EECS 3451 -- Signals and Systems

EECS 3451
Signals and Systems

CHAPTER 1:INTRODUCTION TO
SIGNALS (TEXTBOOK: CH. 1)
• What is a signal?
• Classification of signals
• Elementary signals
• Signal operations

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Outline
• What is a signal?
• Classification of signals
• Elementary signals
• Signal operations

Introduction – Signals
• What is a “Signal”?
Convey information about time-varying physical
phenomena. Examples: current or voltage signal

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Introduction – Signals (2)
• Mathematically speaking, signals are modeled as
function of one or more independent variables.

Example of independent variables: time, frequency.

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Examples: Signals
Example: electrical signal
L
Signal
v(t)
+ +
v(t) _ C R y(t)
-1 0 1 t _

Example: image signal

Signal

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Outline
• What is a signal?
• Classification of signals
• Elementary signals
• Signal operations

Classification of Signals
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2. Analog and digital signals
3. Periodic and aperiodic signals
4. Energy and power signals
5. Deterministic and probabilistic signals
6. Even and odd signals

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 EECE 2602 -- Signals and Systems in Continuous Time

Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Continuous-time (CT) signals

• If a signal is defined for all values of the
independent variable t, it is called a continuous-
time (CT) signal.
• Examples:

x(t) = sin(πt) x(t) = et

1 1

-1 0 1 t 0 t
-1

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Discrete-time (DT) signals
• A discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of an
integer-valued variable, n.
• A discrete-time signal is undefined for non-integer
value of n.

x(n)
2

n
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
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Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Analog and Digital Signals
• If a signal is classified by the amplitude, it leads to
two types of signal
• Analog signal: if the amplitude changes continuously
• Digital signal: if the amplitude can only have finite
number of amplitude values.

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Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Periodic signals
• A CT signal x(t) is periodic if:
x(t ) = x(t + T0 )
• The smallest positive value of T0 that satisfies the
periodicity condition is referred to as the
fundamental period of x(t)

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Example of a Periodic Signal

• A typical example of a periodic signal is a
sinusoidal function represented by:

x(t ) = A sin (2pf 0t + q )

• A = amplitude
• f0 = fundamental frequency [Hertz]
• θ = phase shift [radians]

• 2πf0 = fundamental angular frequency (ω0)

[radians/sec]
2p
• T0 = 1/ f0 = fundamental period [sec] or T0 =
w0
x(t)

T0
A

0 t
-A
16
θ 16

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Periodic signals
• A DT signal x[k] is periodic if:

• The smallest positive value of K0 that satisfies the

periodicity condition is referred to as the
fundamental period of x[k]

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Activity 1
What is the fundamental period of the following CT
signal?

x(t ) = 0.5 cos(3pt )

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Activity 1 Solution
Given: x(t ) = 0.5 cos(3pt )
fundamental period: 2p 2p 2
T0 = = =
w0 3p 3

• All the sine, cosine, tangent signals are periodic

signals.

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Activity 2
What is the fundamental period of the following CT
signal?

ìcos(pt ) -3/ 2 £ t £ 3/ 2
x(t ) = í
î0 otherwise

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Activity 2 Solution
Given: ìcos(pt ) -3/ 2 £ t £ 3/ 2
x(t ) = í
î0 otherwise
1

Let’s plot it. 0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
time

• This is NOT a periodic signal. 21

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Linear combination of two signals

• A signal g(t) that is a linear combination of two periodic
signals, x1(t) with fundamental period T1 and x2(t) with
fundamental period T2 as follows:
g (t ) = ax1 (t ) + bx2 (t )

it is periodic if and only if :

T1 m
= = rational number
T2 n

• The fundamental period of g(t) is given by nT1 = mT2

provided that the values of m and n are chosen such that
the greatest common divisor between m and n is 1.
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Activity 3
What is the fundamental period of the following CT
signal?

x(t ) = sin (2pt ) + sin (4pt )

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Activity 3 Solution (1)

Given: x(t ) = sin (2pt ) + sin (4pt )
If we let: x1 (t ) = sin (2pt ) T1 = 2p 2p = 1
x2 (t ) = sin (4pt ) T2 = 2p 4p = 1 2

, which is a rational number à

x(t) is a periodic signal.

The fundamental period is nT1 = 1(1) = 1 or mT2

= 2(1/2) = 1
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Activity 3 Solution (2)
Graphical representation of x(t) in MATLAB:
x(t ) = sin (2pt ) + sin (4pt )

2 Period = 1
1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

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Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Energy of a CT signal
• The energy presents in a CT signal x(t) within a
given time interval T1 < t < T2 is:
T2

ò x(t )
2
E(T1 ,T2 ) = dt
T1

• Likewise, the total energy (Ex) in the CT signal x(t)

is:
¥

ò x(t )
2
Ex = dt
-¥

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Energy of a DT sequence
• The energy presents in a DT sequence x[k] within a
given time interval [N1, N2] is:

• Likewise, the total energy (Ex) in the DT sequence

x[k] is:

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Power of a CT signal
• Power is defined as energy per unit time.
• The average power of a CT signal x(t) over the
interval -∞ < t < ∞ is:
T /2
1
ò x(t ) dt
2
Px =T lim ¥
T -T / 2
• For periodic signals, the average power (Px) in the
CT signal x(t) is calculated from one period of the
signal as follows: t +T
1 1 0

ò x(t )
2
Px = dt
T0 t1

T0 is the fundamental period of x(t)

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Power of a DT sequence

(-∞,∞)

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Energy and Power signals
• A signal x(t) or x[k] is called an energy signal if
the total energy Ex has a non-zero finite value,
that is, 0 < Ex < ∞

• A signal is called a power signal if it has non-

zero finite power, that is, 0 < Px < ∞

• Note that a signal cannot be both an energy

and a power signal simultaneously.

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Activity 5
Consider the following CT signal x(t), calculate the
instantaneous power, the average power and total
energy in the signal. Is it a power or energy signal?

x(t)
5

-2 0 2 t

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 x(t)
Activity 5 Solution 5

The given signal can be expressed as:

⎧⎪5 −2 ≤ t ≤ 2 -2 0 2 t
()
x t =⎨
⎪⎩0 otherwise ⎧⎪25
Instantaneous power: −2 ≤ t ≤ 2
Px (t) = x 2 (t) = ⎨
⎪⎩0 otherwise
∞ 2 2
Total energy: E x = ∫ x (t ) dt = ∫ 25dt = 100
−∞ −2

1 T /2 2 1
Average power: Px = T lim
!!!" ∞ ∫
T −T /2
()
x t dt = T lim
!!!" ∞ Ex = 0
T
Energy signal – because the signal has finite energy
(Ex=100).
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Activity 6

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Activity 6 Solution

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Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Deterministic and Random Signals
• If the value of a signal can be predicted for all time
in advance without any error it is referred as a
deterministic signal.
• If the value of a signal cannot be predicted with
complete accuracy for all time it is referred as a
random signal.
• Deterministic signal can generally be expressed in
a mathematical or graphical form.
• Random signal cannot be modeled precisely.

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Classification of Signals
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals
• Energy and power signals
• Deterministic and probabilistic signals
• Even and odd signals

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Odd and Even Signals
• A CT signal xeven(t) is said to be an even signal if :

xeven (t ) = xeven (- t ) Symmetrical about the y-axis

xeven(t)

0 t

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Odd and Even Signals

• A CT signal xodd(t) is said to be an odd signal if :
xodd (t ) = - xodd (- t ) Anti-symmetrical about the y-axis

xodd(t)

0 t

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Properties of Odd and Even Signals

xeven(t) xodd(t)

0 t 0 t

xodd(t) xodd(t)

0 t 0 t

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Properties of Odd and Even Signals

xeven(t) xeven(t)

0 t t = EVEN
0

4. A CT odd signal is always zero at t = 0

5. Integration of a CT odd signal within the limits:
T

ò x (t )dt = 0
-T
odd

6. Integration of a CT even signal within the limits:

T T

ò xeven (t )dt = 2ò xeven (t )dt

-T 0 42
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Odd and Even Signals
• If a signal x(t) is classified in the “neither odd nor
even” category, the signal can be expressed as a
sum of even and odd signals:
x(t )
1

x(t ) = xeven (t ) + xodd (t )

0.5
t
-2 -1 0 1 2

where 1
xe (t )

1 0.5

xeven (t ) = [x(t ) + x(- t )] t

2 -2 -1
-0.5 0 1 2

and 1
xo (t )

1 0.5

xodd (t ) = [x(t ) - x(- t )] -2 -1

t

2
0 1 2
-0.5

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Activity 7
Is the CT signal in Activity 3 odd or even, or neither of
them?

x(t ) = sin (2pt ) + sin (4pt )

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Activity 7 Solution
Given: x(t ) = sin (2pt ) + sin (4pt )

( ) ( ) ( )
∵ x −t = sin −2π t + sin −4π t
= −sin ( 2π t ) − sin ( 4π t )
= −⎡⎣sin ( 2π t ) + sin ( 4π t )⎤⎦ = −x(t)
∴ x(t) = −x(−t)

It is an odd signal.

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Outline
• What is a signal?
• Classification of signals
• Elementary signals
• Signal operations

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Elementary signals
1. Unit step function
2. Rectangular pulse function
3. Signum function
4. Ramp function
5. Sinusoidal function
6. Sinc function
7. Exponential function
8. Unit impulse function

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Unit Step Function

• Unit step function:
ì1 t³0
CT: u (t ) = í DT:
î0 t<0

u(t)
1

0 t

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Rectangular Pulse Function
• Rectangular pulse function : rec(t/τ)
1

æ t ö ìï1 t £t / 2
CT: rect ç ÷=í
è t ø ïî0 t >t / 2
-τ/2 0 τ/2 t

DT:

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Signum or Sign Function

sgn(t)
• Signum or sign function sgn(t):
1
ì 1 t >0
ï
CT: sgn (t ) = í 0 t = 0 0 t
ï- 1 t < 0
î -1

DT:

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Ramp Function
• A ramp function r(t):
r(t) = tu(t)
ìt t ³ 0
CT: r (t ) = í or r (t ) = tu (t )
î0 t < 0 slope = 1

0 t

DT:

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Sinc Function
• Sinc function sinc(t):
sinc(t)

sin (pw0t )
1

CT: sin c(w0t ) =

pw0t -1 0 t
1
ω0 ω0

DT:

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Exponential Function
• A CT complex exponential signal can be
represented by the following form:

x t = e st
()
s = σ + jω 0
• Review complex numbers

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Review Complex Numbers

• Any complex number x = a + jb with real number a and
imaginary b can be represented on a complex plane:
Im
a + jb
b
r ry
θ
0 rx a Re

• The complex number x can also be represented by a vector

r originating from the coordinate (0,0) with magnitude r and
phase angle .
• The projection of the vector r onto the horizontal axis is
denoted by rx: rx = r cos(q )
• Likewise, the projection of r onto the vertical axis is
denoted by : ry = r sin (q ) 54
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Review of Complex Numbers
• Magnitude of the vector or the complex number x is
given by:
r = rx2 + ry2 = x = a 2 + b 2
• The angle that the vector makes with the horizontal axis
q = tan -1 (ry rx )
is given by:

• Hence, a complex number x can be represented by its

magnitude and phase angle.
x = r cos q + jr sin q = r (cos q + j sin q )
• Based on Euler’s formula: e jq = cos q + j sin q

\ x = re jq Polar form of a + jb

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Activity 8
Simply the following and express the final answer in
polar form:
5e j 2p
j (1 - j )

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Activity 8 Solution

5e j 2 π 5(cos 2π + j sin 2π ) 5
= =
(
j 1− j ) j − ( j * j) 1+ j
5(1− j) 5(1− j)
= =
(1+ j)(1− j) 2

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CT Exponential Function
• A complex exponential signal x(t) can be
represented by the following form:
x(t ) = e (s + jw0 )t
= est [cos(w0t ) + j sin (w0t )]
s = s + jw0 is called the complex frequency

If σ < 0, we have decaying

Re{x(t )} = est cos(w0t ) oscillating signals

Im{x(t )} = est sin (w0t ) If σ > 0, we have expanding

oscillating signals

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 n
DT Exponential sequence : α
• x ( n ) = a , a may be a real or complex
n

x(n)

0 n
When a = e jw, we obtain a complex sinusoidal sequence, i.e.

x(n) = e jnw = cos(nw ) + j sin(nw )

CT Unit Impulse Function

• The unit impulse function δ(t) also known as Dirac
delta function is defined in terms of the following
two properties:
1. d (t ) = 0,
δ(t)
t¹0
1
Area of δ(t) = 1
¥

2. ò d (t )dt = 1
-¥
0 t

• The unit impulse function δ(t) is an example of an

even function, i.e. δ(t) = δ(-t)
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Properties of CT Impulse Function
1. Integrating a unit impulse function results in one, provided
that the limits of integration enclose the origin of the
impulse:
T
ìA for - T < t0 < T
ò-T Ad (t - t0 )dt = íî0 elsewhere
2. When an arbitrary CT function x(t) is multiplied by a shifted
impulse function, the product is given by:

x(t )d (t - t0 ) = x(t0 )d (t - t0 )
3. Multiplication of a CT function and an impulse function
produces an impulse function, which has an area equal to
the value of the CT function at the location of the impulse
¥

ò x(t )d (t - t )dt = x(t )

-¥
0 0 61
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Properties of CT Impulse Function

4. The unit impulse function can be obtained by
taking the derivative of the unit step function:
du(t)
δ (t ) =
dt

5. The unit step function is obtained by integrating

the unit impulse function:
t
u (t ) = ò d (t )dt
-¥

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DT Unit-impulse sequence : δ(n)
1 n=0
δ (n)= {
0 otherwise

x(n)
1

n
0

Relation between d(n) & u(n)

• d(n) is related to the u(n) by :
δ (n) = u(n) − u(n −1)
Equivalent of derivative
• u(n) is related to the d(n) by
n ∞
u(n) = ∑ δ (k) = ∑δ (n − k)
k=−∞ k=0

Equivalent of integral

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Activity 9
Simplify the following expressions
5 - jt
(1) d (t )
7 + t5
¥

(2) ò (t + 5)d (t - 3)dt

-¥

(3) t
∫ −∞
( )
7 δ τ − 4 dτ

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Activity 9 Solution
(1) Based on Property 2, we have:
5− jt 5− j0 5
7 + t5
δ t = ()
7 + 05
δ t =
7
()
δ t ()
(2) Based on Property 3, we have:
∞

∫ (t + 5)δ (t − 3) dt = t + 5 t=3
=8
−∞
(3) Based on Property 5, we have:

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Outline
• What is a signal?
• Classification of signals
• Elementary signals
• Signal operations

Signal Operations
• Time shifting
• Time scaling
• Time inversion

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Time Shifting: CT
• Consider a CT signal x2(t) obtained by shifting
another signal x(t) by T time units, the time-shifted
signal x2(t) is expressed as:

x2 (t ) = x(t + T )

x2(t), with T > 0 x(t) x2(t), with T < 0

0 t
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Time Shifting: DT
• A signal y(n) is said to be a shifted version
of a signal x(n) if y(n)=x(n-n0) , n0 is an
integer. u(n)
1

n
0 1 2
u(n-2)
1

n
0 1 2

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Time Scaling: CT
• A CT signal x(t) scaled by a factor c in the time
domain is denoted by x(ct).
• If c >1, the signal is compressed by a factor of
c.
• If 0 < c < 1, the signal is expanded.

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Time Scaling: DT(decimation)

• Decimation (down-sampling) is defined as
y(n) = x(Mn)
i.e. taking every Mth sample of x(n).
x(n)
2

n
-2 0 2 4 6
x(2n)
2

n
-2 0 2 4 6

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Time Scaling: DT (Interpolation)
• Interpolation(up-sampling) is defined as
⎧ ⎛n⎞
⎪ x ⎜ ⎟ if n is a multiple of interger M
y(n) = ⎨ ⎝ M ⎠
⎪
⎩ 0 otherwise
x(n)
2

n
-2 0 2 4 6 8
x(n/2)
2

n
-2 0 2 4 6 8

Time Inversion: CT
• Time inversion (or time reversal or reflection)
operation reflects the input signal x(t) about the
Y-axis, i.e.

x2 (t) = x(−t)

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 1
Time Inversion: DT (Reversal or Folding)
• Reversal(Folding) is defined as
y(n)= x(-n)
“flipping” the signal x(n) with respect to
the index n

u(-n) u(n)
1

n
-2 -1 0

Activity 10
Consider the following CT signal x(t)
æ pö
x(t ) = 1 + sin ç pt - ÷
è 4ø

a.Sketch x(t)
b.What is the fundamental period?

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Activity 10 Solution
• Graphical representation in MATLAB:
Period = 2
2

1.5

1
amplitude

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
time

æ pö
x(t ) = 1 + sin ç pt - ÷
è 4ø 77
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Activity 11
Given the following signal, determine x(4-2t)
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0 t
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

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 1.25

Activity 11 Solution 1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0 t
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Time scaled signal: x(2t) 1.25

1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0 t
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Time inversed signal: x(-2t)

1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0 t
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Time shifted signal: x[-2(t-2)], 1.25

1

i.e. x(4-2t) 0.75

0.5
0.25
0 t
-4 -3 -2 79
-1 0 1 2 3 4
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Activity 12
Given the sequence :

make a sketch of
a. y(n) = x(3n)
b. y(n) = x(-15-3n)

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Activity 12 Solution (a)
y(n) = x(3n) → time scale (decimation)

Activity 12 Solution (b)

y(n) = x(−15 − 3n) = x [−3(n + 5)] → time revasal+shift

y(n) = x(3n)

y(n) = x(−3n)

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Activity 12 Solution (b)
y(n) = x(−15 − 3n) = x [−3(n + 5)] → time revasal+shift

y(n) = x(−3n)

y(n) = x [−3(n + 5)]

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