Module 2 – Complex Numbers and Functions

2.1 Complex Numbers

A complex number is a number combining real and imaginary parts. It is a number

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑖 represents the imaginary number equal
to √−1. For some texts and applications, 𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 is utilized, instead of 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, where 𝑥 and
𝑦 are real numbers and 𝑗 is the imaginary number and written before 𝑦. In this module,
the form 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 will be used in the discussion.

One common math problem in advanced algebra is evaluating an imaginary

number raised to n. To get their equivalent values, observe the following sequence

𝑖1 = 𝑖 𝑖9 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖
2
𝑖2 = (√−1) = −1 𝑖 10 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 2 = −1
𝑖3 = 𝑖 2 ∙ 𝑖 = −𝑖 𝑖 11 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
𝑖4 = 𝑖2 ∙ 𝑖2 = 1 𝑖 12 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 = 1
𝑖5 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖 13 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑖6 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 2 = −1 𝑖 14 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 2 = −1
𝑖7 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 𝑖 15 = 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 4 ∙ 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
𝑖8 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 = 1 𝑖 16 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 = 1

The results of evaluation goes like 𝑖, −1, −𝑖, 1, 𝑖, −1, −𝑖, 1, and so on. In this manner,
it can be concluded that the sequence repeats through the cycle of 𝑖, −1, −𝑖, and 1.
However, evaluating a larger exponent would require counting and will take too much
time. In this case, apply the fact that the cycle repeats in an interval of 4 and the formula
would be 𝑖 𝑛 = 𝑖 𝑚 where 𝑚 ≡ 𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 4. Getting the remainder in division by 4 gives the
same equivalent in 𝑖 1 , 𝑖 2 , 𝑖 3 and if the remainder is zero, it is the same as 𝑖 4 = 1.

An example of this is evaluating 𝑖 138 . Since 138 divided by 4 yields a remainder 2,

138
then 𝑖 = 𝑖 2 = −1. Another common problem is the evaluation of 𝑖 1997 wherein its
equivalent is simply 𝑖.

2.2 Forms of Complex Numbers

The three known forms of complex are rectangular, polar and exponential form.
These forms would be essential in performing such functions involving complex numbers.

2.2.1 Algebraic or Rectangular Form

The rectangular form is simply 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎 is the real part and 𝑏𝑖 is the
imaginary part unless 𝑏 = 0. A complex number can be identified with the point (𝑥, 𝑦) in
a coordinate plane, where the 𝑥- and 𝑦-coordinates are of the same values as a and b,
respectively. In the complex plane, the horizontal axis is known as the real axis while the
vertical axis is known as the imaginary axis. This complex plane is called the Argand
diagram.

2.2.2 Trigonometric or Polar Form

Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 be a nonzero complex number. The point (𝑎, 𝑏) in the complex plane
has polar coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃) where 𝑟 = |𝑧| is the modulus or absolute value, while 𝜃 is
calles the argument or amplitude of the complex number.

The values of modulus 𝑟 and argument 𝜃 can be solved by applying the

Pythagorean theorem.
𝒓 = √𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐

𝒃
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝒂

Calculating the argument needs consideration of the quadrant the complex number
is located to. As such, 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 90° in quadrant I, 90° < 𝜃 < 180° in quadrant II, 180° <
𝜃 < 270° in quadrant III and 270° < 𝜃 < 360° in quadrant IV. As a guide, apply the
conditions of reference angle in trigonometry.

Consequently, the values of a and b will be 𝒂 = 𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and 𝒃 = 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽.

Transforming rectangular form of complex number to polar

𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + (𝑟 sin 𝜃)𝑖
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
𝒛 = 𝒓 𝒄𝒊𝒔 𝜽
 The polar form takes 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝜃 or 𝒛 = 𝒓 ∠ 𝜽. In this form, the complex number
acts like vectors in a coordinate plane.

2.2.3 Exponential or Euler Form

The exponential form of complex number is used when finding logarithms or

powers of complex numbers. It takes the form 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 or 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 where 𝑟 is the modulus
and 𝜃 is the argument in radians. Since,

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
then,
𝒆𝜽𝒊 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

This equation is known as the Euler’s formula. This equation will later be used in
performing some operations of complex numbers.

Examples:

a) Represent −3 + 4𝑖 to polar and exponential form.

𝑟 = √32 + 42 = 5
4
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −53.13°
−3

but since the given complex number is located at the second quadrant (where x is
negative and y is positive), the argument will be calculated as

𝜃 = 180° − 53.13° = 126.87°

Thus the polar form is 𝟓 ∠𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟕°.

In getting the exponential form, simply take the argument in radian measure, and
consider up to the ten-thousandths place (4th decimal place).
𝜋
126.87° × = 2.2143
180°

The exponential form becomes 𝟓𝒆𝟐.𝟐𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒊 .

b) Represent 4𝑒 2𝑖 to polar and rectangular form.

To get the polar form, simply convert the argument to degree measure.
 180°
2× = 114.59°
𝜋

and the polar form becomes 𝟒∠𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟓𝟗°

The rectangular comes after the formula 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + (𝑟 sin 𝜃)𝑖.

𝑧 = 4 cos 114.59° + (4 sin 114.59°)𝑖

𝑧 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟒𝟓 + 𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟐𝒊

Some calculators provide polar and rectangular functions to speed up the

calculation. Changing the mode of computation and angle measure can also speed up
the computation.

2.3 Basic Operations of Complex Numbers

2.3.1 Equality

Complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 are said to be equal if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

Example: Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 3𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑖 = 6 + 8𝑖.

3𝑥 = 6 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝟐
−2𝑦 = 8 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒚 = −𝟒
2.3.2 Complex Conjugate

The complex conjugate, or simply conjugate, of a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is the

complex number 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 with the sign of the imaginary part reversed. Conjugate of 𝑧 is
denoted as 𝑧̅. Here are some examples:

𝒛 𝒛̅
2 + 4𝑖 2 − 4𝑖
3 − 5𝑖 3 + 5𝑖
7𝑖 −7𝑖
6𝑖 − 8 −8 − 6𝑖
4 4

2.3.3 Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

a. Complex numbers in rectangular form

Addition or subtraction of complex numbers in polar form is accomplished by

simply combining the similar terms, that is real part to real part and imaginary to
imaginary.
(8 + 2𝑖) + (5 − 9𝑖) = 𝟏𝟑 − 𝟕𝒊
 (4 − 7𝑖) − (3 − 𝑖) = 𝟏 − 𝟔𝒊

𝑖 23 + 𝑖 78 − 𝑖 35 = −𝑖 − 1 − (−𝑖) = −𝟏

b. Complex numbers in polar/exponential form

In order to add or subtract complex numbers in polar or exponential form, one must
bring the number in rectangular, thus solving 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, and then apply the process in adding
or subtracting complex numbers in rectangular form. The process is the same as getting
the resultant vector.

4∠30° + 3∠60° = (3.4641 + 2𝑖) + (1.5 + 2.5981𝑖) = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟔𝟒𝟏 + 𝟒. 𝟓𝟗𝟖𝟏𝒊

If the answer requires polar or exponential form, then perform the process in
representing the number in such forms.

2.3.4 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

a. Complex numbers in rectangular form

Multiplication of complex numbers is similar to multiplication of polynomials.

(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)(𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑖

Example:
(4 − 2𝑖)(−1 + 3𝑖) = −4 + 12𝑖 + 2𝑖 − 6𝑖 2
= −4 + 14𝑖 − 6(−1) = 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒𝒊

b. Complex numbers in polar form (or exponential form)

The product of complex numbers can easily be taken by multiplying the moduli and
arithmetically adding the arguments. In symbols,

(𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 )(𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 ) = 𝑟1 𝑟2 ∠(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )

Example:
5∠48° × 7∠12° = 𝟑𝟓∠𝟔𝟎°

2.3.5 Division of Complex Numbers

a. Complex numbers in rectangular form

Division of complex numbers in rectangular form is obtained by multiplying both

the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. Division are
sometimes presented as fractions, and though they appear to be simplified, one must still
rationalize the number.
 3 − 5𝑖 2 − 𝑖 6 − 3𝑖 − 10𝑖 + 5𝑖 2 6 − 13𝑖 + 5(−1) 𝟏 − 𝟏𝟑𝒊
× = = =
2+𝑖 2−𝑖 4 − 𝑖2 4 − (−1) 𝟓

b. Complex numbers in polar form (or exponential form)

Division of complex numbers in polar form is obtained by simply dividing the moduli
and arithmetically subtracting the arguments.

𝑟1 ∠𝜃1 𝑟1
= ∠(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
𝑟2 ∠𝜃2 𝑟2
Example:
36∠15° 36
= ∠(15° − 60°) = 𝟗∠ − 𝟒𝟓° (𝑜𝑟 𝟗∠𝟑𝟏𝟓°)
4∠60° 4

2.3.6 Powers

a. Complex numbers in rectangular form

Complex numbers raised to a number 𝑛 simply adapts the multiplication of

polynomial or applying the principle of binomial expansion. The exponent 𝑛 indicates the
number of times a number is multiplied to itself.
Example:

(1 − 4𝑖)3 = (1 − 4𝑖)(1 − 4𝑖)(1 − 4𝑖) = (−15 − 8𝑖)(1 − 4𝑖) = −𝟒𝟕 + 𝟓𝟐𝒊

b. Complex numbers in polar form

In solving powers of complex numbers in polar form, De Moivre’s theorem is

applied. The theorem states that
(𝒓∠𝜽)𝒏 = 𝒓𝒏 ∠𝒏𝜽
where 𝑛 is an integer.

Example:
(3∠23°)3 = 33 ∠3(23°) = 𝟐𝟕∠𝟔𝟗°

2.3.7 𝒎th Roots

1
To obtain the 𝑚th root of a complex number, use De Moivre’s theorem with 𝑛 = 𝑚.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝒓∠𝜽)𝒎 = 𝒓𝒎 ∠ [𝜽 + 𝒌(𝟑𝟔𝟎°)]
𝒎

where 𝑚 is any integer and 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑚 − 1. The principal root is taken when

𝑘 = 0.
 In finding the 𝑚th root of a complex number, there 𝑚 number of solutions. The
360°
modulus 𝑟 is always the same but the argument 𝜃 are symmetrically spaced at 𝑚 apart
e.g. taking the cube root of a complex number where 𝑚 = 3; there will be 3 roots and
each are separated by 120°.

Example: Find √5 + 12𝑖

Since the given is in rectangular form, convert it first to polar form.

5 + 12𝑖 = 13∠67.38°

Then apply De Moivre’s theorem,

1 1 1
(13∠67.38°)2 = 132 ∠ [67.38° + 𝑘(360°)]
2

When 𝑘 = 0,
1 1
132 ∠ [67.38°] = 3.61∠33.69° = 𝟑 + 𝟐𝒊
2

When 𝑘 = 1,
1 1
132 ∠ [67.38° + (360°)] = 3.61∠213.69° = −𝟑 − 𝟐𝒊
2

Another example is taking the cube root of −47 + 52𝑖, which is then equal to
70.0928∠132.11°.
1 1 1
(70.0928∠132.11°)3 = 70.09283 ∠ [132.1087° + 𝑘(360°)]
3

There are expected 3 answers which are 120° apart each other. These are:

1 1 3
70.09283 ∠ [132.1087° + (0)(360°)] = √70.0928∠44.0362° = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟔𝟒𝟏 + 𝟐. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟎𝒊
3
1 1 3
70.09283 ∠ [132.1087° + (1)(360°)] = √70.0928∠164.0362° = −𝟑. 𝟗𝟔𝟒𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟎𝒊
3
1 1 3
70.09283 ∠ [132.1087° + (2)(360°)] = √70.0928∠284.0362° = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒊
3

To check, simply raise each answer to exponent 𝑚 and verify if it is the same as
the given.
 SAQ 2.1
Basic Operations of Complex Numbers

Name: ______________________________________ Date: __________________

Year & Course: _______________________________ Instructor:_______________

Perform the necessary operations to solve the following. Given

𝑧1 = 2 + 4𝑖 𝑧2 = 5𝑒 2𝑖 𝑧3 = 4 𝑐𝑖𝑠 40°

𝑧1 + 𝑧2
1. )
𝑧3

2. ) (𝑧2 )8

3. ) 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧3

4. ) 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3

5. ) If 3𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑖 = 𝑧2 , what is 𝑥 + 𝑦 equal to?