headwaters area. Sedimentation.studies will
cover the basin of the Upper Awash upstream the Koka dam and will be
conducted in cooperation with the Government Forestry Service which is
already making studies of the upper watershed. The main objective of
this sediment and erosion survey is to establish the lifetime of the
reservoir under prevailing conditions and establish the possibilities
of a reduction of the silt and bed load in the river by introducing
improved conditions in the watershed.
Land use studies will ccnsist partly in studies of the land use problems
of tne upper reaches, but will also extend over.the lower Awash Basin.
Here they will deal mainly with land use on irrigated land and with
water requirements.

Aerial photoL-raphy and mapping: this will include the preparation of

aerial photography covering the part of the Awash basin which has not
yet been photographed. Contour mapping will cover mainly potential
reservoir areas. The total area to be photographed is about 30,000
sq. km. A key map snowing the area is attached to the Plan of Operations
in Annex III.

Training of Ethiopian personnel and utilization of Ethiopian personnel

in the program to the maximum extent possible consistent with their
abilities, are major objectives of the Programme.

II. WORK PLAN

A. Participation of the Executing Agency

9. Personnel Services Total manmonths: 367

(i) Water development planning engineer (project manager)

(ii) Hydrological Survey

1 Hydrologist
2 Hydrometrists
1 Computer

(iii) Water Management Planning

1 Waterplanning Engineer

(iv) Soil Survey

1 Senior Soil Scientist
1 Soil Survey Specialist
1 Soil Survey Photo Interpr.
1 Soil Chemist

(v) Power Damsites, Reservoir Studies

1 Power Dam Design Engineer
1 Engineering Geologist
 119

(v Erosion Studies in Headwaters

1 Soil Conserv. Specialist
1 Sediment Hydrologist

Land Use Studies

I Land Use Studies Expert

Administrative Officer

Shortterm consultants

Subcontractor personnel, giving supporting services on water management

plans, designs, computing and costing.

Aerial Photography

Aerial photography of about 30,000 sq. kms. on 1/20,000 scale.

Contour mdps of potential redervoirs 800-1000 sq. kms. 1/10,000 or

1/20,000 scale.

Equipment and Supplies

Hydrometric equipment
Topographic equipment
Field and laboratory equipment for soil marvey
Transport vehicles 4 wheel drive: 15
Boats for sediment measurements etc.
Preparation and printing of report.

11.a. Miscellaneous

Secretarial assistance
Travel within the country
Cable and postage charges.

United Nations Special Fund Contribution (in cash):

The Special Fund participation in the project shall be in the amount of the
equivalent of US$ 930,100. Of this amount, the eTaivalent of US3 6,000 is for
preliminary investigations, US,1; 79,400 is for agency costs (prorated), and US3 60,000
is for personnel services supplied by the Executing Agency through direct employment.
The balance of US$ 784,700 shall be deposited by the Special Fund on the baeis of
the Plan of Expenditure, Appendix I, in United Nations Special Fund accounts to be
opened as required by the project, as follows:

Equivalent of US3 425.010 on signature of the Plan of Operation

fl 'I
215,877 on or before 1 January 1962
" " 143,813 on or before 1 January 1963

Total US$ 784,700

 - 120-

13. Subcontracts

The Executing Agency shall carry out the sarvey through subcontracts with
consulting firms acceptable to the Government. The aerial photography shall be
entnAsted by the Executing Agency either to the same consuiting firm or to a firm
specialized in such work, acceptable to the Government. The subcontractor(s) may be
requested by the Executing Agency to supply part of the equipment needed for the
project; in this case he will prepare detailed lists which will need prior written
approval by the Executing Agency before placing purchase orders. The sub-contractor
will assume the same obligations as the Executing Agency under article 8, paragraph 8.

14. The Government shall issue entry visas to the personnel of sub-contractors
employed on the project and shall grant duty-free import of equipment and material
required for the execution of the survey. The Government shall also grant re-export
of such equipment after completion of the contracts. The above facilities shall be
granted by the Government to the sub-contractors on certification of the Executing
Agency.

15. (a) The Government shall ex'empt from any taxes, duties. fees or levies which may
be imposed on the sub-contractors, or their personnel in respect of:

the salaries or wag.es earned by such personnel in the execution of the

project with the exce;)tion of locally employed personnel;

any profits earned by the subcontractors in the execution of the project;

(i any equipment, materials and supplies, brought into the country by the
sub-contractors for the completion of this Plan of Operation or which,
after having been brought into the country may be subsequently withdrawn
therefrom.

(b) Any property, brought by the firm or Qrganisation or its personnel for their
personal use or consumption may be subsequently withdrawn therefrom after
departure cf such personnel.

B. Contribution of the Government

Counterpart participation

16. Technical personnel - Total man-months: 408

Hydrometrists
Meteorologists
Engineers
Technicians
Draftsmen
Soil Surveyors or soil survey assistants
Soil Laboratory technicians
Assistant Geologist
Soil Conservationist

17. Administrative Personnel

1 Administrative Assistant
1 Accountant Clerk
2 Labour Supervisors
1 Stock Keeper
1 Typist Secretary
 - 121-

18. Service Personnel

14 Gauge Observers
15 Drivers and boat operators
1 Fitter
Labour for Survey Teams,
building temporary roads, sheds.

19. Equipment and Supplies

Construction of river gauging stations

2 sets loose contact prints anda' set photo mosaics for the area for
which aerial photography is already available - 1:20,000 scale for the
aerial marvey by Huntings and 1:50,000 for the area in the part of the
Awash basin bordering the Blue Nile.

Miscellaneous materials: small tools, local supplies and stationery.

20. Services

Offices, rooms for field laboratory, storage space for equipment and
materials, laboratory facilities for soil and water analysis at a
suitable location(s).

Field accomodation for Ethiopian personnel and labour.

(ii ) Operation and 1.:aintenance of vehicles and boats (including insurance)

and equipment.

Transportation, within Ethiopian territory, of Ethiopian personnel.

Transportation, insurance, handling and storage of project equipment

and materials within Ethiopian territory.

21. Government Counterpart Participation

(i) The above-mentioned Government counterpart participation in the project

shall be in cash in the amount of the equivalent of US$ 327,000 and shall
be deposited by the Government in the United Nations Special Fund
Account (Account Number U-35) at the State Bank of Ethiopia and will be
made available as follows:

Equivalent of US$ 118,000 on signature of the Plan of Operation

it 11
107,000 on or before 1 January 1962
" " 102,000 on or before 1 January 1963

(ii) The Government, when they furnish a contribution in kind, whenever

feasible, concerning the abovementioned personnel, equipment, supplies
and services, shall be refunded in cash from the abovementioned account.
 122

22. Government contribution towards local facilities (in cash)

(0 In accordance with Article V, paragraph 1 (a to d), of the Agreement

between the Special Fund and the Government, the Government will
contribute the equivalent of US3 82,650 towards local facilities.

This amount represents 15: of the total cost to the Executing Agency of
foreign personnel, including subcontractor's personnel.

The amount mentioned above shall be deposited by the Government into the
United Nations Special Fund account U-35 at the State Bank of Ethiopia,
and will be made available as follows:

Equivalent of US,-; 28,200 on signature of Plan of Operation

32,750 on or before 1 January 1962
tt " 21,700 on or before 1 January 1963

Total USs 82,650

The above payments shall be made on or before the dates specified above
as a prerequisite to operations. Payments made by the Government in
Ethiopian dollars shall be mate at the most favourable legal rate of
exchange.

C. Organization

Overall responsibility for the organization and execution of the project rests
with the Executing Ageney who shall plan and direct operations.

The Government Agency responsible for Government participation in the project

shall be the Awash Valley Authority, who shall also ensure coordination of the work
of the various Government organisations participating in the project.

The Executing Agency shall appoint a Project Manager acceptable to the

Government. Under the general supervision of the Executing Agency, the Project
Manager shall be responsible for the detailed planning, administration and execution
of the project, as well as for the supervision of the work of the subcontractor(s).

The Government shall appoint a CoManager acceptable to the Executing Agency,

who will cooperate with the Project Manager in the execution of the project. He will
be responsible for setting up preliminary arrangements agreed for the project and for
the administration matters related to the project personnel furnished by the Government
for the execution of the project. He shall be fully informed of all matters relating
to the execution of the project.

The project shall be entrusted by the Executing Agency to subcontractor(s).

However, the responsibility for the execution of all parts of the project will rest
with the Executing Agency.

Under the supervision of and in close cooperation with the Executing Agency,
th, subcontractor(s) shall prepare detailed work plans, carry out surveys, establish
and operate river gauging and meteorological stations, prepare reports, maps and
charts. The project report shall be submitted to the Special Fund and the Government
by the Executing Agency.

Headquarters for the project shall be at Addis Abeba.

 - 123 -

D. Sequence of Operations

The Executing Agency shall commence operation of the Project upon written
authorization to do so from the Managing Director of the United Nations Special Fund.

Immediately after signature of the Plan of Operation by the Government, the

Executing Agency and the Special Fund, the Executing Agency shall apoint the Project
Manager and shall enter into negotiations with sub-contractor(s) for participation in
the project. Upon conclusion of these negotiations, the Executing Agency shall sign
a contract with the sub-contractor(s), Prior to the signature of the contract, the
Executing Agency shall send the draft text of the contract to the Government for
information.

At the same time, the Government shall appoint the Co-Manager.

Upon arrival of the Project i,..anager the Government shull suply him with two
complete setS of loose contact prints and one set of mosaics mentioned in paragraph
19 (ii).
A general plan of survey operations shall be drawn up by the sub-contractor(s)
under supervision of and in cooperation with the Project Manager and in consultation
with tne Co-Manager not later than six weeks from the signing of the contract with the
sub-contractor(s). For this purpose the Project Mana-ger, the team members concerned,
and the Co-Manager, should undertake reconnaissance flights over the river basin.
Areas suited for development shall then be selected by tne project team for more
detailed investigations. In this plan staffing, equipment, transport, labour require-
ments of the various groups (hydrography, irrigation, engineering, topography, soils,
geology and agronomy) shall be given in sufficient detail to ensure timely supply of
materials, equipment, transport and lodging.

3). ' The subcontractor(s) shall prepare at the earliest possible date a detailed
list of equipment, materials, etc. required for the project. The list of foreign
equipment and material shall be sent to the Headquarters of the Executing AEency for
review and approval. Orders for the above eq,ipment shall be placed by the sub-
contractor(s) or the Executing Agency as agreed upon between them and set out in the
contract.

The various parts of the survey have to be carried out in a coordinated way.
The hydrological survey should start immediately upon arrival of the subcontractor
team in order to obtain a sufficiently long period of observations. The river gauging
stations should be established during thearst 4 months of the project. Gauge
observations and flow measurements should be continued until the end of the project.
Watershed management planning should be done in the third year of the project when
sufficient hydrological data are available.

Soil survey should start at ihe beginning of the first year and should be
completed in a two-year period. This will make it possible to assess the extent and
distribution of irrigable land and facilitate the working out of a water management
pian as far as irrigation water is concerned.

Power damsite and reservoir studies should start in the second Year when
sufficient preliminary information on water discharges on the various sections of the
main river and its tributaries will become available.

Erosion studies in the headwaters should be Garried out during the first two
years.
 A

Land use studies should start at the second part of the first year and be
linked with the soil survey and the water plannin. They should be carried through
in the second and third year.

The local authorities shall be kept informed in time through Government about
the movement of the teams and their requirements in accommodation, guides, local
transport and materials.

. BUDGET

In accordance with Article 1, para 3 of the Agreement between the United

Nations Special Fund and the Government of Ethiopia, the total sum .to be made availa-
ble by the Special Fund through the Executing Agency to assist in the execution of
this project in U63 844,700.

In addition to the above, the United Nations Special Fund shall make available
an amount of US$ 85,400 to the Executing Agency to defray the Agency ccsts. This
includes USS 6,000 for preliminary investigations.

The total cost of the project to be borne by the Government is estimated at

(equivalent of) USS 327,000 as being the counterpart contribution and the equivalent
of US,:: 82,650 as a cash contribution towards local operating costs of the project as
mentioned in Appendix II. These amounts are to be deposited in the United Nations
Special Fund account in the State Bank of Ethiopia in accordance with paragraphs 21 (i)
and 22 (iii).

Unless otherwise agreed at any time by the Government, the Executing Agency
and tne United Nations Special Fund, these sums shall be disbursed under the main
objects of expenditure in amounts and at times as scheduled in the Budget and Plan of
Expenditure. The Budget and Plan of Expenditure are set out in Annex I and II
attached.

All funds drawn on the accounts referred to in Articles 12, 21 and 22 hereof
shall be by joint authorization of the two co-managers.

IV. REL"ORTS

Progress Reports

The Executing Agency will submit to the Managing Director of the United
Nations Special Fund and to the Government the following reports on the project:

(i) an inception Report to be supplied three months from the date of receipt
of authorization froM the Managing Director to commence operations.

) an end-of-year Report to reach the Managing Director by not later than

1 March eaca year covering the period from 1 July to 31 December of the
previous calendar year;

A mid-year Report to reach the Managing Director by 1 September each year

covering the work up to 30 June of that year.

Reports will include achievements of the period under review as well as

the work plan for the next 6 months period.
 - 125-

48. Final Report

The Executing Agency will submit to the Managing Director of the United Nations
Special Fund and to the Government, after conclusion of the project, a Final Report.

Financial Reports

The Executing Agency will submit financial reports to the Managing Director in
a manner and at times to be agreed upon between the Managing Director and the Executing
Agency.

The Government shall submit to the Executing Agency and the Executing Agency
shall submit to the Government financial statements in a manner and at times to be
agreed upon between the Executing Agency and the Government.

Audit Reports

The Executing Agency shall submit to the Managing Director audited annual
statements of accounts. Accounts for a completed project will be submitted, as soon
as practicable after the completion of a project, together with the External Auditor's
Report Thereon.

V. CONCLUSIONS

Two months before completion of the project, a report will be submitted by the
Government through the Executing Agency to the United Nations Special Fund on the
benefits derived from the project and the activities planned by the Government to
further the purpose of the project.

52. The technical material obtained during the course of the project will be
handed over by the Executing Agency to the Government of Ethiopia for appropriate
utilization as agreed with the United Nations Special Fund.

Agreed on behalf of the parties, by the Undersigned:

Date February 7 1961 Data February 7 1961 date February 7 1961

Imperial Ethiopian United Nations Food and Agriculture

Government Special Fund Organization of the
United Nations

by Signature by Signature by Signature

Paul G. Hoffman Robert Watson

Yilma Deressa,
Minister of Pinance Managing Director Country Representative
 - 126-

Explanatory Note to Amendment No. 1

PLAN OF OPERATION

UNIFED NATIONS S:ECIAL FUND PROJECT IN ETHIOPIA

SURVEY OP' nio AWASH RIVER BASIN

The exDerience gained in the past six months of project oper:.:.tion has
indicated that the working conditions necessitate adjustment in the existing budget
allocation, as well as allotment of additional funds both by the Special Fund and the
Government to meet the technical requirements for successful implementation of the
project in accordance with the established objectives in the Plan of Operation.

Details for the additional funds required are as follows:

The difficult access to the Survey area and particularly to the river
gaiging stations. This difficulty necessitates a larger number of
vehicles against the number originally requested and a larger quantity
of spare parts dae to heavier wear on the vehicles.

The increase in the number of river gauging stations required for technical
reasons.

The extremely high construction cost of these stations; and

The need for exploratory drilling at some of the potential damsites.

.Tne Government nas agreed to increase their contribution by the equivalent

of US3 50,000 and adjust their budgetary allocation as follows:

Survey Personnel reduced by US3 7,000

Equipment increased by US$ 53,000
Service increased by US3 4,000

The Government considers that the reduction in man-month services of technical

personnel is possible due to the shorter period of field work in soil science and less
employment time of engineers, and also the actual wages-paid to the local employees are
less than originally budgeted.

As regards equipment and services the Government has agreed to increase their
share of contributions by US3 57,000 towards the additional requirement of funds for
t.he additional work mentioned above.

The Government agreed to award the above mentioned additional funds subject
to the Special Fund's approval to an additional allocation of funds of US3 90,000
towards the following items:

Hydrometric and other technical equipment US 18,000

Transport vehicles 16,000
Spares for vehicles 24,000
Test drilling equipm::nt or drilling contract 12,000

US3 90,000
 127

Necessary modifications in the Flan of Operation, including the Plans of

Expenditure, are made as per tne attached Amendment No. 1 to be signed by the three
parties concerned. The Plan of Expenditure in Amendment No. I supersede the revised
Plan of Expenditure for tne Special Fund Allocution signed by the E,Xecuting Agancy,
the Special Yund and the Government on 26 February, 12 Karch and 13 ;_arch 1962,
respectively, and the Flan of Expenditure for the Government Counterpurt Contribution
attacned to the original Plan of Operation. Various items of expenditure included in
the Government's Counterpart Contribution have been reclassified in connexion with the
amendment of the Plan of Operation.
 - 128-

aendment No. 1

PLAN OF OPERATION

UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT IN ETHIOPIA

SURVEY OF THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

In pursuance of the Plan of Operation signed on 7 February 1961, by the Food

ard Agriculture.Organization as the Executing Agency, the U.N. Special 17und and the
Government of Ethiopia;

Whereas it is L'ound from experience of the first reconnaissance survey of the

project that certain additional work has to be undertaken for successful completion
of the project in accordance with the objectives of the project provided in the Plan
of Operation;

And whereas it is considered necessary to make certain budgetary adjustments

by increasing the existing allocated funds, provided both by the Government and by
the Special Fund, modifications in the Plan of Operation and in the Plan of Expenditure
in the said Plan of Operation are made as follows:

Page 1 - Heading

Read

Special Fund Allocation US$ 1,020,100

Government Counterpart Contribution (equivalent of) USS 377,000

Page 2 - C. Project - Paragraph 8

Sub-paragraph (b) amended as follows:

"carrying out of observations at these stations during the entire duration

of the project; flow measurements should cover three flood seasons and
include sediment measurements on all major stations".

Page 3 Paragraph 8

Add the following sentence at the end of the sub-paragraph (4):

"These studies will include exploratory drilling to be carried out

through sub-contract".

Page 3 Paragraph 8 - the following sentence is added at the end of sub-

paragraph (5):

"Sediment measurements will also be conducted at all major gauging stations

on the main river and most important tributanieS".

Page 3 Paragraph 8, sub-paragraph (7) is amended in the fourth line to read:

"area of 39,000 sq. kms." instead of: "30,000 sa. kms."

 - 129-

Page 4 - Paragraph 10 - Aerial Photography is amended as follows:

"Aerial photography of about 39000 sq. kms. on 1:40,000 scale".

"Contour haas of potential reservoirs 800-1000 sq. kms. 1:10,000 or 1:20,000

scale (scale to be decided at a later stage)".

Page 4 - Add a new paragraph 10(a) as follows:

10(a) Exploratory Drilling

"Exploratory drilling at two damsites (contract)".

Page 4 - Paragraph 11 - Equipment and Supplies, is amended as follows:

Hydrometric equipment;
Topographic equipment;
Field and laboratory equipment for soil survey;
20 transport vehicles (4 wheel drive) and spare parts including winches;
Supply or hire of aircraft;
Preparation and printing of reports and maps.

Pago 4 - Paragraph 13 - Subcontracts add the following in the second sentence

(second line) after photography

"and the expioratory drilling".

Page 5 - Paragraph 16 read 350 instead of 408, against "Total man-months".

Page 5 - Paragraph 18 - Service Personnel, is amended as follows:

14 Gauge observers
20 Drivers
1 Fitter
Labour for survey teams, building of temporary roads, sheds.

Page 5 - Paragraph 19 - Equipment and Supplies is amended as follows:

(0 Construction of 20 automatic river gauging stations and 6 plain gauging

stations including cableways and shelters;

construction of meteorological stations;

2 sets loose contact prints and 1 set photo mosaics for the area for
which aerial photography is already available - 1:40,000 scale for the
aerial survey by Huntings and 1:50,000 for the area in the part of the
Awash lOasin bordering the Blue Nile;

Miscellaneous materials: small tools, local supplies and stationery;

Hire of bulldozers, graders, oil, lubricants for these machines and

contingencies.

Page 6 - Paragraph 20 - Services. Add the following as an additional item

"(vi) Hire of insurable aircraft for reconnaissance flights".

 - 130 -.

Page 6 - Paragraph 21 (i) in the third line read:

"US',; 377,000" instead of: "US 327,000".

and

at the end of sub-paragraph 21 (i) add:

"Equivalent of 50,000 on or before 1st January

Page 9 - Section ILI - Budget

Paragraph 42 In the fourth line road:

"US$ 934,700" instead of: "US3 844,700".

Paragraph 44 In'the second line read:

"US3 377,000" instead of: "US3 327,000".

Aprendices

Appendices I, II and III are amended to reflect the chances as indicated above
and are attached.

This agreement amending the original Plan of Operation seen and agreed:

For the Imperial Ethiopian Government For the United Nations Special Fund

Mulatu Debebe Edgar Marland

Assistant Minister Assistant TAB Resident Representative

Awash Valley Authority and Assistant Director of Special Fund
Programmes in Ethiopia

Date; 12 September 1962 Date: 12 September 1962

For the Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations

Oris V. Wells

Assistant Director-General
(Program and Budget)

Date: 3 September 1962

 APPENDIX I
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJECT

EITIOPIA: SURVEY 0? THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

Revised Plan of Ekpenditure

United Nations Special FUnd Allocation

Period Total Estimated Cash Disbursement

Man- Project
Mos. Costs 1961 1962 1963 1964
3 $ $ 3

1. Personal Services

(i) Water Development Planning

Engineer (P.M.) 36 70,200 10,800 20,950 22,000 16,450
(ii) Administrative Officer 36 38,200 1,700 13,810 12,690 10,000
(iii) Consultants 4 8,000 6,000 2,000

76 116,400 12,500 40,760 36,690 26,450

2. Equipment and Supplies

20 Transport vehicles including

Bpare parts and winches 85,000)
Bydrometric equipment
104,000)
Field and laboratory equipmend 23,300. 185,700 5,000 10,000
Ripply or hire of aircraft 15,000)
Irinting of reports and maps 20,000)

224,000 23,300 185,700 5,000 10,000

3. Sub-Contracts

Personal Services 437,000 39,700 180,000 147,300 70,000

Aerial photography and contour mapping 97,600 10,000 87,600
Exploratory Drilling 32,000 32,000

566,600 49,700 299,600 147,300 70,000

 APPENDIX I (Cont'd)

Period Total Estimated Cash Disbursements

Man- Project
Mos. .Costs 1961 1962 1963 1964
.Lo 3 3

4. Miscellaneous

Cable and postal expenses 6,000 - 2,000 2,000 ' 2,000

Secretarial Assistance 12,050 - 4,000 4,000 4,050
Contin6encies 9,650 100 2,000 3,000 4,550

27,700 100 8,000 9,000 10,600

Total Gross Project Cost 934,700 85,600 534,060 197,990 117,050

5. Executing Agency Costs 79,400 40,000 ' 24,000 15,400

6. Cost of Preliminary Investigations 6,000 6,000 _

Special Fund Allocation 1/ 1,020,100 131,600 558,060 213,390 117.050

The Special Fund Allocation includes the equivalent amount of US$ 82,650 to be paid by the Government
towards local operating costs of the project. This amount represents 15- of the expert costs including'
cost of foreign personnel of sub-contractors. This amount is payable by the Government in instalments as
shown in Section II, paragraph 22 of the Plan of Operation signed on 7 February 1961.

132 -
 APPENDIX II
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FJND PROJECT

ETHIOPIA: SURVEY 07 THE AWASH RIVER BASIN

Revised Plan of &penditure

Government's Counterpart Contribution in Cash and Estimated Cost

Period Total Estimated Cash Disbursements

Man- Project
Nos. Costs 1961 1962 1963 1964
$

1. Professional Staff

(i) Hydrometrists )
ii) Meteorologist )

(iil Engineers and Technicians )

(iv Soil Surveyors )
(v) Soil Laboratory Technician) 350 79,000 5,800 30,000 33,200 10,000
(vi) Assistant GeoloEist )

(vii) Soil Conservationist )

(viii) Draftsmen )

(ix) Administrative Assistant 36

386 79,000 5,800 30,000 33,000 10,000

2. Clerical Drafting and Laboratory

Non-Professional Staff and
Labourers

Accounts clerk
Typist
Labour Supervisors
Stock-Keeper 756 68,000
Drivers and Mechanics)
Gauge Observers ) 1,400 46,000 45,600 30,000
Labour survey operations, road
building and hire of bulldozers 1,000 55,000
1,756 123,000 1,400 46,000 45,600 30,000

133
 APPENDIX II (Cont'd)

Period Total Estimated Cash Disbursements

Man- Cost
Mos. 1961 1962 1963 1964
3

Equipment and Supplies

scellaneous tools equipment, etc. 17,001

Meteorological equipment 3,000
Operation and Maintenance of vehicles 54,000) 5,500 30,000 26,500 12,000

74,000 5,500 30,000 26,500 12,000

Sub-Contractors

Construction of gauges 55,000

Hire of aircraft 20,000.10,000 60,000 7,000 3,000
Aerial photography 5,000

80,000 10,000 60,000 7,000 3,000

Miscellaneous

Offices, laboratory facilities, store rooms 5,000 2,000 2,000 1,000

Field accommodation 6,000 2,500 2,000 1,500
Transpolqation and storage of equipment 10,000 6,000 2,000 2,000

21,000 10,500 6,000 4,500

Total estimated cost of counterpart

contribution in cash expressed in
JIS dollar equivalent 377,000 22,700 176,500 118,300 59,500

-134
 APPENDIX III
UNITED NATIONS SPECIAL FUND PROJCT

ETHIOPIA: SURVEY OF THE AWASH RIVRa BASIN

Total Government Contribution

Total Equivalent in US3

1961 1962 1963 1964

Counterpart contribution in cash 1/

(Appendix II) 377,000 118,000 107,000 102,000 50,000

Payment in cash for local operating

-)osts 2/ (Appendix I - see footnote) 82,650 28,200 32,750 21,700
459,650 146,200 139,750 123,700 50,000

These amounts have been calaulated at the prevailing United Nations operating rate of exchange of
one US dollar = 2.484 Ethiopian Dollars

21 These amounts are Payable in local currency at the United Nations operating rate of exchange (which is
based on the most favourable legal exchange available to the Special FUnd), which at the present time
is one US dollar = 2.484 Ethiopian Dollars.

- 135 -
 136

APPENDIX II

TOPOGRAPHY AND NAPPING

General Maps

Stretching from the 8th to the 12th degree of north latitude and between the
38th and 42nd degree of eastern longitude, the Awash rZiver Basin occupies the eastern
part of central Ethiopia. In spite of its strategic situation and relative
accessibility, the region was little explored until recent years, and no detailed
maps and topographical information other than those covering the whole country, were
available to the Project, when it began its work.

The basic maps belong to the series of world aeronautic charts drafted follow-
ing the world aerial survey of 1944, edited by the Aeronautical Chart Service at the
scale of 1:1,000,000 and subsequently revised. The 1954 edition was used for Project
purposes, as well as the enlargement of this on a scale of 1:500,000, published by
the British War Office in 1947.

The contour lines are drawn at intervals of 1,000 feet on the basis of
barometric measurements nade at several control points. The accuracy of these maps
is relative.

More recent and more accurate 1:500,000 scale maps compiled by the USAF in
1954 and which exist only in draft form, were also used by the Project.

The Upper reacnes of the Awash basin were air-surveyed for the purpose of
the Blue Nile River Basin Survey in 1956 at the theoretical scale of 1:50,000.
Contact prints of the relevant photographs were made available by the Government.
The Middle Valley and the Lower Plain were covered by aerial photographs at a scale
of 1:40,000, made by Messrs. Hunting Surveys Ltd., under a contract with the Project.
Air photographs at the scale of 1:20,000 for limited areas were available from the
Imperial Highways Authority.

No general triangulation data were available during the Project's field

operation, as the Jevelling data from the Geodesic survey of the Blue Nile River Basin
were published only in 1964.

Thus aerial photographs contact prints and uncontrolled mosaics served as a

baeis for the work of the Project in topography, engineering, and land survey.

Topographical Work

Topographical work for the Project was undertaken with the object of facilitat-
ing the carrying out of surveys in other fields namely, agrology, pedology, hydrology,
dam studies and irrigation works. No overall topographicalsurvey was mad'e, but merely
specific surveys for particular needs.

For lack of reference points, particularly as regards altitudes, many of these

surveys could neither be collated from the standpoint of altimetry, nor controlled
in planimetry. The work done included mapping, surveying, photogrammetry and levell-
ing.
 137

Mapping

Since there were no recent maps on scales suitable for the Project it was
necessary to compile maps with the help of aerial photographs. These were made on
the following scales:

1:2 0 000 This planimetric map covered the entire Awash watershed
70,000 km2) and showed its natural boundaries.

The distance covered being 450 km, from north to south, the
distortion of distances was significant. The map was compiled by
interpretation of aerial photographs, using east of the 40th meridian
a cover made specially for the Project, and west of the 40th meridian
the mosaics of the Imperial Highways Authority (in preference to those
of the Water Resources Department which did not fit into the geodetic
grid).

Two areas in the western and northwestern part of the Basin not
covered by these mosaics, were corrected by means of a template, with
the help of the Institute of Mapping and Geography.

This compilation, although somewhat heterogeneous and not completely

controlled (it involved some distortion in the reading of distances and
areas) was used as a basis for studies of land use, erosion and hydrology.

This map, reduced to a scale of 1:1,000,000 was used for the final
report.

1:100,000 These planimetric maps were obtained by reducing the base

maps obtained directly from mosaics on the following scales:

1:42,000 for the Lower Plains

1:41,000 for the Middle Valley

They coVered about 12,000 km2 in each of these two regions. For
inclusion in the report they were reduced to a scale of 1:250,000.

1:50,000 Three planimetric maps on this scale covered areas of which

more detailed studies were nado, namely:

Dubti (200 km2)

Dit Bahri (500 km2)

The first of these was corrected by means of a template.

These maps were included in various notes and interim reports

distributed during the execution of the Project.

Special Surveys

Regular surveys were made of the sites of the major dams at Kesem and Tendaho,
on a scale of 1:1,000 and for the Kebena at 1:2,000. The subcontractors using
photogrammetry plotted out topography of the reservoir basinsof these dams.
 138

The corresponding maps were drawn on the scale of 1:20,000; the total area
thus covered carne to approximately 200 km2.

Land Levelling and Miscellaneous Work

For the preliminary layouts of irrigation canals from the sites of the
future water diversion works, and to define areas which they would
command, level.surveys were made in the following area of the Middle
Valley:

Melka Sedi Amibara Angelele, KesemKebema, Bolhano, Maro Gala.

Previously a croissection levelled in the plain of Aleydegi had shown
that gravity irrigation frOm the Awash was practically impossible. The
levelling totalled about 150 km.

Other levelling operutions were carried out between the lakes of Ziway
and Geiilea, and more detailed operations between the Meki river, an
affluent to Lake Ziway, and the Dubeta river, an affluent of the Awash.

The purpose of t-us work was to determine the feasibility of

diversion of the Meki river into Lake Gelilea.

Preliminary topographical reconnaissance gave a rough idea of where a

dam could be sited in the gorge near Awash Station, to form a compensation
reservoir, for regulation of the plows released from the hydroelectric
plant at Koka Dam.

Similarly the bed of the upper Dorkena, downstream of the marshes, was
surveyed quickly to determine the feasibility of draining the marshes
by lowering the rocky sill.

At the request of the Ethiopian Government a track 165 km long was laid
out between Awashist and Gewani.

It should be pointed out, that the spelling of geographical names in this

report and on the appended maps may sometimes differ from the spelling currently used
in Ethiopia. The Imperial Ethiopian Mapping and Geography Institute provided, at the
request of the Project, a nearly complete list of geographical names with the newly
introduced spelling.
 - 139-

APPENDIX III

FEASIBILITY REPORT ON DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER IN THE AWASH RIVER BASIN, ETHIOPIA

By L.G. Allbauch and R.M. Arbuckle

Introduction

A survey of the resources of the Awash River Basin has been carried out over
the past three years by the United Nations Special Fund with the Food and riculture
Organization as Executing Agent. The French Firm of SOGREAH (Sociét6 Grenobloise
d'Etudes d'Applications Hydrauliques) in contract with FAO provided the personnel
for the study in conjunction with technicians and counterpart trainees from the
Imperial GoVernment of Ethiopia. The survey covered aerial photography, topography,
soil classification and analysis, present land use, river hydrology, meteorology,
dam sites, water storage facilities and irrigation engineering.

The survey indicated that the Awash River Basin had definite development
potentialities and UNSF/FAO decided that a preliminary economic feasibility study
was desirable. Two Consultants, Dr. L.G. Allbaugh, Economic Production Economist,
and Mr. R.M. Arbuckle, Agronomist, were appointed in September 1964 to undertake
this study and to present their findings to the Special Fund in January 1965. The
experts proceeded to Ethiopia and in collaboration with Mr. M. Reklewski, Project
Manager of the Awash River Basin Survey, assembled the available economic and
agronomic data to enable them to produce the following Report. Terms of
reference of the above experts are appended.

Appreciation is recorded by the Experts of the valuable and kind assistance

rendered by Ministers and Officers of the Imperial Government of Ethiopia and by the
farmers and other pioneers throughout the Awash Valley.

Summary

Preliminary estimates for the Total Awash Project of 150,000 hectares

indicate that the annual net gains are almost double the annual costs, with a
benefit-cost ratio of 1.95 to 1.00 at 6 per cent interest for the irrigation phase
of the project. In addition, the power phase will produce 115 million kwhr for
one-fourth to one-third of its cost if obtained from the best alternative source,
at an annual saving of about E.$ 8 million. The flood control phase will also
increase net incomes by an estimated average of E.S. 100,000 annually.

The irrigated cultivated land in the project area will be increased 14 times;
the annual gross product value 27 times; and the annual net gains 50 times. The
irrigable area will be more than double the maximum irrigable area of 63,000
hectares without dams. After completion, the project is expected to produce
E.$ 181 million gross value agricultural Troducts annually, with an annual net
gain over present production of E.$6.7 million. The importance of these figures
is significant when compared with a national budget of E.S. 306 million, total
exports of E.S. 220 million and total imports of E.$. 276 million in 1963. These
income figures are also significant when compared with the Total Estimated Initial
Investments of E.S. 250.6 million for dams, irrogation works and roads, and the
Total Associated Costs (Investments) of E.S. 179.7 million of farmers, making a
G.and Total Investemt of E.S. 430.3 million. However, the project is expected to
provide employment to 25-30,000 persons and farms for 10-15,000 farm families.

Secondary benefits were not computed but there will be important additions
to the regional and national economy through increased income to thousands of
workers and farmers, either presently under-employed or with meagre incomes.
 - 740

In this type of development programme, the concomitant servicing (private and govern-
mental), transportation and processing industries must develop, and'will provide a
further impetus to the economy of the area and the nation.'

While the Awash Basin Survey data and these evaluations are entirely prelimi-
nary and further detailed soil and pre-investment studies are necessary, it is be-
lieved that the findings of this report provide a reasonably accurate assessment of
the possibilities in developing the agricultural economy of this important region of
Ethiopia. On the basis of actual costs of irrigation systems already constructed,
the investment estimates are liberal. On the other hand, conservative estimates of
crop yields and prices have been used. Total production has been kept within esti-
mated market demands. A brief summary of the general economy of the country will help
in understanding the findings of this report.

Ethiopia has 22 million people with an average annual per capita income of
about E.S. 95 (USS 38). This low income is reflected in their housing, clothing and
education, but not in nutrition. Of this population, 90 per cent are engaged in
agriculture, generally at a subsistence level. They cultivate only 8 per cent of the
120 million hectare total land area. Agriculture produces three-fours of the Gross
National Product and 90 per cent of the foreign currency trade. Coffee, oilseeds,
pulses and livestock products are the major exports. The largest area of cultivated
land is devoted to cereals and pulses, mainly grown on the rain-fed mountain plateaus.

Although there is d. trend towards industrialization, agricultural products must

provide most of the raw materials for industry, as well as the foreign exchange required
to purchase the necessary machinery and equipment. But most of the public credits
obtained by the Imperial Ethiopian Government recently have been devoted to improvement
of the infrastructure, highways and telecommunications, with only 23 per cent for the
augmentation of production directly. This is resulting in a serious debt servicing
problem which will require either increased exports, decreased imports or both.

Within a decade the development of 6,600 hectares of land along the Awash
River has made the country self-sufficient in sugar and reduced the foreign currency
drain by E.S. 6 million annually. There are other commodities to which this pattern
of development might be applied, i.e. cotton to replace a large share of the E.S. 40
million annual imports of cotton textiles. Likewise, sisal and kenaf can be grown to
replace the E.S. 2 million of gunnybags imported annually. Similar products include
fresh and canned fruits and vegetables, butter, cheese, soap and other oil-based
products.

On the basic of these facts and with the knowledge that selected areas in
the Awash Valley have suitable climates, soils and water for growing a wide variety
of crops under irrigation, the agronomist developed crop plans which would yield the
highest net returns to the farmer and add most to the national economy by reducing food
and fibre imports and/or increasing exports to earn additional foreign exchange. This
is in sharp contrast to the millions of acres of Awash Valley grazing land, thinly
populated by nomadic tribes who are dependent on seasonal rains to provide water and
pasture for their cattle, sheep, goats and camels. However, some agricultural develop-
ment totalling 10,500 hectares has already started in the project area under Govern-
ment auspices and by private emterprise.

The Imperial Government of Ethiopia favours development of irrigated lands by

lare scale mechanized farming enterprises, particularly by concessionaries who invest
capital and provide technical knowledge, experience and clnageuent skills to produce
crops for industry and export. For rapid development of virgin lands such enterprises
will produce most income. From a social point of view it seems desirable to have a
proportion of the available land allotted to small farmers already trained in irri-
gation practices on the large holdings, backed by an effective extension service to
supervise the use of credits and to provide technical assistance.
 141

Such a policy would allow the indigenous population'to play an important role in
tne
development of their own lands and resources, and to contribute significantly in the
growing national economy.

From an economic point of view, the Awash River Basin is strategically

situated, having its axis running from the capital towards the Red Sea. A road, now
projected on the right bank of the river, connecting Nazareth with Tendaho, would
provide marketing outlets for agricultural produce or manufactured goods, either to
the capital, Adis Abeba, or to the port of Assab.

Before current haphazard agricultural development becomes too far advanced,

it is desirable to set up a master development plan, based on the findings of the
UNSF/FAO'Survey of the Awash River Valley and on further investigations. For this
purpose the Awash River Valley Authority ought to be strengthened, both financially
and technically, so that this autonomous body will be in a position to carry out its
task of administering and supervising the development of natural resources under its
jurisdiction. Expertise is necessary to devise and levy water rates, to establish
a competent technical and operational service able to deal with the complex problems
of water apportionment and its controlled distribution; and to plan and supervise
the construction of an efficient and co-ordinated irrigation system as well as its
maintenance and operation after completion.

For the full development of the Valley, fuller use of it water resources
for hydro power is important. With 88 per cent of the electric power in the nation
produced by public utilities and the remainder generated by thermal power units in
industrial plants for their own use, hydro power production is primarily a govern-
mental function. At present 40 per cent of the 176 million kwhr produced in
Ethiopia is generated by the waters of the Awash. An this is less than one third
of its hydro power possibilities. To date, all of this power is used in Adis Abeba
and contiguous area, with nono available to the Middle and Lower Awash areas.
Consequently, the production of 115 million kwhr from the power stations in the
two proposed dams can assist greatly in the development of the region. About one
fifth of this power would be utilized for irrigation pumping. The remainder can
play an important role in industry location and development and improved living
levels of the people.

Since regional development involves a complex of problems, priorities

and procedures must be determined, both in the region and in the larger govern-
mental administratives areas. The urgency of the problems usually help in deciding
upon the priorities, means and procedures for their solution. In Ethiopia there is
no urgent food shortage; no population pressure on the land; and no great social
pressure for land reform and land settlement schemes. The major problem is to
select long time economic development projects which will place greater emphasis on
direct production activities. Consequently, a "Crash Programme" of 5 to 10 years
seems out of place. This suggestion is further confirmed by the shortage of well-
trained administrativo and technical personnel for the jobs required. Thus, a
longer time 10 to 25 year programme employing long time planning and careful
selection of projects on an economic basis would seem more applicable.

While the preliminary analysis of the Total Awash Project indicates that it
is economically sound, there are wide differences between selected project areas and
these must be carefully analyzed and compared. This study suggests that the Middle
Awash Project can make the largest economic contribution within the region to assist
with the national debt servicing problem and to develop agriculturally based
industry. While the Lower Awash Project might contribute to the national economy
toa lesser degree, there are local social and political problems which require
solution and might justify its being carried out concurrently with the more favour-
able economic projects of the Middle Awash.
 - 142 -

A decision as to the relativo importance of projects which have larger

economic benefits when compared with projects having larger social benefits requires
careful consideration by the Government at high levels. An there are other problems
requiring major policy decisi.ons and, in some cases, legislation. Water rates or
water charges is such a problem in Ethiopia, requiring a solution at both the policy
and legislative levels. After legislation is enacted the problem remains as to the b
basis of levying such water charges, whether by volume of water, by type of crop or
by area. Other problems involve the determination of the total funds to be collected,
the method of collection and the final use to be made of such funds.

An important policy involves the land use pattern in irrigated areas in

order to obtain the highest net gains for farmers and for the national economy with
the limited water resources available. Should water charges on the lower investment
cost areas be used to assist in the development of the higher cost areas.

Each of these and other problems require well-trained and dedicated ad-
ministrativo and technical personnel - competent to analyze, plan, organize and
implement the programme to be carried out. The selection and training of such
personnel has top priority. Upon them rests the responsibility for the success of
each project to be undertaken. But with competent responsibility these must be
given authority and the necessary funds, or the means to acquire them; funds with
which to implement the programme. The Awash Valley Authority is limited in each of
these areas. No capital funds have been provided to construct irrigation works,
even small diversion dams. No source of revenue has been devised other than a very
limited category in the National Budget for river gauge readings and general ad-
ministration, and a recent hastily-devised water use charge for certain users.

If the Awash Valley Authority is to function as the charter intended, there

is need for some high level consideration by the Board of Director or even the
Council of Ministers, of the problems facing the organization. Unless these matters
are settled soon the "piecemeal" development of former years will continue and limit
the land and water to the choice areas only and for such crops as the farmer may
choose. This procedure is not apt to be in the best long run interests of the
nation as a whole.

General Economy

Ethiopia has 120 million hectares of land area and 22 million people, 90
per cent of whom are engaged in agriculture. Agriculture produces three fourths
of the Gross National Product and 90 per cent of the foreign currency trade. Yet,
the National Budget allocates directly to the Ministry of Agriculture less than
2 per cent of its total budget (see Appendix III, Table 1). Agriculture, in
general, is on a subsidence level. The per capita income per annum of E.$. 95
(USS 38 1/ is the lowest of all countries for which country estimates have been
made by the United States Department of Agriculture. Nevertheless because of its
climate, reasonably fertile soils and predominance of rural population, nutrition
and health conditions are by no means the lowest in the world.

1/ One US dollar 2.50 Ethiopian dollars.

 - 143 -

Under the leadership of His Imperial Majesty, Haile Selassie, Ethiopia is

determined to modernize its economy, through increased trade with the outside world
and by greater industrial development within the country. With mineral resources
yet unexplored and undeveloped, Ethiopia must depend primarily upon the raw materials
of agriculture for its industries and for obtaining the necessary foreign exchange
to purchase machinery and equipment for industrialization. Gold ore production has
averaged only E.$. 2.5 million during the past nine years. Recent discoveries
of potash near the Red Sea lend encouragement to another source of foreign exchange.

The trend towards industrialization is indicated by the increase in fixed

assets of manufacturing. Since 1955 these assets have been doubled, mostly in
the larger enterprises of E.$. 5 million and over. Textile and electric power
production have tripled since 1955. Employment and gross value of manufactured
products have doubled since 1958. Annual capital expenditure in manufacturing
has tripled since 1958, half of this total being in the textile industry. While
the base for these rapid increases is rather small, they do reflect an early stage
in industrial development, and the trends are indicative of confidence and willing-
ness of local and foreign capitalists to invest in the future of tle country.

The low income per capita and its concomitant living levels are reflected
in housing, cloting and education, as revealed by recent census data for the capital
Adis Abeba. Of the 460,000 population, 33 per cent are listed as literate. Average
size of a household is 3.5 persons with one to three as most common. Of the house-
holds) 95 per cent have piped water supplies, while 10 per cent are dependent on a
stream or other source. Forty per cent of the households are without electricity.
About 70 per cent of the living quarters are rented. Only 5 per cent of the houses
have stone wallsy metal or concrete roofs, and foundations, while 10 per cent have
Chica (mud and wood) walls and thatched roofs but no foundations. The remaining
85 per cent are made of chica with metal roofs but almost equally divided as to
"with" or "without" foundations. In rural districts, illiteracy is greater, and
streams and ponds are the only source of water, in many cases at considerable
distance from the houses. Electricity is available only in the larger towns and
municipalities. Fel,i stone or brick houses are found outside the large towns and
most houses are made of chica with thatched roofs.

While statistics are not available, there is little or no evidence of serious

malnutrition. With a high proportion of the population engaged in agriculture,
food shortage is unlikely, The large expanse of fertile soils, under loose owner-
ship and a favourable climate, makes food production a possibility for those willing
to expend a minimum of effort.

The clothing situation is reflected by a per capita consumption of cotton

annually of less than one kilogram, as compared with two to three kilograms in
many low-income countries and a world average of four to five kilograms. Yet, the
variable night and day temperature throughout Ethiopia, in the mountains and in the
deserts, warrants more clothing than the latitude might suggest. Lack of sufficient
clothing and shoes is evident in town and country. The lack of shoes is in sharp
contrast with the estimated 25 million head of cattle, more than one per capita of
the population, and with the export of hides and skins to the value of E.$. 15
million annually.

Of 120 million hectares of land, 40 per cent is in pasture, 25 per cent

to rough estimates of the Ministry of
forest and 25 per cent waste land according
Agriculture. Less than 10 per cent of the total area is in crop land (9.4 million
hectares) of which two thirds is sown to cereals. Half of the cereal hectarage
is devoted to "teff" (Eragrostis abyssinica) the seed of which is used by Ethiopians
Industrial crops
for the preparation of their staple unleavened bread or "enjera".
occupy 1.25 million hectares, one half being in oil seeds. Pulses and vegetable
 144

crop's (ratio2:1) make up another 1.06 million hectares. Coffee plantations cover
43,000 hectares and produce the largest gross income of any crop. Coffee is the
most important export, providing more than E.S. 100 million of foreign exchange
annually (see Appendix III, Table 2). In fact, Ethiopia might be characterized as
having a "cereal-cattle-coffee" economy which provides food, wealth status and a
source of foreign funds (see Appendix III, Table 3). With tremendous resources of
land and livestock, abundant wild life and a varied climate, hunger can only result
from lack of initiative.

Under the aegis of the Emperor, Ethiopia is awakening to the possibilities

of modernizing its economy. Better contact between the various sections of the
nation and with the outside world is under way through increased expenditures for
roads, transport (air and highway) and telecommunications.

Until 1958, Ethiopia had a long history of exporting annually more goods than
were imported. Except for 1952, the total export of goods and services exceeded
the total imports, thus providing a very favourable balance of trade during the
decade 1948-57.

In the recent trend towards industrialization, the Imperial Government has

obtained public loans and credits totalling E.$. 314.4 million 11 of which 23 per
cent only were earmarked for projects which would increase production directly. The
remaining 77 per cent were concerned with indirect improvement, i.e. for infras-
structure. Of the infrastructure allocation 98 per cent were for improving transport
and communication facilities which should help directly in the production sectors
of the economy, especially in agriculture with its relatively low value, bulky
products. This is particularly true in a mountainous country like Ethiopia, with
great distances between population centres, limited railroads and long tortuous roads
from the capital and the main agricultural production areas to the sea ports. Both
import and export commodities, as well as internal trade have been burdened with high
transport charges.

In the short run, the wide gap in the ratio of loans for direct production
and infrastructure projects may limit certain types of product for export and con-
sequently may hinder Ethiopia from meeting her short-run obligations. Although such
a gap is normal in an emerging economy, the need for developing and increasing
production of all types of export commodities while redUcing imports of agricultural
and food products which can be produced economically within the country cannot be
over-emphasized.

Since 1953, the nation's total burden of debt servicing has increased from
1.8 per cent to 14.4 per cent of the gross receipts on current account in 1962. 1/
To assist in meeting this debt servicing ability in a new industrializing nation,
the agricultural sector requires greater intensification and diversification in its
over-all production and increased emphasis on the higher gross value crops.

To improve the debt service situation, such crops as can be produced econo-
mically should be grown which will reduce the imports of similar raw products and
processed goods manufactured from them, e.g. cotton and cotton textiles, fruits and
vegetables, cereals, pulses, flour, butter, cheese, soap, tobacco, paper and cardboard.

1/ Ethiopian Economic Review, No. 8, April 1964.

 - 145-

During the past five years these commodities required over E.S. 54 million in foreign
exchange annually and no single group averaged less than E.S. 1.3 annually. Raw
cotton and cotton goods have accounted for about E.S. 40 million of imports annually
since 1949 (see Appendix III, Table 5). In that year these two items amounted to
almost one half of total imports but declined to 37 per cent for 1950-54, 23 per cent
for 1955-61, and 15 per cent for the past two years. This decline in percentage has
resulted primarily from larger increases in imports, such as industrial and agri-
cultural machines, vehicles, etc. but actual imports of cotton and cotton goods have
fallen by only 20 per cent in the period referred to. Prior to 1958 sugar imports
used up considerable foreign exchange but in the last two years, Ethiopia has been
able to export small surpluses of refined sugar.

Beside reducing imports, another means of solving the debt service problem
is by increasing production of those crops, or their processed products, which will
earn foreign exchange by their export on world markets. The proceeds can be used
to service the debt and/or to purchase machinery, processing equipment and other
items in an industrialization programme. 'In addition, a proportion of this increased
production may be used internally to improve living levels which will provide incen-
tive for all types of workers and producers.

To illustrate these economic possibilities, it is interesting to note that

prior to 1962, sugar was not produced in Ethiopia. By laying out the Wonjii Sugar
Estates on the Awash River and the formation of the "H.V.A. Ethiopia" company with
its factories at Wonji and at Shoa, Some 60,000 tons of refined sugar are now pro-
duced annually which satisfies the current internal demand and leaves a small surplus
for export. For the period 1948-54, sugar imports averaged E.S. 5,400,000 annually.
By 1963, a decade later, sugar imports had dwindled to E.$. 64,000 1/ and net exports
of sugar on world markets provided E.S. 3,800,000 of foreign exchange, but such
exports are liable to vary greatly because of violently fluctuating world sugar prices.

fnside the country, the per capita consumption of sugar has doubled in the
past ten years. Thus, the E.S. 9.2 million improvement in Ethiopia's sugar trade
balance has been made possible by an important change in land use; the utilization
of available resources - fertile land and plentiful labour; and the importation of
capital, management and technical skills, each of which is increasingly obtained
from local sources.

Cotton is another crop which might repeat the sugar story in its effect on
reducing foreign axchange drain. Due to mill requirements for varying types and
grades of raw cotton, and the time required for developing land and training farmers
to produce new crops, the period required for replacing cotton and cotton textile
imports will be longer. The natural resources of the Awash Valley can play an
important role in the cotton economy. Importation of management, technical skills
and capital have already started. (See Appendix IV).

Since 1960 cotton production from newly irrigated lands in the Awash River
Basin has increased from 400 metric tons of seed cotton from 560 hectares to 6,550
metric tons from 7,100 hectares in 1963. The crop for 1964 is estimated at 8,800
metric tons from 10,000 hectares. Preliminary production goals for 1967 are
reported as 30,000 metric tons of seed cotton from 28,000 hectares (see Appendix III,
Table 4). Even this production of 30,000 metric tons of seed cotton, equivalent to
approximately 10,000 metric tons raw (lint) cotton, would not meet the annual con-

Ethiopian Statistical Abstract, 1964, P. 77, Table 66.

 - 146-

sumption requirements of 12,824 metric tons for the local textile mills. Their
estimated capacity in 1963 was 18,000 metric tons of raw cotton, or 180 per cent of
the production goals set for 1967 by current cotton producers. Attempts at large
scale commercial production on irrigated lands in other regions of Ethiopia such
as Eritrea, have not succeeded or expanded. The only other production of major
importance is an estimated 4,000 metric tons of seed cotton (1,330 metric tons raw)
produced by small farmers on rainfed lands. Of this production about one half
(700 metric tons raw) finds its way to the textile mills while the remainder is
used in the oottae industry.

In two recent studies by FAO cotton experts in Ethiopia, demand for raw
cotton by 1967 has been estimated at between 18,000 and 24,000 metric tons. Even the
latter figure with population expansion would provide only one kilogramme of cotton
per person annually. The experts have estimated that the per capita consumption
will double during the next decade, requiring approximately 35,000 metric tons of
raw cotton for an increased number of textile mills. Even the long term targets
the present producers of irrigated cotton in the Awash Valley indicate only 15,000
to 20,000 metric tons of raw cotton? or 45,000 to 60,000 metric tons of seed cotton
annually (see Appendix III, Table 4).

From 1960 to 1963 the total annual consumption of cotton and cotton textiles
on a raw cotton (lint) equivalent basis has varied from 14,217 to 16,462 metric tons
with an average of 15,780 metric tons annually, according to recent revised estimates
(see Appendix III, Table 5). For the previous five years, the average annual con-
sumption was 20 per cent less. About one half of the current consumption, on a raw
cotton equivalent basis, consists of imported cotton textiles valued at E.$. 34.7
million compared with E.S. 37.3 million in 1954 to 1957, -when imported textiles
represented about three fourths of milled cotton consumption. These figures show
a reduction of E.. 2.6 million in foreign exchange, although the total consumption
of cotton and cotton textiles increased in recent years (see Appendix III, Table 5).

Selected portions of the Awash River Valley have suitable climate, soils and
irrigation water available for production of fruits and vegetables, especially high
value crops such as citrus, bananas, papaya, grapes, etc. Because of the .proximity
of the Valley to the capital, and to the developing seaport of Assab, both internal
and external market outlets will be available for these semi-perishable products.
Fruits and veget ble imports have averaged E.$. 1.9 million annually for the past two
two years. Yet, with ideal climatic conditions and the irrigation water resources in
the Awash Valley, together with the cooler plateau areas having adequate rainfall,
Ethiopia should be able to produce any type of fruit and vegetable desired by local
demand throughout the year, and have sufficient for export either as fresh or canned
products.

Imports of gunny bags have averaged B.S. 1.1 million for the past six years
and reached a peak of E.'S.2.1 million in 1963. Considering that coffee is one of
the main exports and sugar production is a newly emerged industry, there is a basis
for a national fibre industry. It is expected that increased agricultural production
of cotton, pulses, oilseeds, sugar, etc. will lead also to further demands for fibre
crops suitable for production of sacks and similar containers. One proposed develop-
ment plan by private enterprise in the Awash Valley includes sisal on irrigated land
to assist meeting local demand. Kenaf has also been included in proposed rotations
for other irrigated lands, but care must be exercised since this crop acts as a host
for insects harmful to cotton production.

Oilseeds can also be produced under irrigation in the Awash Valley with
satisfactory estimated net returns. In addition to increasing exports, now valued
at S.S. 15 million annually, further production in concentrated areas might Provide
the necessary impetus to develop an oil processing industry. Soap imports have
 - 147-

averaged E.$. 3.5 million annually for the past four years, reaching a high of
E.$. 4.8 million in 1963, three fourths of which was for common soap.
This high
import suggests a ready market being available for oil processing and soap
manu-
facturing industry. Cotton seed is being exported duo to lack of a processing
plant. It is estimated that a minimum of 25,000 metric tons of oil seeds are
necessary annually to justify the operation of an oil mill. Other oil seeds under
consideration for large scale production include castor and groundnuts. Sesame is
also a possibility but the evaluation of net returns did not warrant inclusion in
proposed rotations, although with better varieties and lower production costs, sesame
may well be worthy of consideration. Castor, groundnuts and sesame are presently
exported in fairly large quantities.

Legumes, other than ground nuts, might be grown for improved land use, more
intensive labour use and to provide additional cash income. These would include
haricot beans, horse beans, lentils and chick peas. Exports of these four commo-
dities have averaged E.$. 16 million annually over the past four years, which
indicates that oversea market outlets have already been established. Haricot beans
have been included as a possible rotation on irrigated land, as quality white beans
produce a relative high return compared with the other pulses.

Much of the 150,000 hectares of irrigable land is now utilized as grazing

areas by nomadic herdsmen for cattle, sheep and goats, but the net return per hectare
for the national economy is very low. Fodder crops can be raised on irrigated land
with consequent increases in quantity and quality of meat and hides. Provision for
ponds or wells in adjoining plains, together with disease control and modernization
of production will enable the livestock industry, already one of the largest in
Africa, to expand greatly over the next two decades.

While largor yields per hectare of cereal crops can be grown under irrigation,
there are considerable areas on the high plateaus which are peculiarly suited to
cereal production because of elevation, climate and soil. About two thirds of the
9.4 million hectares in cultivation in Ethiopia are devoted to cereals, but with
low average yields estimated at 800 to 900 kilogrammes per hectares of wheat barley
and maize. Yields can be increased on these lands by planting improved varieties,
using lime and fertilizers and by better cultural methods. Consequently, it is
believed that the limited water resources of the Awash Valley should be reserved
for higher gross value crops adapted to the conditions obtaining'in the valley.
Limited areas of cereals could be grown for home consumption, livestock, or eventu-
ally for export if demand warranted such production.

To summarize the foregoing, Ethiopia, and the Awash River Basin in particular,
is fortunate in having excellent and varied climates, extensivo areas of fertile
soils, and a plentiful supply of labour. With capital investment, management and
technical skills, including judicious application of available water, production
can be greatly increased to improve nutrition, raise living levels and even provide
surpluses to assist in meeting the world gap in food, fibre and vegetable oil.
Production from the Awash Valley can broaden the base of both agriculture and its
related industries, thus making available tdditional foreign currency, paying the
way to a more rapid industrialization and a balanced economy.

The Awash River Basin Economy

The Awash River whose headwaters rise near the capital, Adis Abeba, flows
south and then northeastwards towards the Red Sea, but on reaching the Danakil
Plains the river bends te the east, divides into three main branches, and ends in
a series of lakes (seo Appendix I). This internal river basin forms a strategic
axis between the Read Sea ports and the capital. Its climate is varied, the land
fertile, grazing extensive, but water resources limited. The basin includes
 - 148 -

7,000,000 hectares or 70,000 square kilometers, which is about 6 per cent of

Ethiopials land area. Except for the portion above Nazareth, the valley is
sparsely populated. Roving nomads seek seasonal grazing and water for their herds.
It is estimated that there are 240,000 cattle, and 60,000 head of sheep, goats and
camels between Awash Station and Lake Abbe.

A few farmers raise rainfed subsistence crops in scattered areas between

Nazareth and Awash Station, and most of these farmers or their descendants will con-
tinue to do so, even after portions of the valley are developed for irrigation.
It is thought that existing production in these areas will be affected little by
new irrigation projects. However, these projects will utilize more fully the
semi-desert grazing savannah lands now of extremely low gross productivity. With
forage production on irrigated land, it is expected to increase over-all meat
production even though the total grazing area is somewhat reduced by new cropping
areas. In this preliminary study, no attempt has been made to assess present
production, except on areas now actually irrigated.

Until 1952, only the upper reaches of the Valley around the capital produced
cash crops for the nearby market. They were rain fed crops or crops on lands pre-
irrigated by summer floods. Prior to the above date, only two organizations had
pioneered the lands further downstream, Montanari Estate (Awora Melka) located
northwest of Awash Station on the Kebena River (a tributary), and the Metehara
Plantation on the Awash River west of Awash station. These estates made use of
irrigation water to produce bananas, citrus, papaya, grapes, vegetables, cotton,
rice, sugar, oilseeds etc., but transportation facilities to markets were inadequate.
Just over a decade ago, planned irrigated areas below the present Koka Dam totalled
less than 1,200 hectares. The Wonji Sugar Estates obtained a concession on Awash
River near Nazareth for 5,000 hectares (later increased to 6,600 hectares) on which
to produce sugar cane by irrigation.

In 1958 Mitchell Cotts Company obtained a concession for growing cotton on

18,000 hectares along the Awash River; 12,000 hectares were selected in the Lower
Awash between Tendaho and Asayita; the location of the remaining 6,000 hectares was
to be decided upon later. This year, 1964, Mitchell Cotts have a total of 7,100
hectares under irrigation in the Lower Awash with active plans to complete a 12,000
hectare development by 1967. Reconnaissance has been made to start developing the
third tract of 6,000 hectares near Melka Sedi in the Middle Awash. The agricultural
company formed by Mitchell Cotts in the Lower Awash, known as the Tendaho Plantation
Share Corporation, is also assisting local irrigation farmers by providing seeds,
spray materials, ginning facilities and technical supervision over 4,000 hectares
of cotton on small farms in the Asayíta area. (See Appendix III, Table 6).

These developments, along with the preliminary results of the UNSF/FAO Awash
River Basin Survey, have encouraged other enterprises to plan future schemes, and
to start pilot projects with the following targets: Abadir - 500 hectares; Nura Era-
5,400 hectares; Haile Selassie Welfare Trust - 1,500 hectares; and Tebila - 200
hectares (see Appendix IV). Before this somewhat hap-hazard development becomes
too far advanced, it is essential to plan for the best over-all use of land and
limited water resources, and it is suggested that every technical and administrative
assistance should be given to the Awash Valley Authority, the autonomous Government
body charged with the task of developing one of Ethiopia's main agricultural assets.

Present Land Use

As mentioned previously, some development is already taking place in the

Awash River basin (see Appendix IV), mostly on a fairly large scale. A few rain
fed plots of maize, cotton and teff are raised by railway employees near Melka Jilo,
Metehara and Awash Station, but yields are low and sporadic. The whole region is
sparsely populated and there has been no attempt at settled agriculture. Some years
 - 149-

ago Metehara Plantation tried to encourage land settlement but only 40 families
were induced to remain, cultivating some 20 hectares. Workers on the plantations
are almost entirely from other regions, often coming as seasonal labour only. They
do not take roots and avoid contact with the local pastoralists. Vast tracts of
land are utilized by a relatively small number of nomadic graziers who move according
to the availability of grass and water.

Only in the Lower Plains, around Asayita, has there been an attempt to
utilize the waters of the Awash for irrigation, and settlement by the Muslim popu-
lation there has been in evidence for centuries. Irrigation is mainly by inundation
of flood water and crops are planted as the water recedes. Because of the silting
deltaic channels, certain land formerly commanded by flood waters is no longer
cultivable. Livestock in this region is an integral part of the farming pattern
and are grazed on the flood areas not in cultivation and also on stubbles after
harvest. Ploughing is done by bullocks culled from grazing herds.

The recent establishment of the concessionary Tendaho Plantation Share

Company has encouraged new settlers from the highlands at the edge of the Rift Valley,
In the past, there seems to have been a migratory type of farmer who would come down
from the hills, plant a cotton crop, and after harvesting would return to his high-
land home. This type of farmer now tends to remain in the lowlands, and there
appears to be some integration of races taking place around the Asayita district.

Development of Irrigated Agriculture

It is estimated that when the targets set up by concessionaires and related

schemes are achieved some 464000 hectares, gross area, will be operational (exclusive
of Wonjii Sugar Estates). The present water supply regulated by Koka Dam plus tri-
butaries of the Awash River will be sufficient to irrigate 63,000 hectares. Thus,
without further works or contribution only 17,000 hectares beyond existing goals
can be brought into cultivation. Another eight to ten years may elapse before the
various schemes are fully operational, but if development of irrigated agriculture
in the Awash Basin is not to be hampered by lack of water, action must be initiated
now to increase the Irnter resources in order to keep pace with future agricultural
planning.

Several schemes to increase water resources can be contemplated and some of

them have been investigated in some detail by the UNSF/FAO Survey.

Tendaho Dam

A reservoir dam might be created on the Lower Awash near the village of
Tendaho. This would be a multi-purpose project for irrigation, flood protection and
power production. Irrigation water would supply an additional 49,000 hectares and
provide necessary flood control to an area of 70,000 hectares downstream of the dam.

A power plant could be included in the project with a production capability

of about 80 million kwhr, some of which might be used for pump irrigation. If
Tendaho Dam is erected, 12 Kms of the Adis Abeba-Assab road will need to be re-
located.

Kesem Dam

A potential dam site has been investigated on the Kesem River, a left bank
tributary of the Awash. Water storage by construction of this dam would permit
irrigation of a supplementary 18,000 hectares. Power production capability is
estimated at 35 million kwhr.
 150-

Meki River Diversion

The Meki River is located about 100 km, south of Adis Abeba and presently
flows into Lake Ziway. Aerial photography suggests that at one time the Meki was
a tributary of the Awash River. It would be feasible to excavate a canal along the
old river bed and thus divert water into Koka Reservoir. An additional 15,000
hectares could be irrigated and production capability of all power plants dependent
on Koka Dam would be increased by at least 10 per cent.

Awash Station Compensation Dam

With diversion of Meki River, the discharge flow from Koka could be regulated
more precisely to irrigation requirements downstream with the further construction
of a Compensation dam in a gorge near Awash Station. This would allow another
5,000 hectares to be irrigated.

The impact of the above project's for the development of the Awash River Basin
can be summarized as follows

TkBLE A

IRRIGABLE AND FLOOD CONTROL AREAS AND POWER PRODUCTION AFTER

STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Project Additional Total Flood Power

Areas Areas Protection Production
Irrigable Irrigable Capability
(ha) (ha) Mill. kwhr)

Current water resources -

with Koka Dam 63,000 110 +

Tendaho Reservoir Dam 49,000 112,000 70,000 80

Kesem Reservoir Dam 18,000 130,000 35

Awash Station
Compensation Dan 5,000 135,000

Meki River Diversion 15,000 150,000 12 ++

+ Production of Koka I power plant only

++ Increase in production of Koka power plant only.

Sequence of development will be discussed elsewhere, but it is necessary

first to consider the economic aspects of these various irrigation, power production
and flood control proposals, - investments required, estimates of costs and benefits,
and their economic justification.

Benefit-Cost Analysis

The benefit-cost analysis of.the irrigation phase of these projects is based

upon (1) the physical feasibility analyses and estimate of hydrologists, geologists,
soil and water chemists, dam engineers, irrigation engineers, soil surveyors and
 - 151 -

agronomists; (2) the cost estimates of engineers; (3) the production cost and yield
estimates of agronomists; and (4) the estimates of future market needs and product
prices by production and marketing ec-onomists. The benefit-cost analysis of the
hydroelectric and flood control phases are also a part of the over-all study but
will be treated later under separate headings. Only that part of the dams and
necessary road relocation chargeable to irrigation will be included in this first
phase of the benefit-cost analysis. (See Appendix III, Table 25).

Since more than 10,000 hectares of the proposed project area are already
under irrigation, it is felt that this experience and acquired information on land
preparation, crop production, crop yields and costs of production has provided a
more accurate basis for estimates than usually occurs.

Based on the preliminary feasibility studies of the UNSF/FAO Survey team it

has been determined that the quantity and quality of water that can be made available
downstream from the Wonji Sugar Estates is sufficient to irrigate 150,000 hectares
of land in the Awash Valley, provided certain suggested reservoir storage facilities
are constructed. It is estimated that 80,000 hectares of land suitable for irrigation
lie in the Middle Awash (Wonji to Gewani Swamps) and 70,000 hectares in the Lower
Awash (downstream of Tendaho).

The agronomist has selected crops (see Appendix III, Tables 7 to 18 inclusive)
whose soil, water and temperature requirements conform to the Valley's climatic
conditions and the land and water resources available. Selection was influenced by
gross and net values, crops being chosen to provide the highest net return to the
fa-ewer and to add most to the national economy by reducing food and fibre imports
and/or increasing exports to earn additional foreign exchange. (See Appendix III,
Table 19 to 24).

Priority has been given to cotton production in order to stimulate industry

based on local agricultural products. Emphasis has also been placed on oilseeds
and pulses as oversea markets have already been established for those commodities
and soils, climate and growing periods are favourable. Some cereals will be
required for an increased local population as well as other staple foodstuffs.
Pasture and forage crops have been included, not only,for soil improvement but as
a means of-integrating livestock production with irrigated agriculture. Returns
in this connection have been calculated on the basis of liveweight gains, but there
are possibilities for additional production of milk, butter and cheese. High value
crops such as sugar cane, kenaf, sisal, citrus, bananas and vegetables were decided
upon for limited areas, in accordance with estimated demand and for como exports.
These high value crops have a considerable influence on the estimated benefit cost
ratios. (See Appendix III, Tables 19, 20, 23).

Crop plans were designed with a view to obtaining the most favourable gains
in different farm systems. High cropping intensities and high value crops were
allocated to the sophisticated concessionaire type of agricultural enterprise, while
simpler rotations were applied to the small farms (settlement farms). (See Appendix
III, Tables 22 and 23).

While the Imperial Government favours initial development primarily by largo

scale commercial farming, there is also a desire on its part to promote establishment
of small co-operative farms and settlement schemes. On the deltaic plains of the
Lower Awash, a number of small farms under irrigation have been operating for
centuries and an extension of this type of farming on an organized basis seems to be
desirable in suitable areas throughout the Valley.
 - 152 -

Estimates of yields (see Appendix III, Table 19) for the various crops were
obtained from all available sources and statistics were analysed and extrapolated
to provide reasonably accurate figures of crop production on large mechanized farms
and on small farms. Similarly, production costs were obtained from existing
operators and in cases where no costs were obtainable, e.g. bananas, citrus and
vegetables, 60 per cent of the gross value was taken as cost of production.
Government departments, banks, farmers, commercial enterprises and agricultural
officers were consulted to obtain accurate commodity prices. From these estimated
gross values and production costs, net gains were calculated for each crop. (See
Appendix III, Table 19). Crop plans using certain rotations were then evolved, at
the same time showing total production and net gains per hectare. (See Appendix III,
Table 20).

By applying combinations of these crop plans to specific areas it has been

possible to estimate total production for each area and when full development is
achieved, for a net area of 135,000 hectares. (See Appendix III, Table 23).

In making the economic appraisal of the irriEation phaSe of the project,

the value of land has not been included as a project cost, since most of it is
desert grazing land at present. Instead, the value of production from the presently
cultivated land has been deducted from the total production benefits derived from
the project. The remaining costs and benefits have been summarized in economic
terms, according to recognized procedures. 1/
In accordance with this procedure, the initial investment estimates for all
required dams and diversion dams as well as the necessary headworks, canals,
drainage ditches, land clearing and land levelling for 117,950 hectares of land
have been made by the UNSF/FAO Survey team, and used as a basis for the over-all
project estimates or 150,000 hectares. (See Appendix III, Tables 25, 27).

Comparison of these Survey team cost estimates for irrigation works and
land preparation with the cost of work done by a half dozen concessionaires or
large farmers in the project area indicates that they are reasonable. To the cost
estimates of the survey, team, the cost of E.S. 1.2 million for road relocation
for 12 kilometers of highway affected by the Tendaho Dam has been added to the
cost of that dam. 2/ Similarly, the cost of external highways to the project areas
and additional internal roads totalling E.$. 5.5 million have been included.
(See Appendix lU, Table 26).

Since the Survey team did not make a soil survey and cost estimate for all
of the proposed project area, extrapolation for the additional 3,700 hectares in

"Benefit Cost EValuations as applied ta AID-financed Water and Related Land

Use Projects, Supplement No. 1 to Feasibility Studies, Economic and Technical
Soundness, Analysis, Capital Projects" prepared by the Agency for International
Development, Department of State, Office of Rngineering, U.S.A.

2/ Estimated by a representative of De Leuw Cather of Canada and confirmed by

the Imperial Highway Authority.
 - 153 -

the Lower Awash and 28,350 hectares in the Middle Awash were made. (See Appendix III,
Tables 25 and 27). Estimates of the average investment per gross hectare by the
Survey team for nearby and/or similar land areas were used in making these extra-
polations, i.e. E.$. 1,205 per gross hectare in the Lower Awash and E.S. 1,732 (per
hectare) in the Middle Awash. (See Appendix V for a more detailed explanation).
Both the surveyed areas and the extrapolated areas were traVersed and available
information analyzed by one or more of the review panel - most of the areas by all
three members.

Based on the Survey team estimates of E.S. 84.1 million for a diversion canal,
a comllensation dam and two major dams with accompanying dikes, etc., the extra-
polated figure of E.$. 223.0 million for headworks and structures, canals, ditches,
diversion dams, land clearing and levelling and farm canals and drainage ditches,
and including the E.S. 5.5 million for additional roads, the total estimated invest-
ment for these irrigation related works is E.$. 312.5 million. This investment,
which amounts to E.S. 2,084 per gross hectare (E.$. 2,315 per net or crop hectare)
for the 150,000 hectares for which water supplies are estimated to be available,
is a responsibility of both the public or government and the landowners or farmers.
The initial investments, totalling E.S. 250.6 million for the major items, such
as dams, canals, ditches, land clearing, diversion dams, roads, bridges and culverts
are primarily a public responsibility. The investments of E.S. 62.0 million in land
levelling, farm canals and farm drainag.e ditches in the distribution system are
usually a responsibility of the landowners or farmers and are included in the
"associated costs", along with the cost of houses for farmers and labourers, ware-
houses, office buildings for supervising and administrative personnel, totalling
E.S. 55.3 million, as well as machinery and farm power investment of B.S. 62.4
million. This brings the estimates of "associated costs" investment to E.$. 179.7
million, and the "Grand Total Investment" to E.S. 430.3 million.

On the basis of these investments, annual costs of maintenance and operation

of dams, canals, headworks and replacement of pumps have been computed at 2 per cent
annually for a cost of E.$. 5.0 million. Amortization of investment costs over a
50-year period have been computed at both 6 per cent (0.06344) and 4 per cent
(0.04655) for comparative purposes. The rate of 6 per cent, which was used at the
suggestion of the Ethiopian Development Bank representative as a fair rate for this
kind of project in Ethiopia, shows an annual charge of E.$. 15.9 million. The rate
of 4 per cent was used as a possible rate for some international bank financing and
gives an annual charge of E.S. 11.7 million. This latter rate might be especially
applicable to the investment funds required for the two major dams. In this project
an additional annual charge of E.S. 1.0 million or E.$. 16.50 per gross hectare of
land operated by small farmers has been included for extension workers (or farm credit
supervisors) to assist in the supervision of the development of small farms. Normally
extension service costs are a part of the regular governmental functions and are in-
cluded in the budget of the Minister of Agriculture. However, the more intensive
supervision envisioned for this project requires additional personnel and separate
financing.

The Associated Annual Costs of E.S. 14.0 million, to be paid by landowners

includes a 2 per cent charge for maintenance and operation, distribution and drainage
ditches, plus computed amortization charges for 50 years at 6 per cent (0.06344) and
4 per cent (0.04655) for the associated costs of land levelling, and distribution
and drainage ditch investments. Amortization charges for 20 years on E.$. 55.3
million invested in farm and labourer houses) warehouses and office buildings for
both small farm settlements and large farm developments at 6 per cent, (0.08718) and
an interest charge only of 6 per cent on E.$. 62.4 million for farm machinery and
equipment has been computed. Since depreciation charges on farm machinery and
equipment have been included in the cost of producing the crops, no amortization
 - 154-

charge has been made for this item. Pumping charges have been included where
applicable in the Middle and Lower Awash areas. In the Lower Awash, pumping charges
of E.$. 0.03 per kwhr for an estimated 20 million kwhr were made. According to
BELFA 1/ officials, this would be the applicable rato for large industrial users.
(s.s. 0.05 less 40 per cent discount or E.S. 0.03 per kwhr). In the Middle Awash,
the estimated 15,000 hectares of land requiring pumping were computed at E.S. 40 per
hectare or about E.S. 0.11 per kwhr, which is consistent with diesel-electric power
costs. Construction of the Kesem dam and hydroelectric power unit would reduce
this pumping charge to about one-third the present figure.

With the Annual Investment Costs of E.S. 21.9 million and Associated Annual
Coste of E.S. 14.0 million including annual amortization, maintenance and operation
and special charges determined, estimates of the Primary Benefits which will come
to landowners were made. This required an estimate of present production as well
as the future production of the completed project. In this instance estimates of
the production of 10,500 hectares of land already under irrigation, the gross crop
value and farm production costs indicated a "net yield at present" of C.S. 1.7
million. Since "Present Associated Investments"of E.S. 7 million have been made
already by the farmers, annual amortization at 6 per cent (0.06344) is an additional
current charge of E.S. 0.4 million which would reduce the present net yield to
B.S. 1.3 million.

Estimates of the production, gross crop value, farm input costs and net
gain of a completed project in full production several years hence is a difficult
task. But the procedure for this was discussed in detail earlier and reference made
to data in Appendix III, Tables 19 to 24. However, these data require further analy-
sis and refinement to make them more useful in the economic feasibility study.
Orchards, fruits, sugar, sisal, bananas and other products which require considerable
time to get into full production must be discounted for the time lag (1 to 7 years
have been used in these estimates). Even general crops which will be produced by
beginner farmers or former nomads require time to reach full production. In this
instance it has been estimated that it will take 10 years for small farmers to reach
full production; thus, a 5-year time lag has been used. For large farmers a 2-year
has been used - except in the Lower Awash where only a I-year lag has been calculated
because one-third of the land area for large farms is already under cultivation.
Within a 3-year period it is estimated that two-thirds of the large farm area will
be in full production." Consequently, even this 1-year lag for large farms may not
be required in the Lower Awash. Nevertheless this realistic allowance for time lag
in the development of the project has reduced the estimated "Gain in Net Annual
Production" from E.S. 69.9 million to E.S. 56.9 million or about 19 per cent.

From the computed "Total Adjusted Gains" of E.S. 56.9 million obtained from
crop production but reduced on account of time lag, the "Total Annual Associated
Costs (TAAC)" of E.S. 14.0 million are deducted, leaving the "Net Annual Primary
Benefits" of E.S. 42.9 million. A comparison of these "Net Annual Primary'Benefits"
with the "Annual Costs" of E.S. 21.9 million shows a Benefit Cost Ratio of 1.95
to 1.00 at 6 per cent, which.is indicativo of the relative profitability of the
project. The benefit-Cost Ratio at 4 per cent interest is 2.42 to 1.00.

In summary, the preliminary data and analysis indicate that the annual net
gains for agricultural production are almost double the annual costs for the
irrigation phase of the Total Awash Project. After completion, the project is

1/ Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority

 - 155 -

expected to produce E.$. 181 million gross agricultural products annually, with
an annual net gain over present production of about E.$. 60 million.

Secondary benefits were not computed but there will be important additions
to the regional and national economy through increased income to thousands of
workers and farwers, either presently under-employed or with meagre incomes. In
this type of development programme, the concomitant servicing (private and govern-
mental), transportation and processing industries must develop and will provide a
further impetus to the economy of the area and the nation.

In order to show how the Primary Benefit-Cost Ratio was determined, the
procedure and data for the Total Awash Project are presented in brief form in
Table E below. The detailed data for the Total Awash Project and for separate
segments or areas are presented in Appendix III, Tables 32 to 40. On each of the
area tables, the Benefit-Cost Ratio which is most likely to obtain if the whole
Awash Valley Project is carried out, with proper over-all government planning
and supervision, has been underlined. This preliminary analysis, which shows each
area as being economically feasible, is predicated upon the idea that the Govern-
ment will accept its responsibility to develop policies to encourage proper land
and water use for the whole Awash Valley.
 - 156-

TABLE B - BENEFIT - COST ANALYSIS, TOTAL AWASH PROJECT

In E.$. millions

1. TOTAL PROJECT AREA - 150,000 has; Net - 135,000 has

2. ESTIMATED INITIAL INVESTMENTS: E.$ million E.S million

Dams, dikes, diversion canals 84.1
Head Works, Canals, Ditches
Diversion Dams, Land Clearing 161.0
Roads, Bridges, Culverts 5.5
TOTAL ESTIMATED INITIAL INVESTMENT 250.6
ASSOCIATED COSTS:
'Land Levelling, farm Canals and Ditches 62.0
Farm houses, Warehouses Buildings 55.3
Farm Machinery, Power 62.4
TOTAL ASSOCIATED COSTS 179.7
Present Associated Investments,
10,500 ha. E.$ 7.0 million
GRAND TOTAL INVESTMENT 430.3

3, ANNUAL COSTS: Rate 6 Rate 4

M-0 & R* of Dams, Canals, Structures:
eo of E.$ 250.6 millions 5.0 5.0
Amortization of Investment Costs:
E.$ 250.6 million, 50 years,
at 6%: x 0.06344 15.9
at 410: x 0.04655 11,7
Recurrent Expenses, Extension Service 1.0 1.0
TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS 21.9
*M-0 & R: Maintenance and Operation of dams,
Canals, and Structures and Replacement of
Pumps.

4, ASSOCIATED ANNUAL COSTS

Landowners
M-0: Maintenance and Operation of Distribution
System and Drainage Ditches:
Vo of E.3 17.9 million .4 .4
Pumping Charges 1.2 1.2
Amortization of Associated Costs:
E.3 62.0 million, 50 years,
at 65: x 0.6344, 3.9
at 4c/0: x 0.04655 2.9
E.S 55.3 million, 20 years
at 0: x 0.08718 4.8 4.8
E.$ 62.4 x 0.06
interest only 3.7 3.7
TOTAL ASSOCIATED ANNUAL COSTS 14.0 13.0
 - 157 -

TAB LE B: BENEFIT - COST ANALYSIS TOTAL AWASH PROJECT

In E.$ millions

5. PRIMARY BENEFITS TO LANDOWNERS:

Production at present

Gross Agricultural yield

Less farm input costs
Less Amort. 50 yrs. Present
Investment .4
Net yield at present 1.3

Estimated Production after completion

Gross at full development 181.5

Less farm input costs 110.3
GAIN IN NET ANNUAL PRODUCTION 69.9

Reduced Gain on account of Lag:

Short-cut method at 6%
(For details see Appendix II,
Table 32, pages 3 and 4).
Total Adjusted Gain - With Lag 56.9
Less Total Associated Annual Costs (Item 4) 14.0
NET ANNUAL PRIMARY BENE1,iTS - WITH LAG 42.9
BENEFIT-COST RATIOS: Rate 6% Rato k%
6,

Annual Benefit - With Lag 42.9 42.9

Annual Costs (Item 3) 21.9 17.7

Ratio: With Lag 1.95 to 1.00 2.42 to 1.00

SECONDARY BENEFITS - None computed and none used above.

INVESTMENT PER HECTARE: in E.S. only Gross Area Net Area

Irrigation works, dams and roads E.$ 2,084 E.$ 2,315

 - 158 -

In order to determine priorities for land development in the Awash River

Valley, benefit-cost analyses of a few selected areas were made. (See Appendix III,
Tables 32 to 40). A brief comparison of the benefit-cost ratios for these areas is
given below in Table C.

TABLE C - COMPARISON OF BENEFIT-COST RATIOS BY AREAS IN

AWASH RIVER PROJECT

Rate 6 Rate 4
Hectares with Lag with Lag

Total Awash Project Area 150,000 1.95 to 1.00 2.42 to 1.00

Lower Awash Area 70,000 1.28 to 1.00 1.56 to 1.00

Middle Awash, Total 80,000 2.8 to 1,00 2.97 to 1.00

Middle Awash, no Dams 42,000 5.50 to 1.00 6.93 to 1.00

Kesem-Kebena Area 17,550 1.24 to 1.00 1.58 to 1.00

Melka-Sedi Area 8,550 2.73 to 1.00 3.39 to 1.00

Angelele Area 4,750 1.41 to 1.00 1.75 to 1.00

While there are wide differences in the benefit-cost ratios between the
various areas, each one shows a favourable ratio. However, if the Kesem-Kebena
area were to be devoted to general crops only, the benefit-cost ratio would drop
to 0.68 to 1.00. In contrast, the Melka-Sedi arO Angelele areas, when devoted only
to general crops, show favourable benefit-cost ratios of 2.73 to 1.00 and 1.41 to
1.00 respectively. Of course the inclusion of some high value crops in each area
increases their benefit-cost ratio markedly. (See Appendix III, Table 39). But
negotiations are already under way for cotton production by a concessionaire and
concomitant farm settlement programme which will utilize almost all of the Melka-
Sedi area. Consequently, computations for high value crops in that area are academic
and for comparative purposes only.

In the case of Kesem-Kebena, however, 200 hectares of orchard and bananas

are already in production on the Aworka Melka plantation along the Kesem River. A
largor hectarage (1,000 hectares) of these crops are included in the cropping plans,
since additional water supplies can be assured. The inclusion of 500 heCtares of
citrus and 500 hectares of bananas is a proportionate share (one fifth) of these
crops allocated to the Middle Awash area. Their inclusion provides a favourable
benefit-cost ratio of 1.24 to 1.00 at 6 per cent interest, in spite of the large
investment per hectare resulting from the necessary dam construction, and a small
water storage capacity. From a national viewpoint the inclusion of a proportionate
share of the high value crops in the Kesem-Kebena area provides the needed justi-
fication for a project which will provide 22 per cent of the land area in Middle
Awash Project and about 12 per cent for the Total Awash Project. It will also provide
additional hydro-electric power to the nearby area, thus making a multiple use of the
limited water resources which will otherwis:) be wasted. The available power will also
assist in the development of secondary freezing, storage and processing industries
which will utilize the agricultural products.
 - 159 -

Where soils are quite similar and climate and water are equally suitable for
a wide variety of crops, it becomes a problem of how to assign the cropping plans
to each area. In some instances transportation facilities or market outlets assist
in the decision. But it should be recognized that the benefit-cost ratio will vary
as the acreages of the more labour intensive, high value crops such as sugar cane,
bananas, citrus, etc. are shifted from one area to another. For this reason the
data for these Special or High Value Crops (HVC) which are included in Crop Plans
9, 10) 11 and 12 have been listed as a group at the top of Table 23, Appendix III.
Thus, they are available for assignment to any area where soil, water, climate,
market outlet, transportation and concessionaire or producer interest indicate that
they might be groyn economically. They are now included in the Total Project and
both Middle Awash estimates. Desired hectarages of any of these special crops can be
substituted for a similar hectarage of general crops in any area of the project, with
a resulting improvement in the benefit-cost ratio for that area. Such was done for
very logical reasons in the Kesem-Kebena area as shown in Table 36, Appendix III and
as explained above. It has been done also for the Melka-Sedi area for comparative
purposes only, unless the Government and the concessionaire for this land change
their present agreement and plans.

In the case of sugar production, however, negotiations are already under

way for the full quota to be assigned to the Metehara Plantation above Awash Station,
because of railroad facilities and preliminary plans already made. Consequently,
the production of sugar would not be available for any other area until the national
demand for sugar more than doubled. Similar problems would arise as the hectarages
of any special crop gave a production considerably in excess of local, national
and/or export demand.

In order to show the effect of these high value crops in certain areas when
compared with general crops, benefit-cost ratios have been computed for specified
areas in the Middle Awash and presented in Table 39, Appendix III. From this table
it is noted that a proportionate share of these high value crops such as sugar cane,
citrus fruits and bananas were not included in the suggested cropping plans for the
Lower Awash, especially when compared with the more suitable soils of the Middle
Awash for these crops. If, however, limited areas in the Lower Awash are found for
such high value crops, including vegetables, etc.; a shift in hectarage may be made,
with a resulting increase in the benefit-cost ratio for the area and a lowered
transportation charge for any exportable commodity.

In order to provide more productive agricultural land for the nation and
nearby hydro-electric power for the Middle Awash area through the utilization of a
larger share of the area's limited water and irrigable land resources, the Govern-
ment might consider giving preference to farmers who would develop the additional
800-1,000 hectares or more of land in bananas, citrus fruit and vegetables in the
Kesem-Kebena area.

The Government must also decide whether to let the irrigation development
of the Valley occur primarily in the areas of high benefit-cost ratios, such as the
"Middle Awash - no Dams" area of 42,000 hectares and thus limit the Middle Valley
development and total national production, or take the longer run viewpoint of
developing as much as the total water resources of the Awash River would permit, est
estimated at 80,000 hectares for the Middle Awash, with engineering structures.
the latter policy is adopted, then shifts in cropping plans to utilize fully and
economically all the land and water resources would appear to be justified.
 - 160-

Similarly, the Government must develop policies relativo to water rates

or water charges for use in agricultural production. To what extent should water
charges be used to finance investment amortization and/or administration and super-
vision of the irrigation project? Should water charges be used as a means of
obtaining funds from the land with crops giving higher net returns to assist in
financing and making more viable the present or prospective lower return areas?
Should water charges be made on a hectarage basis, as now plasned, or upon the
quantity of water used? More water is required per hectare of bananas or sugar
cane than for beans, groundnuts or cotton. Should there be a minimum water charge
to encourage the production of higher value crops and fuller production of all
crops? Or should there be a ceiling water rate to encourage production of high
value heavy water-using crops? Due to the concentration of rainfall in March-April
and June to September, water rates might be reduced during this period to make
fuller utilization of seasonal surplus water.

These and many other avenues for obtaining funds to assist in financing the
project must be carefully studied and reviewed by appropriate experts. An early
consideration of these and other problems require the attention of the Government,
and especially of the General Manager and Board of Directors of the Awash Valley
Authority. Their recommendations should then lead to-approval and necessary
legislation.

Project Financing

After determining that a project is economically feasible, a host of new

problems arise relative to financing. What phases of the project should be financed
by government or government-backed loans? What investments should be financed by
the farmers and through what source of funds? What length of loan and what interest
rates might be expected for each type of loan? There are wide differences in these
matters according to lending agencies, length of loan, source of funds and the
purpose for which the funds are used. The matter of past credit performance is also
an important factor.

Since it is now a common practice for governments to consult with a finance

expert who knows the various sources of funds for different types of loans, the
panel gave little consideration to this matter. In order to point up the effect
of shorter term loans than are provided for in the computation of the benefit-cost
ratios, the Lower Awash Project was computed on a 25-year, 6 per cent loan amor-
tization basis. (See Appendix III, Table 40). According to these calculations
involving E.$ 91,753,500 for dams, dikes, major canals, ditches and pumps on a
25-year, 6 per cent (0.07823) amortization plan, but leaving all other costs at the
same rates as previously, the benefit-cost ratio is 1.10 to 1.00.
 - 161 -

DEVELOPMENT OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER AND FLOOD CONTROL

Water power is the most important source of electric energy in Ethiopia, with
hydroelectric plants furnishing 60 percent of the 176 million kwhr produced in 1963.
But preliminary studies have indicated that 45 billion kwhr can be supplied annually
from the 16 major watersheds of the nation. In Ethiopia the production of electricity
in primarily a function of the Public Utilities, being supplemented (12 percent of
total production) by small industry-owned thermal plants which supply the needs of
their own industry. Utilization of the water power of the Awash River began in 1960,
upon the completion of Koka Power Dam (Koka I) with an installed capacity of 54,000 kw
(KVA), the largest power plant in Ethiopia to date. In 1963 this plant produced
81 million kwhr which was 40 percent of the nation's total (including Eritrea). It
is the primary source of electricity in the capital and contiguous area, supplemented
by a local thermal station. But 40 percent of the homes in Addis Abeba are still
without electricity, and power service to present'consumers is inadequate.

Because of the high cost of thermal power in Ethiopia (E.$ 0.09 to E. 0.15
per kwhr), hydroelectric power can make an important contribution to industrial
development and improved living levels. In this connection Ethiopian Electric Light
and Power Authority (LELPA) has firm plans for developing certain water power
resources, doubling the' current electric power generation to 355 million kwhr by
1967. This means an annual increase of about 22 percent, which approximates the
growth rate of the past decade.

To meet the demand in the capital area further use will be made of the Awash
River by construction of Koka II (already in progress), Koka III and possibly Koka IV
at selected sites downstream from Koka I. Water power development of the Blue Nile
River is also under way with the construction of the Tis Abbai System, which will
have an initial output of 15 million kwhr and a completion output of 57 million kwhr.
Preliminary plans for Fincha Dam on a tributary of the Blue Nile with a capacity of
about 80 million kw are also under consideration.

Approximately 21 million kwhr or one-third of the 66 million kwhr of the

nation's thermal power is generated in industrial plants, usually due to a lack of
any other source. Owing to long distar.ce shipping and high overland transportation
costs for fuel, primarily fuel oil, thermal power plants are high cost producers,
3 to 10 times the cost of hydropower.

Because of the rapidly growing consumer demand along with plans for industrial
development in the areas to the east and north of the capital, the EELPA expressed
an interest in any possible source of electric power which was economic. The
construction of dams which could supply hydroelectric energy from the lower reaches
of the Awash River or its tributaries should receive favourable consideration.
Electricity generated at the Tendaho Dam site could be used locally, and the surplus
made available either to Assab on the sea coast or to Kembolcha-Dese-Bati area, where
industrial development is expected to take pluce. The power generated at the Kesem
Dam would eventually be used in the expected development of the Middle Awash area.
In the meantime, a connection with the transmission line from Addis Abeba to Dire
Dawa and Harrar would help to meet the increasing demands in those areas.

In the over-all plans for Ethiopia, hydroelectric power from one of its
great natural resources is expected to play an important role in industrial develop-
ment and improved living levels. It will greatly af'fect industry location and land
settlement schemes.
 - 162 -

ECONOkIC FEASIBILITY OF THE HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECTS

A preliminary estimate of the economic feasibility of a hydroelectric power

project in Ethiopia was suggested by a representative of the EELPA organization. In
brief it is obtained by the following formula:

"If Power Investment Cost is less than E.$ 0.24 per kwhr produced annually,
the project is competitive with other hydroelectric sources of power in the
country".

On this basis the Tendaho Dam power project with a total investment cost of
E.$ 17.2 million and a production of 80.million kwhr would show an investment per
kwhr of E. 0.215, or below the above limit of E. 0.24 per kwhr.

On a similar basis the Kesem Dam power project shows a cost of E.3 0.231 per
kwhr based on E.$ 8.1 million investment and an annual production of 35 million kwhr.
This is also below the limit of E.3 0.24 per kwhr set forth above. If a sub-station
costing E.$ 500,000 and transmission line for E.$ 800,000 are included, the investment
increases to E. 0.269 per kwhr, but such items are usually considered a part of the
cost of the distribution system.

A more detailed description and benefit cost analysis of each of the two power
projects are presented below.

L0ER AWASH (TENDAHO) HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECT

The project includes a separate concrete power subsection of an earth and rock
fill dam built primarily to store water for irrigation and flood control. The power-
house will be located at the toe of this concrete section. A sub-station will provide
20 million kwhr of electricity annually for pumping irrigation water and a limited
amount for local use. This will require an 80 kw transmission line of 60 kv capacity
and necessary transformers for the Asayita area. A stop-up sub-station and a 160 to
250 kw transmission line of 132 kv capacity on steeel towers will provide an
additional 60 million kwhr to either of two markets - Assab on the seacoast or the
Kembolcha-Dese (Dessie) area. Both are in need of power for development but 200-240
kilometers of high voltage transmission linos and sub-stations will need to be built.

The cost of the dam itself is estimated at E. 25.4 million, while mechanical
And electric power equipment totals E.$ 13.6 million. The relocation of 12 km. of
roads will add another E.$ 1.2 million for a total cost of E.$ 40.2 million. The
share of the cost of dam and other items charged to irrigation, flood control and
power is shown in Table D below.

TABLE D

COST ALLOCATION OF TENDAHO DAN

Civil Mechanical and/or Road

Total
Engineering Electrical Equip. Relocation

IrriEation 18.9 1.0 1.2

Exceptional flood control 1.9

Power 4.6 12.6

25.4 13.6 1.2 40.2

 - 163 -

Of the total cost of the dam, E.$ 4.6 million has been allocated tc power,
to which is added E.$ 12.6 million for mechanical and electrical equipment, making
a total of E. 17.2 mjllion allocated to power. The powerhouse will have a rated
capacity of 19,000 kw. Irrigation release will be adequate to maintain a firm
capacity of 13,000 kw. Estimated useable power delivered is 80 million kwhr per year.

The cost of a transmission line to Asayita plus necessary transformers at

pumping stations is estimated by EELPA to cost E.$ 1.0 million but this is charEeable
to the distribution system and would be more than covered by the E. 0.03 per kwhr
rate paid for electric power for pumping in the Lower Awash area. Similarly, the
cost of sub-stations and transmission lines to Assab or Kembolcha-Dese area would
be charged to distribution coste in the selected area.

TABLE E

BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER - TENDAHO DM:

Estiniated Initial Investment (including contingencies):

Life
Dam allocated to power, powerhouse
+ intake conduit 50 yrs E.$ 4,600,000,

Turbines and generators 35 yrs 9,600,000

Other electro-mechanic equipment

(transformers, switchEear, control
panels, cranes, etc.). 25 yrs 1,000,000

Total Initial Investment E.$17,200,000

Annual Costs:
Rate 6 Rate 4
Maintenance and operation (includes
allocated anount for dam operation):
2 percent of initial investment E.$ 344,000 E.S. 344,000

Replacement of turbines and generators

after 35 years at 6 percent, E.$
9,600,000 x 0.06344 79,200 79,200

Replacement of other electro-mechanical

equipment after 25 years at 6 percent,
E.$ 3,000,000 x 0.2330 x 0.06344 44,300 44,300

Amortization of investment costs:

50 yrs at 6'./c: E.$ 17,200,000 x 0.06344
1,091,200
50 yrs at 410: E.$ 17,200,000 x 0.04655 800,700

E.$ 1,558,700 E. 1,268,200

Total Annual Cost:

Total power delivery - 80,000,000 kwhr

E.$ 0.0195 E.$ 0.0158
cost per kwhr at load centre

Cost by best alternative source':

0.0900 Lo 0.1500
Diesel-electric system
 - 164-

At this cost of less than E.$ 0.02 per kwhr, it is economical for the power
company to provide transmission and transformers and deliver power from this source
to regular austomers at the current price of E.3 0.10 per kwhr and to large industrial
users at E.$ 0.03 per kwhr (the current rate). Since there is no alternative source
of power in the area except diesel electric equipment, which iS estimated to cost
E.$ 0.09 to E.3 0.15 per kwhr, it can assist greatly in developing and meeting all
types of demand for power in this and nearby areas.

KESEM DAM HYDROELECTRIC PCER PROJECT

This project includes a powerhouse at the toe of a dam built to store water
for irrigation, a step-up sub-station and a 25 kw transmission line with steel towers
terminating at a connecting high lino from Addis Abeba to Awash Station. Of the
total cost of the dam (E.3 31.1 million), none has been allocated to power. The
power costs include the electro-mechanical' equipment totalling E.$ 6.0 million plus
E. 2.1 million for powerhouse and intake conduit. The powerhouse will have a rated
capacity of 9,000 kw. Power will be transmitted at 60 kv. Estimated u-seable power
delivered is 35 million kwhr per year.

The share of the cost of the dam and other items charged to irrigation and
power for the Kesem Dam project is shown in Table E below.

TABLE F

COST ALLOCATION OF KESEM DAM

Civil Mechanical and/or

Total
Engineering Electrical Equip.

Millions of E.

Irrigation 29.0 2.1 31.1

Power 2.1 6.0 8.1

---- ___ ----
31.1 8.1 39.2

At this cost it would be economical for largo industrial power users to

purchase their power from this source, as it would be much cheaper than the
alternative source, diesel-electric system. As other sources of hydroelectric
power are developed in other areas, this power could be used in the nearby Awash
Station and Dire Dawa areas.

As indicated in Table G below, the construction of a sub-stJ.tion and high

voltage transmission lines to connect with the Addis Abeba-Dire Dawa high line
near Awash Station (25 km, distant) will cost an estimated E.$ 1.3 million. But
this cost is considered a part of the distribution system and would not affect the
benefit-cost ratio for the dam.
 - 165 -

TABLE G

BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS, HYDROTTr,ECTRIC POWER,

KESEM DAN

Estimated Initial Investment:

(Including contingencies)
Life

Power and intake conduit 50 yrs E.$ 2,100,000

Turbines and generators 35 yrs 3,500,000

Other electro-mechanical equipment 25 yrs 2,500,000

Total initial investment: E.$ 8,100,000

Annual Costs:
Rate 6 Rate 4
Maintenance and operation (includes
allocated amount for dam operation):
2 percent of E.$ 8,100,000 E.$ 162,000 E.$ 162,000

Replacement of tJrbines, generators,

35 years at 6 percent:
E.$3,500,000 x 0.1301 x 0.06344 28,900 28,900

Replacement of sub-station equipment,

25 years at 6 percent:
E.3 2,500,000 x 0.2330 x 0.06344 37,000 37,000

Amortization of investment costs:

E.$ 8,100,000, 50 yrs
at 6 percent: x 0.06344 513,864
at 4 percent: x 0.04655 377,055

Total Annual Cost: E.$ 741,764 E.$ 604,955

Total power delivery - 35,000,000 kwhr

Cost per kwhr at dam site: E.S 0.021 E.$ 0.017

Cost per kwhr with sub-station and

transmission lines costing E.$ 1.3
million included: 0.024 E. 0.021

Cost per kwhr with best alternative Source:

Diesel-electric system E. 0.090 to E.$ 0.100
 - 166 -

FLOOD CONTROL

The Awash River has a few major left bank tributaries arising in the mountains
to'the north. Of these the Mile (Mille) River is the largest. It is this river which
will make the water storage for irrigation possible - but it is also the river which
causes the major flood damage by the Awash River below Tendaho. In August-September
1964, flood waters from the Mile River caused extensive damage to irrigation works
and crops in the Dubti, Dit-Bahri and Asayita areas. The cost of replacing and
repairing irrigation canals and structures by one farm with 5,500 hectares of
cultivated land was E.$ 145,000. In addition, 500 hectares of prepared cotton land
could not be planted this year with an estimated reduction in net returns of
E.$ 175,000. A reduction in net return on an additional 2,000 hectares of E.$ 150,000
is due to poor stands and late plantings. In addition to this estimated loss of
E.S 470,000, the indicated production of small farmers is reduced by 1,000 to 2,000
M.T. of seed cotton with a reduced gross value of up to E.$ 1 million and reduced net
income of E.3 100,000 to E. 200,000. Thus, the total estimated loss during this
single year amounted to an estimated E. 500,000 to E. 700,000, or about one-third
of the E.$ 1.9 million cost of the dam allocated to flood control.

Since this type of flood is estimated to be a one-in-ten year type, there

is ample justification for an allocation of E. 1.9 million of the dam cost for flood
control.

FARM SYSTEMS AND SETTLEAENT

In developing agriculture in the Awash River Basin, consideration will have

to be given to the possible farm systems which can be used to achieve an increase
in the economy. Will development be undertaken by Government directly, concession-
aires, individual farmers or co-operative small holders? One difficulty arises from
the fact that the Awash Basin contains few people and these are mostly nomadic, who
do not yet display an interest in cultivation and a settled existence. Only in the
Lower Awash around Asayita, is irrigated farming carried on by family units. In
general, the Ethiopian farmer is a hill man and shuns the hot plains and valleys;
such areas are left for the nomads and their livestock.

This lack of population would saggest that development should start with
concessionaires on large scale farms assisted by Government to become established
in the Valley. A labour force would be attracted, as in the case of Wonji Sugar
Estates, which would gradually become acquainted with the practices of modern,
mechanized irrigation farming and thus form the nucleus of future settlement schemes.
In laying out concessional projects, consideration should be given to leaving parcels
or blocks of land free so that at a later date, indigenous farmers can be given the
opportunity to participate in development programmes. These blocks could be used now
for grazing in a system of integrated livestock production with irrigated farming.
Some of the crop plans have been designed to include production of forage and pasture
with the object of fattening livestock raised on natural pastures and scrub land.

The Imperial Ethiopian Government seems to favour the principle of concession-

aire farming and quoted below is an extract from the Second Five Year Plan (1962-1967):

"Commercial Farms

28. Although significant development of the peasant sector has been foreseen, it
will not be possible to realize the production targets in peasant agriculture
exclusively. Important production targets will have to be realized on the big modern
commercial farms. This sector will have to produce large quantities of raw material
for the domestic industry such as cotton and.other fibres, vegetables, fat cattle for
the meat packing and canning industry, etc. as well as to ingrease production and
 167

improve the quality of products intended for export. The commercial farms will have
to produce better quality seeds and breeding cattle for the development of peasant
agriculture. They will have to ensure the rational use of investment funds for the
cultivation of wasteland in developing new regions, such as the Awash Valley, Wabi
Shebelli Valley, etc.

There may be several types of such farl_s according to ownership: cooperativo

farms, farms owned by Ethiopian citizens or companies, farms organized by foreign
concerns on the basis of concessions granted, mixed companies, public farms and
others. The development of various types of farms will be encouraged, organized or
supported by the Government.

The Government will help and stimulate, by all convenient, economic and other
measures, the establishment and development of big private commercial farms. The
existing land tenure system should not be allowed to interfere with the organization
of large modern farms. Those who are interested will be granted Government land on
a longterm lease at a low rent with the provision that they are obliged to start
production at the latest within three years after obtaining the land and to cultivate
all the granted land at the latest within five years in the manner agreed upon. Larid
obtained in this manner must not be subleased. The person who organizes a commercial
farm on his own land should be exempted from taxes for five years. Special privileges
may be granted to those who plant at least 40 percent of the land with cotton each
year or who produce other fibres, particularly if they have to make larger investments
per hectare in order to reclaim the land for production. Measures have to be taken
so that the banks grant supervised credits at favourable terms for the promotion of
commercial farms.

Special attention will be devoted to the establishment of public and cooper-

ative largescale farms. The largest part of the production targets assigned to the
large commercial farms, particularly in this beginning phase, should be carried out
by the public and cooperative farms. The very existence of these farms will be of
extreme importance bota for the introduction of more advanced farming methods on the
peasant holdings in the surrounding areas, and for inducing the entrepreneurs to
invest their capital in the 'large scale farm projects.

The following basic principles should guide the organization and operation
of the public and cooperative farms:

The farms will have to be built up as business organizations which will

The
fully respect the rules of rational and economically sound business management.
workers should be paid according to the performance of their work. The organization
of work and the methods of remuneration should be such as to develop an interest in
the technical
the employees to increase labour productivity, utilize more efficiently
means, protect the property of the farm, etc.

A possible degree of uptodate mechanization has to be introduced on

the farms; especially operations which ensure qualitative and timely agrotechniques
should be mechanized. Yet, owing to the shortage of available capital on one hand,
and ample resources of labour on the other, the labourintensive methods of
production s.-,ould be given priority whenever they prove economically justified.

Special attention has tc be devoted to the working out of procedures

which will most facilitate the procurement of land for farm establishments. It
appears that in the practice of the Government, taking up land on a longterM
concession offers the best possibility for a speedy development of largescale co-
operative and public farms. These policies should be favoured, particularly as
payments for the concessions are very small at present, and at the same time this
legal status of the occupancy of land would be very guitable to the business character
of the farms.
 - 168 -

(4) In view of the need to provide for new settlements as well as for
resettlements of the population on agricultural land, the programme has to be so
worked out that it will meet the demand for labour which will increase in propertion
to the establishment and expansion of large scale cooperative farms. The experience
already gained has shown that there exists a high degree of mobility of labour that
is always ready to move to places wherever the opportunities for a gainful employment
are opened to them."

Throughout this appraisal report, reference has been made to concessionaire

or large scale farms and small (settlement) farms. For rapid development of virgin
lands, there is no doubt that the large commercial enterprises initially will produce
the most income, but from a social point of view it seems highly desirable to have a
proportion of the available land allotted to small farmers backed by a sound extension
service to supervise the use of credits and technical assistance either from Govern-
ment or from established concessionaires. The Tendaho Plantation Share Company
assists small farmers (outgrowers) in the Lower Awash in the production of cotton
by providing certain services such as land levelling, ditching, ploughing and
spraying at cost rates. Ginning facilities are made available by the Company, which
buys the cotton at contract prices. The Imperial Government encourages the principles
of community development, and settlement in the Awash Valley of groups of small
farmers would be an ideal region to put these principles into practice. The Awash
Valley Authority is now working on a pilot scheme for the settlement of 50 farmers
in Lower Awash, but similar projects should be considered in other areas. In this
economic assessment, due allowance has been made for the inclusion of small farmers
to take part in the development programme.

Because of existing settlement by irrigation farmers and the current influx

of new farmers (some of them recently nomads) attracted by the developing local
cotton economy, five sevenths (5/7) of the irrigable hectarage have been allocated
to small farms in the Lower Awash computations. Owing to the sparse population in
the Middle Awash, calculations have been based on only one fifth (1/5) settlement
by small farmers.

While Ethiopia as a whole has land tenure problems, it is ccnsidered that

because of the under population in the Awash Valley, settlement in the first place
by large scale commercial farm enterprises, the usual landlordtenant difficulties
will not arise. The tribal nomads enjoy certain grazing rights by occupation, but
provided they have access to water, their way of life can continue undisturbed.
Assistance might be given them by providing watering points on the river, or from
canal extensions, ponds or wells.

A new road is under study which would link Nazareth, Awash Station and
Gewani with Tendaho on the right bank of the Awash River. This road would open
up the Valley and provide a desirable marketing outlet for agricultural produce.
It may also have considerable influence on the sparse indigenous population who
might gradually enter the economy of-the Valley and adopt the hab'ts of modern society.

AWASH VALLEY AUTHORITY

The Awash Valley Authority was set up by Charter as an autonomous body under
the Imperial Ethiopian Government. It has the task of developing and administering
the land and water resources throughout the Valley, but there is a conflict of
interest in regard to water as the Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
utilizes the Awash River for hydroelectric energy and draws the entire revenue from
sales of electricity.
 -169

The Awash Valley Authority is dependent on a meagre Treasury budget and has
insufficient finances to build up a competent technical staff with which to implement
largo scale development. Until the Authority provides services, e.g. provision of
dams, headworks and canals, it is difficult to set up water charges from which to
derive sufficient revenue for continuing development. Recently, nominal water rates
have been negotiated with the concessionaires now operating and using irrigation
water from the Awash River, but fixed initial periods have been agreed when no charges
will be made, in order to allow the farm enterprises to become established. Thus the
Authority still lacks necessary current funds; even future revenues will be inadequate
to finance dams and irrigation layouts as envisaged in this feasibility study. Thus,
it will be incumbent upon the Imperial Ethiopian Government to assist the Authority
not only in its primary investments, possibly with financial aid from international
sources, but also provide additional funds for administrative and technical personnel
during the first decade of development.

In addition to ldck of funds, the Awash Valley Authority is short of the

required professional personnel to carry out its functions. Expertise is necessary
to devise and levy adecuate water rates, to establish a competent technical and
operstional service able to deal with the complex problems of water apportioning
and its controlled distribution; to plan and supervise the construction of an
efficient and coordinated irrigation system and its maintenance and operation after
completion.

In order to carry out its responsibilities, the Authority must also provide
market analyses, domestic and foreign, of commodities which will give farmers the
highest net returns and add most to the national economy. To supplement this, the
extension service programme should be expanded to assist the farmers, not only with
their fertilizer and soil management problems, seed selection and cropping practices,
but also with their credit dnd marketing problems.

Additional financial assistance to the kwash Valley Authority should be

dependent on sufficient professional experts being made available, preferably with
administrative authority, to help fulfil the functions which this autonomous body
was set up to do.

PRIORITIES OF DEVELOPMENT

While it is the responsibility of the Imperial Ethiopian Government to decide

upon the order and rate of development, the folloing and other points are important
in determining the priorities of various projects. Eac4 point is relevant to each
phase of the overall project irrigation, hydroelectric power, and flood control
Their coordination will provide the basis for a more logical final judgement.

What are the major problems, which each phase of the project and each area
project will help to solve? Economic? Social?

Which problems are most urgent and how long will it take to solve them?
0
Are the problems primarily social or economic? Local? Regional? National?

What is the financial (including credit) situation of the Government? Farmers?

What are the relative returns on these proposed investments when compared
with alternative investment possibilities? To the Government? To the farmer?
In the shortrun and the longrun?
 - 170-

Will the Total Awash Project add more to the long-run productive capacitY of
the nation than alternative projects? Which of the Area projects in the
Awash Valley will add most to the productive capacity of the region and the
nation?

Among various areas, which projects will produce the greatest gross value of
crops and show the largest return? To the farmer? To the national economy?

Which project will produce the greatest social gains? Affect the largest
number of people?

In which area can development be started most easily and give greatest results?
At the least cost? Give the highest ieturns per dollar invested?

The answers to these and oth,,r questions will assist in arriving at decisions
relative to priorities among the various areas of this total project and between this
project and other alternative uses of government funds, credit and personnel.
Although there are many ways to develop the Awash Valley, they may be generalized
under the following three approaches:

Allow the agricultural development to continue on a piecemeal basis without

any over-all plan for future land or water use.

Make a major "Crash Programme" to develop the whole project in a very short
period of time, perhaps 5 to 10 years.

Develop a 10 to 25 years over-all plan but carry it out in stages to utilize

the land and water which will give the quickest and highest net returns -
without damage to the land and with due regard to any social problem of the
area.

Until recently, the first "piecemeal" approach has characterized the method
of development followed in the Awash Valley. The building of Koka Dam and the
signing of agreements with Wonji Sugar ilstates and the Tendaho Plantation Share
Corporation put an end to this "no-planning" stage. However, the development of the
remaining land in the valley has continued on a piecemeal basis without regard to
water rights, water usage or future water needs. Recent agricultural developments
have pointed up the desirability and the necessity of an over-all plan for the use
of the limited water resources of the Awash Valley in order to obtain the largest
long-run economic and social benefits for the region. It was for this reason that
the Awash Valley Autaority was set up and the Awash Basin Survey conducted.

The pecond approach, involving a "Crash Programme", to develop the whole

region through a 5 to 10 year programme, lacks reality. The basic factors of
urgency which Kould require this approach are lacking. First, there is no great
food problem facing the nation. Second, there is no great population pressure upon
the land. Third, there is no great social pressure by the people for land reform
and land settlement schemes. However, the major problem is one of long time
economic development projects which will place greater emphasis upon productive
projects. Such projects would assist in meeting the balance of trade and debt
servicing problems of the nation in the decades ahead.

While a crash programme might worsen the financial situation temporarily

the real obstacle is the lack of sufficient, trained and exFerienced personnel to
plan, supervise and execute such a programme.
 - 171 -

The third approach to development would seem to be the most logical, from
both an economic and social viewpoint, for the Awash Valley. In this approach, the
various areas of the Valley must be analyzed and compared. If the most urgent major
problem toward which this project is directed is economic, i.e. helping to solve the
debt servicing problem, then the major criteria for priority in the selection of the
individual area projects should be the economic yardstick, i.e. the benefit-cost
ratios. These ratios may be modified by some shift in cropping plans, but the over-
all long run plan of agricultural production and crop rotations must be kept in mind.

The Government may be cognizant of urgent political and social prcblems in

specific areas which will modify the purely economic approach. A balance between
the two approaches may be most effective. The economic approach may fit one segment
of the Valley, the Middle Awash for instance, while more emphasis will need to be
given to the social approach in another segment, such as the Lower Awash.

The data compiled in this report indicates that the Middle Awash area will
make the greatest contribution to the national economy and thus should be given top
priority. Of this segment, the area above Awash Station and the Melka-Sedi project
saow the highest benefit-cost ratios. In these areas the extra cost of making
irrigation water available, through small diversion dams, is lowest. The 'costs of
the irrigation system land clearing and land levelling are also the least. Here,
the market outlets are best and the transportation costs lowest.

Data on the Amibara project were not computed but irrigation investment
costs and project location would probably give it second priority on an economic
basis. Bolhamo, Angelele and Kesem-Kebena would follow in that order. Additional
data is needed before the Maro-Gallo area can be classified. Although the saifting
of high value crops to any of these areas could change the benefit-cost ratio, the
location, topogr,Iphy, soils and total market outlet for these crops become limiting
factors.

In the Lower Awash, the large dam, dikes and pumps necessary for full
development, and the unsuitability of the soils for many of the highest value crops,
caused the benefit-cost ratio (although favourable) to be much lower than the Middle
Awash. But here the social and political problems are much more important. With
this in mind, the Government may consider them sufficiently important tc proceed with
this project concurrently with the first high priority projects in the Middle Awash.
This is especially true since the dam and dike construction will delay starting the
farming operations an additional year or two beyond that of the less costly projects
upstream.

But the highest priority should be given to the development of a small but
competent administrative and technical staff:

To develop a long-time land and water use plan far the Awash Vaney.

To assist farmers and government agencies in carrying out the plan by

providing guidance: in small farm irrigation systems, fitting crop plans to
soils, water requirements of various crops, cropping practices and market
outlook for major crops.

To develop a system of water us4. charges and other means of financing the
administrative, technical and supervisory personn41 required for the
maintenance and operation of the irrigation distribution system.

Relating each new agricultural development to the long-time land and water
use plan for the Valley.
 172

In summary, this analysis of the preliminary Awash Basin Survey indicates

that the Total Awash Project is economically soand and can make important contribu-
tions towards the solution of economic and social Problems, regionally and nationally.
The Middle Awash Project can make the largest economic contribution within the region
to assist the national debt servicing problem and to develop industry based on
agricultural production; government policy should give priority in this area to the
individual projects and crops which can best serve the national economy. While the
Lower Awash Project might contribute towards the nation economy to a lesser degree,
there are local social and political problems which may be solved by its early
development.
 - 173 -

EXTRACT FROM APPENDIX III

TABLE 39

COMPARISON OF BENEFIT-COST RATIOS, SPECIFIED AREAS BY

CROPPING PROGRAMMES AT DIFFERENT INTEREST RAPES

Areas and General Crops or Specified Areas in

Hectares in Crops HVC under Negotiation High Value Crops

In Ratio to 1.0 In Ratio to 1.0

Rate 6 Rate 4 Rate 6 Rate 4

1. Lower Awash 63,000 ha.

(1) LF* - 18,000 ha; SF* - 45,000 ha. 1.3 1.6

(2) LF - 50,500 hal SF - 12,500 ha. 1.6 2.0

2. Melka-Sedi 7,700 ha. 2.7 3.4 6.5(a) 8.2(a)

3. Angelele 4,300 ha. 1.8 3.5(h) 4.2(b)

4. Kesem-Kebena 15.800 ha. 0.7 0.9 1.2(c) 1.6(c)

5. Middle Awash (No Dams) 38,000 ha. 2.4(e) 3.2(e) 5.5(d) 7.0(d)

6. Total Middle Awash

(With Dams) 72,000 ha. 1.4(e) 1.9(e) 2.4(d) 3.0(d)

7, Total Awash 135,000 ha.

(1) LF - 65,800 ha; SF - 56,500 ha; HVC* - 12,700 ha. 2.0 2.4(d)
(2) LF - 97,800 ha; SF - 25,000 ha; HVC - 12,700 ha. 2.1 2.7(d)
(3) LF - 70,900 ha; SF - 56,500 ha; HVC - 7,600 ha. 1.3(e) 1.7(e)
(4) LF - 102,400 ha; SF - 25,000 ha; EVO - 7,600 ha. 1.5(e) 1.9(e0

Note I:

HVC: Citrus - 500 ha; Bananas - 500 ha; Sisal - 1,000 ha.
LF: 4,700 ha; SF: 1,000 ha.
EVO: Citrus - 300 ha; Bananas - 300 ha; Sisal - 500 ha. LF - 2,300 ha
SF - 900 ha.
HVC: Citrus - 500 ha; Bananas - 500 ha. LF: 11,600 ha. SF: 3,200 ha.
HVC: Citrus - 2,500 ha; Bananas - 2,500 ha; Sisal - 2,000 ha;
Sugar cane - 5,600 ha; Vegetables - 100 ha.
HVC: Sugar cane - 5,600 ha; Sisal - 2,000 ha.
 - 174-

TABLE 39 (Cont'd)

Note II:

Area No. Lower Awash (General Crops)

Area No. Melka Sedi (General Crops): LF - 6,000 ha; SF - 1,700 ha.
Area No. Angelele (General Crops): LF - 3,400 ha; SF - 900 ha.
Area No. Kesem-Kebeba (General Crops): LF - 12,600 ha; SF - 3,200 ha.
Area No. Middle Awash, No Dams (General Crops): LF - 20,600 ha; SF - 4,700 ha
Area No. " With Dams (General Crops): LF - 53,000 ha;
SF - 11,400 ha.
Area No. 7(3) and 7(4) include only sugar cane and sisal on Metahara.

Ratios which are included in Table C are underlined.

* LF - Large Farms; SF - Small Farms; (General Crops): HVC - High Value Crops
 - 175 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

C. Conti Rossini Etiopiapii genti d'Etiopia

Franchetti Nella Dancalia
Nesbitt Desert and forest
W. Thesiger The Awash River and the Aussa Sultanato
Cecchi Da Zeila
Borelli Voyage dans les Galias du Sud et le pays de Sydama
Mapping and Geography Institute Awash River Basin geographical names

G'-'2N)LOGY

G. Dainelli Geologia dell'Africa Orientale

G. Stefanini Saggio di una carta geologica dell'Eritrea, della
Somalia e dell'Etiopia, alla scala di 1:2,000,000
P.A. Mohr Report on a geological excursion through southern
Ethiopia
P.A. Mohr The geology of Ethiopia
H.A. Quinn The mineral industry of Ethiopia in 1962, with
notes on some mineral deposits and special projects.

SOILS AND VEGETATION

U.S. DeparIment of Agriculture Soil classification 7th approximation

Murphy The fertility status of some soils in Ethiopia
SOGREAH Soils in the Dubti, Dit Bahri and Melka Sedi areas
Three interim reports
Pichi, Sermolli Una carta geobotanica dell'africa Orientale
J.M. Rattray Tapis graminéens d'Afrique
C.C.T.A. Phytog6ographie

CLIMATE, HYDROLOGY

F. Fournier Climat et érosion

M. Visentini Notizie idrografiche sull'Africa Orientale
E.N. Meneely USOM Ethiopia Hydrology

AGRICULTURE

H.P. Huffnagel Agriculture in Ethiopia

G.W. Uhlenbrock Background information on cotton in Ethiopia, with
respect to the Project 1955-1959 EC
D. and I. Lalevich Agricultural development possibilities of the
Awash River Valley
H.V.A. Ethiopia Some facts about the Wonji and Shoa sugar estates
W.R.D. Israel Metahara Project Master plan for the development
and management of the estate
 - 176-

HYDRAULIC AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOP1LENT

M. Bruni Progetto italiano per l'impianto di Coca sul flume

Auasc in Ethiopia
K.B. Amundsen Koka kraftanlegg
D. Jovanovic Report for hydroelectric possibilities along the
Awash Valley
.Reparations Office Koku dam
EELPA Electricity in Ethiopia
EELPA Awash hydroelectric Project
SOGREAH Expert appraisal of river hydraulics phenomena
as they affect the delta area.
SOGREAH Sur les possibilités de développement hydraulique
et agrioole dans la vall6e moyenne de l'aouache
(Ethiopie)
L.G. Allbaugh, R.M. Arbuckle Feasibility report on development of irrigated
agriculture and hydroelectric power of the Awash
River *Basin (Ethiopia)

Litogralia TILLI - Pon..