Mr.

Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing

For accurate machining or other processing performed by an NC system, the positioning system
must possess a high degree of precision. Three measures of precision can be defined for an NC
positioning system: (I) control resolution. (2) accuracy, and (3) repeatability. These terms are
most readily explained by considering a single axis of the positioning system, as depicted in
Figure. Control resolution refers to the control system's ability to

Fig. A portion of a linear positioning system axis, with definition of control resolution. accuracy, and repeatability.

divide the total range of the axis movement into closely spaced points that can be distinguished
by the Men Control resolution is defined as the distance separating two adjacent addressable
points in the axis movement. Addressable points are locations along the axis to which the
worktable can be specifically directed to go. It is desirable for control resolution to be as small as
possible. This depends on limitations imposed by: (1) the electromechanical components of the
positioning system and/or (2) the number of bits used by the controller to define the axis
coordinate location.

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF NC POSITIONING SYSTEMS

The NC positioning system converts the coordinate axis values in the NC part program into
relative positions of the tool and work part during processing. Let us consider the simple
positioning system shown in Figure. The system consists of a cutting tool and a worktable on
which a work part is fixtured. The table is designed to move the part relative to the tool. The
worktable moves linearly by means of a rotating leadscrew, which is driven by a stepping motor
or servomotor. For simplicity, we show only one axis in our sketch. To provide x-y capability:
the system shown would be piggybacked on top of a second axis perpendicular to the first. The
leadscrew has a certain pitch p (in/thread, mm/thread). Thus, the table moves a distance equal to
the pitch for each revolution. The velocity of the worktable, which corresponds to the feed rate in
a machining operation, is determined by the rotational speed to the leadscrew,

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Mr. Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing
ETME 403

Fig. Motor and leadscrew arrangement in an NC positionmg system.

There are two types of positioning systems used in NC systems: (a) open loop and (b) closed
loop, as shown in Figure. An open-loop system operates without verifying that the actual
position achieved in the move is the same as the desired position. A closedloop control system
uses feedback measurements to confirm that the final position of the worktable is the location
specified in the program. Open-loop systems cost less than closedloop systems and are
appropriate when the force resisting the actuating motion is minimal. Closed-loop systems are
normally specified for machines that perform continuous path operations such as milling or
turning, in which there are significant forces resisting the forward motion of the Cutting tool.

Fig.Two types of motion control in NC: (a) open loop and (b) closed loop.

Closed-Loop Positioning Systems

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Mr. Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing
ETME 403
A closed-loop NC system, illustrated in fig. uses servomotors and feedback measurements to
ensure that the worktable is moved to the desired position. A common feedback sensor used for
NC (and also for industrial robots) is the optical encoder, shown in Figure. An optical encoder
consists of a light source and a photo detector on either side of a disk. The disk contains slots
uniformly spaced around the outside of its face. These slots allow the light source to shine
through and energize the photo detector. The disk is connected, either directly or through a gear
box, to a rotating shaft whose angular position and velocity are to be measured. As the shaft
rotates, the slots cause the light source to be seen by the photocell as a series of flashes. The
flashes are converted into an equal number of electrical pulses. By counting the pulses and
computing the frequency of the pulse train, worktable position and velocity can be determined.
The equations that define the operation of a closed-loop NC positioning system are
similar to those for an open-loop system. In the basic optical encoder, the angle between
slots in the disk must satisfy the following requirement:

Fig. Optical encoder: (a) apparatus and (b) series of pulses emitted to measure rotation of disk

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Mr. Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing
ETME 403
Basic Components of an NC System
An NC system consist of three basic components: (i) a program of instructions (ii) Machine
Control Unit, and (iii) processing equipment.
The program of instruction is detailed step by step command that direct the action of processing
equipment. In machine tool applications, the program of instruction is called a part program.

Additional instructions are usually included, such as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting tool
selection. and other functions The program is coded on a suitable medium for submission to the
machine control unit For many years the common medium was 1-inch wide punched tape using
a standard format that could he interpreted by the machine control unit. Today punched tape has
been replaced by newer storage technologies in modern machine shops. These include magnetic
tape, diskettes, and electronic transfer of part program from a computer. In modern NC
technology, the machine controt unit (MCU) consists or a microcomputer and related control
hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by converting each command
into mechanical actions of the processing equipment, one command at a time. The related
hardware of the MCU includes components to interface with the processing equipment and
reedbuck control elements. The MCU also includes one or more reading devices for entering part
programs into memory. The type of readers depends on the storage media used for part programs
in the machine shop (eg. punched tape reader. magnetic tape reader, floppy disk drive). The
MCU also includes control system software, calculation algorithms and translation software to
convert the NC part program into a usable format for the MCU), Because the MCU is a
computer, the term computer numerical control (CNC) is used to distinguish this type of NC
from its technological predecessors that were based entirely on hard-Wired electronics. Today,
virtually all new MCUs are based on computer technology; hence when we refer to NC in this
chapter and elsewhere, we mean CNC.
The third basic component of an NC system is the processing equipment that performs useful
work. It accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting workpiece into a completed
part, operation is directed by the MCU, which in turn is driven by instruction, contained in the
pun program. In the most common example of NC, machining, the processing equipment consist
of the worktable and spindle as well as the motors and controls to drive them.

Fig. Basic components of an NC system.

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Mr. Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing
ETME 403
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A NUMERICAL CONTROLLED MACHINE
The CNC machine differs from a conventional manual machine in several respects. The principle of
operation of a numerical controlled machine can be explained with the help of Fig. The figure shows a
vertical milling machine. For carrying out an operation like end milling the spindle head is to be
positioned in Z- axis and the table in X and Y coordinate axes. The feed movement is to be realized by the
individual or simultaneous movement of X and Y axes. Thus the milling machine requires three slide
movements, which are usually referred as axes feed drives. A special feature of a CNC machine is that a
separate motor called a servomotor individually drives each axis. AC servomotors are the preferred
choice for this purpose today. DC servomotors were widely used earlier. The slides are driven by the
servomotors through recirculating ball screw and nut assemblies. The use of re-circulating ball screw
reduces friction, backlash and wear. The low friction reduces the torque required at the motor and the lost
motion through torsional deflection of the screw. The use of ball screws also improves the dynamic
response of the system. In some modern designs, particularly in the case of high-speed machines, linear
motors are used in the place of servomotor ball screw combination.

Fig. Ball Screw Mechanism

In order to carry out the milling operation on the workpiece the coordinate information (X, and Y
coordinates) of the starting point and the ending point has to be coded in the NC program. Similarly, the
information regarding the direction of rotation and speed of the spindle, use of coolant, and the feed rate
is also coded suitably. The CNC controller decodes the positioning information coded in the NC program
and the slide is moved to the programmed position at the required feed rate. Each slide is fitted with a
feedback transducer, which continuously monitors the slide position and compares with the programmed
position as well as the feedrate. The feedback transducer is mounted either on the slide or on the
servomotor and measures the displacement or position of the slide. For example, let us assume that a hole
is to be drilled at the location X = 100.0 and Y = 150.0. The corresponding block of the program is read
by the control system and the necessary inputs are sent to the X and Y-axis servomotors. These motors

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Mr. Anupam Thakur Computer Integrated Manufacturing
ETME 403
drive the respective slides to the commanded position. When the distance information from the feedback
devices equals the programmed values, the slide movement stops. The input is then given to the Z-axis
servomotor to perform the drilling operation. The system switches on the motor driving the spindle
carrying the drill and commands the Z-axis servomotor to move at the programmed feedrate into the
workpiece till the programmed depth is reached. The Z-axis feedback transducer ensures the correct depth
and feedrate. The drill is then withdrawn to the desired height and the machine starts the positioning
movements to the next location of the drill. This procedure thus ensures production of accurate
workpieces.

The feedback transducer used may be analog (synchro resolver) or digital (encoders). Another
classification of feedback transducer is based on their nature of measurementabsolute or incremental.
They are also classified as linear or rotary depending upon their construction. Linear feedback devices
include optical scales, inductosyn etc. Rotary feedback devices are mounted either on the ball screw or on
the motor shaft and measure the slide position indirectly. Rotary encoders, optical scales, and synchro
resolvers are the commonly used rotary feed back devices. The measured and the targeted positions are
compared and the servo system ensures that the correct positioning is achieved to make this error
(difference between targeted and measured positions) zero. The resolution of axis feed drive is usually
one micrometre. Since positioning is done electronically, it is possible to achieve accuracy and
repeatability of the order of 5-10 micrometres even under heavy-duty cutting conditions. Two servo loops
are incorporated in feed drive - one for the position and the other for the feed. In addition to this, the
selection of spindle speed is also under servo control. The principle of operation of the servo system used
in a CNC Machine tool is described below.

Fig. Closed Loop System