O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI

OLIY TA’LIM, FAN VA INNOVATSIYALAR

VAZIRLIGI

FARGʻONA DAVLAT UNIVERSITETI

INGLIZ TILI VA ADABIYOTI FAKULTETI

INGLIZ TILINI O’QITISH METODIKASI
KAFEDRASI

TILLA O’QITISH METODIKASI VA TA’LIM

TEXNOLOGIYALARI FANIDAN
O’QUV USLUBIY MAJMUA
Bilim sohasi: 110000 – Ta’lim
Ta’lim sohasi: 110000 – Ta’lim
Ta’lim yo’nalishi: 60111800 – Xorijiy til va adabiyoti (ingliz tili)

Farg’ona - 2023
1
 Ushbu o‘quv-uslubiy majmua Tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va ta’lim texnologiyalari
fani bo‘yicha Oliy va o‘rta maxsus ta’lim Vazirining 2021 yil 16 iyuldagi 311-sonli
sonli buyrug’iga asosan fan dastur asosida tuzilgan.

Tuzuvchi: M.Axmedova, Ingliz tilini o‘qitish metodikasi kafedrasi v.b.

dotsenti, Pedagogika fanlari bo’yicha falsafa doktori (PhD)

Taqrizchilar: G.Kasimova, Tarix fanlari nomzodi, dotsent, Farg’ona davlat

universiteti
N.I.Toirova, Filologiya fanlari bo’yicha falsafa doktori (PhD),
dotsent, Farg’ona davlat universiteti

O‘quv-uslubiy majmua Farg‘ona davlat universiteti Kengashida tavsiya qilingan

(2023 yil _______________dagi «__» -bayonnoma)

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 O’QUV-USLUBIY MAJMUA TARKIBI

1. Amaliy mashg’ulotlar………………………………………….
2. Mustaqil ta’lim mashg’ulotlari………………………………..
3. Glossariy…………………………………………………...........
4. Ilovalar:
a) fan dasturi.................................................................................
d) ishchi o’quv dasturi.................................................................
e) tarqatma materiallar.................................................................
f) testlar...........................................................................................
g) baholash me’zonlari…………………………………………..
5. Foydalanilgan adabiyotlar ro’yxati……………………………

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 5-semestr O‘quv materiallari

Lecture 1
Introduction to the methodology of teaching foreign languages
Plan:
1. Introduction to the course. The terms «Method», «Methodology».
2. Document of “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment” (CEFR).
3. The modern model of teaching and learning English in Uzbekistan.
4. Lingua-didactic problems of teaching foreign languages in the system of
continuous education (schools, lyceums and colleges)

Key terms: CEFR, descriptors, learning, teaching, assessment, syllabus, curriculum,

guideline, examination, coursebook, language proficiency, transparency of course, a
single educational space, Modern languages, approach, multistage model of
education, communicative competence
«Method» - from Ancient Greek - méthodos, “pursuit of knowledge, investigation, mode of
prosecuting such inquiry, system”.
«Methodology» is a system of practices and procedures that a teacher uses to teach. It will be based on
beliefs about the nature of language, and how it is learnt (known as 'Approach').
Example:
Grammar Translation, the Audiolingual Method and the Direct Method are clear methodologies, with
associated practices and procedures, and are each based on different interpretations of the nature of language
and language learning.

Education Reforms
Presidential decree in 2012 on reforming Foreign
Language Teaching in Uzbekistan

Primary school Higher

education
New State Standards, May 2013
(CEFR)

New Lack of Teachers State Testing Centre

curriculum for Primary school Testing teachers
Higher education
(ESP/ EAP)
New Bonus: 30%-rural teachers
textbooks 15%-town teachers

Retraining Upgrading 3
courses courses
In the classroom many teachers base their lessons on a mixture of methods and approaches to meet the
different needs of learners and the different aims of lessons or courses. Factors in deciding how to teach
include the age and experience of learners, lesson and course objectives, expectations and resources.
The tasks of methodology of Teaching English.
The task of methodology is to enhance the process of teaching English by empowering and facilitating
teachers to work proficiently. Teaching involves a continuous analysis of one’s own work, the experiences

4
of other teachers and the search for new means to improve teaching. When teaching a foreign language a
teacher must think about the specific qualities offered to students of a certain mother tongue. That means
that the methodology of teaching English has to take into account the problems posed by the English
language for the students who will learn it.
The methodology of teaching English stands in relation with several challenges or problems:
1.What to teach? That means the amount of knowledge, skills and habits that students have to obtain
within the process of learning the language.
2.What are the aims of teaching? When a teacher is sure of the aim of teaching, he/she will have the
easiness of reaching the intended goal.
3.How to teach? In this case one can call to mind the principles upon which teaching of English is
based, the means, methods, fashion and tactics used in teaching in order to achieve the required final
completion.
The answers to these questions define the echelon of methodology as a science. As a consequence it
determines the nature of the problems to be dealt with. For successful teaching, teachers are required several
initiatives.
The teacher has: To awaken and develop the potentiality and ability of students for studying. Help students
develop habits through frequent repetition. To inspire, to kindle the interest of the student in studying. Also,
the teacher should know how to go from easy stages to more difficult ones. These area few of ideas of
language teaching set forth by H.E.Palmer that have proved to be sound and effective even today.
Document of “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning,
Teaching, Assessment” (CEFR).
The document of “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching,
Assessment” (CEFR) was created by the Council of Europe.
The CEFR describes language ability on a scale of levels from A1 for beginners up to C2 for those who have
mastered a language. This makes it easy for anyone involved in language teaching and testing, such as
teachers or learners, to see the level of different qualifications. It also means that employers and educational
institutions can easily compare our qualifications to other exams in their country. The main function of this
document was to provide a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curricula, guidelines,
examination, and course books across Europe. It also provided a method of assessing and teaching which
was applied to all Modern languages in Europe.
The CEFR has been translated into at least 37 languages. The CEFR document enhances the transparency of
courses, syllabuses and qualifications, thus promoting international cooperation in the field of Modern
languages which requires mutual recognition of qualifications gained in different learning contexts and aids
to promote students` mobility.
According to the CEFR, learners of every LT context should be facilitated to gain the particular proficiency
level in a particular stage of learning. Descriptors in the CEFR. In the CEFR document the reference of six
levels is given and designed as illustrative descriptors (scales) in the term “Can Do” statements from level
A1 to C2. The descriptors are built to do two dimensions: 1)through a vertical dimension we see a
progression through all levels; 2)through a horizontal dimension the different context of teaching and
learning are presented.
The modern model of teaching and learning English in Uzbekistan. In Uzbekistan ELT is seen as a
career in a field of educational specialization: it requires a specialized knowledge base obtained through both
academic study and practical experience. Nowadays the demonstration of a certain level of proficiency in
English as component of certification is required.
In Uzbekistan the multistage model of FLT has been worked out on the basis of continuous,
succession, taking into consideration the international standards, and localization of EL teaching and
learning methodology and materials (adapting to the national context). It is related to the well-known
multilevel model of FLT in the foreign countries.

5
 4

The domestic multistage model of continuous and successive FLT includes the following levels of FL:

Levels
Educational stage Classes
according
6
 to CEFR
1-4 forms at school A1
Primary and secondary
5-9 forms at school A2
education
Language-oriented schools A2+
Academic lyceums
Special secondary 1-3 courses B1
education Vocational colleges
Language-oriented academic lyceums B1+
Bachelor degree non-linguistic institutes and universities
Master degree non-linguistic institutes and universities
B2
The second language in Bachelor and Master degree
Higher education
institutions and universities
Bachelor degree linguistic institutes and universities
C1
Master degree linguistic institutes and universities
School education falls apart into two stages: 1) the primary education (1-4 forms) and 2) the
secondary education (5-9 forms). Education at academic lyceums is considered as upper secondary
education. At vocational colleges ELT concerns 1) General English and 2) English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) or English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). ESP is traditionally associated with
study at college and non-linguistic institute and university. In the Uzbek educational system study at
lyceum and college is considered as a profile education: 1) study at academic lyceum provides
intensive development of intellectual abilities, deep, differentiated and vocational-oriented education,
after academic lyceums they can continue further education at institutes and universities, or undertake
some job; 2) study at vocational college provides deep development of professional abilities, obtaining
one of the professions, graduates of professional colleges get certificate of a junior specialist.
Teaching and learning English at this stage of education demands study of general English and English
for specific purposes, i.e. to develop both the language competency, study skills which will help them
to succeed in further education and occupation/job.
In our conditions the CEFR is used for development of the language policy to set minimum
language requirements for a wide range of purposes, in curriculum planning, preparing course books
and development of methods of teaching and tools of evaluation. It is intended for dynamic progress in
acquiring FL.

Lecture 2
Aims of teaching foreign languages
The questions to be discussed:

1. The category “goals of FL teaching and learning”.

2. Practical and cultural goals of EL teaching and learning.
3. Educational and developmental goals of EL teaching and learning.

Key terms: goal, objective, means, practical, educational, cultural, developmental,

skill, language units/items, motivation, performance

Any kind of goal comes out of the required needs. Goal is the plod of planned
results and consequences of imagination.
If one is asked why English is taught at schools, the answer may be that it is taught
because of practical, educational, cultural and developmental needs to achieve special
7
goals. Educational goal comes out of a social order-task and it is oriented to formation
and bringing up comprehensive intelligent individuals. Goals of teaching English have
always been under discussion in different methodological works. In the second half of
the last century, the terms practical, educational and cultural goal of teaching and
learning English have been explained according to the requirements of society1. In the
80s another term such as a developmental goal of teaching appeared2. A detailed
analysis of this term was given by the well-known training specialist G.V.Rogova3.
According to requirements of the State educational standards, the main goal of
teaching a foreign language is to form communicative competence of learners at all
levels with the aim of enabling them to express their ideas in daily work, including
scientific and professional activities. Competences are divided into several groups –
linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic, which we’ll analyze according to the goals of
teaching a foreign language. All these competences are directed at practical usage of
mastered knowledge, ability and skills. Goals of teaching English are determined by the
requirements of school, lyceum and college syllabus to achieve the final level of
knowledge, sub-skills and skills by students as a result of learning the English language.
Goals of the English language teaching are determined by the tasks of all-round
development of an individual and up-bringing of students as well as by requirements of
the syllabus of a certain type of an educational stage.
There are four goals of the English language teaching:
- Practical
- Cultural
- Educational
- Developmental.

Practical and cultural goals of EL teaching and learning

The students mastering FL as means of communication should be able to use the

language in the oral and written forms of speech. The requirements for practical mastery
in language subskills (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar) and skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) are represented in the curriculum and syllabus for every
stage. The State educational standard stresses that the learners should have a
communicative competence which presupposes an adequate proficiency in a FL as a
means of communication, instruction and independent learning.
It is necessary to distinguish between long-term goals, interim aims and short-term
objectives which help the teacher formulate concrete, specific tasks for the lesson or
part of it.
The length of the course, the number of hours and the complement of the group are
also accounted for in achieving practical goals. The time budget for language learning is

1
Общая методика обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе. // Под ред. Рахманова И.В.,
Миролюбова А.А., Цетлин В.С. – М.: Просвещение, 1967. -С. 19-37.
2
Программы средней школы. Иностранные языки. – М.: Просвещение, 1983. -С. 2.
3
Рогова Г.В., Верешагина И.Н.. Методика обучения английскому языку на начальном этапе в
средней школе. – М.: Просвещение, 1988. -С. 34-37.
8
the main factor in mastering and maintaining language proficiency. Learning a FL
enables the pupils to acquire new means of perceiving and expressing their thoughts
about objects, notions, phenomena and their relationships. As a means of
communication the target language faces some restrictions in terms of verbal means
appropriate for a definite situation or occasion (register). Therefore verbal behaviour
of the learners is limited by a topical selection of material.
As learners should master a FL as a means of communication, they should know
how to use it in oral and written forms within the scope outlined in the
curriculum/syllabus. As far as a FL is a mandatory subject in the curriculum, the
responsibility lies upon the teacher to ensure the anticipated results in each purposeful
activity and form of communication.
But the ability to communicate in any language consists of a number of subsidiary
skills such as enunciation, accentuation, fluency and prosody. Learning a FL adds to
students’ mental powers, sharpens their wits, develops their intelligence and broadens
their outlook.
Language study is essentially a subskill and skill-forming process and an important
stage in this process is the elementary stage. If we do not ensure subskills of accurate
observation, reproduction, and imitation during the first stage, it is doubtful
whether we shall ever secure them subsequently.
The function of the primary (elementary) stage is to inculcate good subskills in a
systematic way, and once this work is done there is little or no fear of learners going
astray in their later work. If we take care of the primary stage, the next stage will take
care of itself.
Every technique, method, exercise, drill or device should be used which may
further the learners in their immediate purpose and bring them nearer to their ultimate
goal. Adopt every good idea and leave the door open for all future developments: reject
nothing except useless and harmful forms of work. This approach favours a
communicative method of FLT for it embodies the most appropriate means towards the
required end – the mastery of four areas of linguistic ability.
And finally, practical aims encompass certain volumes of language material:
phonetic, lexical and grammatical items. Some of this material is subject to reproductive
assimilation, some – to perceptive; these are also known as active and passive language
material.
The goal envisages a guideline, i.e. strategy of teaching and is accomplished during
solving of a number of specific tasks which act as tactics. They determine the learners’
activities, their work with basic and ancillary means of instruction, inculcation of sub-
skills (phonetic, grammatical, lexical, orthographic, etc.) and ability to understand
English, to read aloud and silently, and to speak within a set range of situations.
It should be mentioned that the achievement of practical goals in FLT makes
possible the realization of educational, cultural and developmental ones.
So, learning a FL is understood as a goal and as a means of instruction with clear-
cut, short, interim and ultimate objectives, rational planning of all types of activity with
special emphasis on communicative competence at all levels of teaching/learning.
As we know educational and cultural developments go together.
9
 Cultural goal makes a substantial contribution:
- to developing pupils’ linguistic outlook, as they get acquainted with some
phenomena which are not typical of their mother-tongue (e.g. tenses, articles, EL word
order);
- to developing pupils’ communicative abilities;
- to widening pupils’ communicative vision of the world, as it enables them to get
acquainted with the life, customs and traditions of the people whose language they
study;
- to developing pupils’ intellect, their voluntary and involuntary memory, their
imaginative abilities, logical thinking, etc.+
The cultural goal is achieved within:
- the critical, patient and creative attitude to oneself and others, to a new culture,
event, knowledge;
- the development of different character traits, outlooks, beliefs, moral-esthetic and
emotional experience, different kinds of motivation and the abilities to use them to
contribute successfully into the process of real and pedagogical communication;
- the development of the awareness of the new activities, new people civilizations;
- the development of the desire to cooperate and socialize;
- the keeping cultural traditions of one’s own country and understanding and
respect others’; to compare different cultures, to express a personal point of view on
other cultures, problems as well as to use the knowledge obtained from other subjects.
It is important to point out and note down that cultural goals are realized within the
process of achieving practical objectives.
No doubt, education pays attention to the discipline; the idea of bringing up or
being brought up can’t be imagined without education. Every school subject has its own
place in bringing up pupils. One of the four objectives of teaching the English language
is the cultural goal. Teachers and methodist-scholars of the English language have
always paid great attention to it. A lot of materials about disciplining have been
published in different journals.
In methodology of the cultural goal of teaching the English language is described
as giving pupils ideological-political culture, formation of skills to brainwork,
developing their knowledge activity. The cultural goal can be achieved in two ways.
The first one is observation pupils’ training in the course of the teaching process.
The second instructive way of finding a means of achieving the cultural goal is in
using language materials. For example, being respective to the partner while talking,
using polite words and phrases (thank you, you are welcome and etc.) reciting poems,
discussing together each others’ activity or interpreting mutual friends’ work in the
English language. These activities lead the pupils to culture.
The news taken from English audio or graphical texts is one of the unequal means
of instruction. The idea of texts should coincide with the content of the programme and
satisfy cultural needs of learners.
At the primary level of teaching new information is delivered basing on micro
texts, at the higher levels the extract of manuals related to artistic, political, bringing up
and sport events are given to read and the information described in these books is useful
10
to pupils and improve their background knowledge. There are lots of extracts in
textbooks and manuals which educate pupils to obtain high-principled-political ideas.
The content of the texts about great thinkers or philosophers, scientists, spacemen,
heroes of labor gives positive results in training pupils. The graphics and audio texts
related to the dates which are shown separately in the calendar have also a great
educative influence.
The cultural goal can be carried out in the process of out-of-class activities, groups
united by the same interests organized in the class of a foreign language.
The role of educational arrangements with invitation of foreign guests, teachers or
visitors, friendly meetings with the members of embassies is matchless.
The English language is the main factor in providing different deals related to the
types of bringing up. Textbook/course-books are considered the primary means of
pedagogical activity.
Thus in the process of teaching the English language great attention is paid to the
upbringing of pupils.
The cultural goal of learning a foreign language intends to form students’ world
outlook, ideological conviction, patriotism, morality, self-responsibility for occurring
around and aesthetic and spiritual development of the individual. To achieve this goal it
is necessary to use all means: contents (the presence of various problems), organizations
(discussion of these issues and their interpretation). In this respect the potential is
unlimited, it is important not only to define good intentions but to identify concrete
ways to implement them both during lessons and in extra-curricular work.

2. Educational and developmental goals of EL

teaching and learning

The practical and cultural goals are closely connected with the educational one
because FLL advances moral and aesthetic education. Teachers and methodologists pay
much attention to educational capacities in the teaching and learning process. Of great
importance is the linguistic aspect – the contextual side of the material in the foreign
language: texts, exercises, ostensive and audio-visual materials used in the classroom,
outside school hours, and independent learning.
The psychological factor is no less important because speech activity and the
information it carries largely depends on the following circumstances: whether the
learner works willingly, with interest, independently; which skill is practiced, whether
the tasks are heuristic by nature; whether the learner can use obtained experience;
whether the skills acquired at other subjects are applicable in this lesson, etc.
The goal of education is to develop individuals who adhere to definite moral
principles, value knowledge and learning, can and will be able to think and find
out things for themselves.
Learning, as we know, is a function of the total involvement and is the result of
interactive process with students and teachers having an influence on the outcomes of
such interaction.

11
 Thus, learning a FL adds to the learners’ mental powers, sharpens their wits,
develops their intelligence and contributes to their general outlook.
Classroom language experiences should be functional. Language use and study
should fulfill purposes that are meaningful and obvious to pupils. Repeated interaction
with classical literature also increases pupils’ sensitivity to social, cultural dynamics and
to the emotional needs of others. The teacher’s role and attitude should be consistent
with educational goals. “Consistency” here is one of trusting, i.e. respecting
students’ opinions and desires towards fairness. The “consistency” here is between
having a rule and applying it in the same manner with all people including one’s
own.
The “consistency” here is treating offenders with respect while demanding
improvement. For example, it is inconsistent to shout at students when admonishing
them for arguing loudly with each other or to resort to ridicule and derogatory personal
remarks when reprimanding students for their disrespectful treatment of others. It is
wise to respond to offences with opening remarks, such as: “It is not like you to say
this…”, or “I realize you didn’t want things to happen in this way…” rather than “I
knew you couldn’t be expected to act more rationally…”
We should act on a belief that all persons are capable of growth and improvement; it is
worthwhile to make the best possible use of our time. We should start each student’s
day with a clean slate and not allowing ourselves to become cynical about the intentions
or the potential breakdowns on the part of our students to respond to fair treatment. We
should act in accordance with an ethical framework that reflects qualities such as
honesty, integrity, compassion, and the right to dissent responsibly.
Education in its broadest sense means helping our learners to be intelligent,
knowledgeable, well-integrated persons. Such education can be provided in the school
situation only by enthusiastic, caring, sensitive, humane and competent teachers. While
teaching is a science, it is primarily an art which teachers bring into their classrooms.
The teachers’ dedication, love for their profession, their students makes every hour a
stimulating, motivating experience – one which the student will look forward to with
the keenest anticipation.
Thus, the educational goal of learning the English language helps learners to
develop their logical thinking, to improve memory and to raise the level of knowledge
and general culture. It covers linguistic, psychological and social factors which are
purposefully realized in the personality’s viewpoints, convictions, relations and
qualities.
The educational goals can be achieved by means of:
- selection of language material;
- successful organization and conduction of the English language lesson and an
effective combination of its main components;
- choice of visual aids;
- the teacher’s manners and appearance;
- teaching learners to work with books on their own, i.e. independently.
The developmental goal of teaching the English language is recently admitted as a
scientific category in methodology of FLT. However, it is very difficult to find relevant
12
instructional materials related to this goal. There is brief information about the
developmental goal in the book written by G.V. Rogova and I.N. Vereshagina.
The main idea of the developmental goal is how to teach a learner:
- to develop the learners’ creativity, intellectual and cognitive abilities;
- to develop different types of memory (visual/audio, short/long-termed,
voluntary/involuntary), attention, skills, necessary for creative activities;
- to develop mechanisms of anticipation, predicting, guessing, etc.;
- to develop the learners’ initiative, logical thinking. These are abilities concerning
to start, to go on and to finish their communication.
Learning a FL leads to new horizons of linguistic competence where graphic,
phonetic, lexical and grammatical items come into play. Such learning develops logical
thinking of the learners because knowledge acquisition is related to such categories as
analysis, synthesis, comparison, deduction, and others. This process is also related to the
work of the aural, visual, kinesthetic, and motor analyzers aspects. They have a direct
impact on the development of memory as the learners have to memorize lists of words,
word-combinations, phrases, models of sentence building as well as their use in
communication.
Books, textbooks offer ample opportunities to develop pupils’ Gnostic abilities.
They learn a lot of interesting things about the countries, cities, events, historical places,
schools, traditions, holidays and famous people (statesmen, public figures, and
travelers), etc.
A well-organized, purposeful activity guided by the teachers and performed
independently can ensure motivation – a positive interest, a desire and a greater
willingness to learn a FL.
The developmental goal proposes developing of language intuition, language
guessing, memory, logics (analysis, synthesis, comparison, sensory perception,
motivational sphere, communicative skills; individual qualities such as hardworking,
will, purposefulness, and activity).
In general the developmental goals of FLT concern development of
interdisciplinary and supra-disciplinary subskills and skills (informative,
communicative, and academic) and developing of intellectual abilities without which it
is impossible to use the obtained knowledge and skills in the real life.
It is emphasized that all goals of teaching the English language are interrelated and
interdependent.
The practical, educational, cultural and developmental goals of teaching the
English language are bound with each other. But at the same time the practical goal
occupies the dominant position. The goals of the EL teaching and learning can be
summarized in the given below chart.

13
 Table 3. Goals of EL teaching and learning

Goals of EL teaching and learning

Practical goal: Cultural goal: Developmental Educational

to learn to to form students goal: to develop goal: to develop
commu-nicate world outlook, intellectual, memory and
in the English ideological sensory and logical thinking;
language conviction, motivated to ascend pupils’
(speaking, patriotism, morality, peculiarities levels of
listening, self-responsibility for knowledge and
reading and occurring around and general culture.
writing) aesthetic and spiritual
development of the
individual.

Questions:
1. How do you explain the term “goal of teaching and learning?”
2. What are the main goals of teaching English?
3. How can the practical goal of teaching English be carried out during the lesson?
4. What are the tasks of the cultural goal of teaching English?
5. What kind of interconnection is there between these goals?
6. Give the explanation of terms “goal” and “means”?

Tasks:

1. Identify practical, educational, cultural and developmental goals of any lesson’s

topic, for instance “My favorite writer”.
2. Here are some questions to be discussed. Read them and give your own
opinions.
What do you think …
*The main focus in a language class should be on meaning or on grammar.
*Language learners need immediate or long-term rewards.
*The language classroom should have plenty of meaningful or rote learning.
*A teacher’s feedback to students should be given frequently or infrequently, so
students will develop independence.
*A communicative class should give special attention to accuracy or fluency.
14
 * Language learners learn best by using plenty of analysis or intuition.
3. Various writers have attempted to establish lists of individual characteristics
which have some bearing on FL learning. Tick the most important for successful
mastering English. You can add other items.
Ability or aptitude ___
Learning style____
Motivation____

Independent work:

1. Look through these sites for further information. Write down your own notes on
the topic.
1. http://mousavia.CurrentTrends in theTeaching
2. http://www.cuc.edu. Principles_of_Language_Learning_and_ Teaching
3. www.cuhk.edu.hk/ajelt; http://www.chineseupress.com/

Lecture 3

Content of teaching English

The questions to be discussed:

1. Theoretical problems of FLT content.

2. Content components of teaching English.
3. Content of teaching language material.
4. The content of ELT at schools, lyceums, colleges.

Key terms: content, language material, language minimum, cultural,

developmental, skills, sub-skills, language units/items, motivation, performance

3.1. Theoretical problems of ELT content

One of the essential categories of FLT is the content or what to teach. In the
teaching process there are different ideas of training specialists on the problem what to
teach and mostly they are opposite to each other4. One of these matters for discussion is
what should be taught, and the second one – what is the content of teaching itself?
Some training specialists recommend making a distinction between language and
speech materials5. In M. West’s opinion “a language is not a subject which can be
4
Рогова Г.В. Содержания обучения иностранному языку // Иностранные языки в школе, 1974, № 3; Шатиришвили
Ш.А. Основы содержания обучения иностранным языкам в национальной школе. –Тбилиси: Изд-во Тбилисского
ун-та, 1981; Лапидус Б.А. Проблемы содержания обучения языку в языковом вузе. –М.: ВШ, 1986; Джалалов Д.Д..
Проблемы содержания обучения иностранному языку. –Ташкент: - Фан 1987.
5
Рогова С.В. и др. Методика обучения иностранному языку в средней школе. - М.: Просвещение, 1991.
15
taught, it is a subject which must be learnt”. Language acquisition largely depends on
systematic work that would bring satisfaction from this occupation and the feeling of
progress. What the learners need are useful ideas, suggestions, explanations,
demonstrations and examples of learning strategies which are consistent with current
achievements in the field of FLT.
Discussion of problematic matters gives us an evidence to say it is impossible to
determine the content of FLT without referring to linguistics –– a science that deals with
the study of languages as a definite system of codes. Thus, linguistics describes the
standard use of the language, a set of rules, which covers this use. It also studies the
usage, i.e. the way people use words and expressions in speaking and writing, as well as
stylistic means, phonological, morphological, syntactical and lexical items.
Consequently, the dichotomy between language and speech plays an important role
in FLT. Language is a system of signs and speech is a manifestation of this
language system in concrete communicative acts. Both language and speech make
up two sides of the same phenomenon, one whole, and at the same time each of
them has specific units.
Language units include phonemes, morphemes, words, phraseological units,
sentences, and texts. These language elements are organized on formal-semantic
principles. Speech units include utterances of various lengths where language elements
are organized on a semantic-communicative principle. In other words, speech units refer
to a specific situation of communication.
According to opinion of training specialists, educational categories such as
knowledge, experience, skills should be added to the content of teaching English too.
There should be a clear demand, which helps to find the opposite sides and be analyzed
as follows: it can be easily proved that a text cannot be added to the content of teaching.
When you hear about themes of speech, remember that, the content of them should be
taken into account. The theme is a general determination for getting information. It can
be seen that the news can be expressed or received in the text. This means, information
is the content of the text, while the text describes the theme. The theme is the cause and
the text is the result, in its turn the text is the cause and information is the result.
Therefore the theme is considered as one of the inseparable parts of the FLT.
Content components are connected with the goal of ELT. The goal determines the
content because the content is acquired during the lessons and the result of each lesson
depends on the predefined goal. The practical goal of teaching English clarifies how to
use some particular language materials in communication, i.e. within which borders and
in what capacity. So, the area (topic) of speech is defined. There are three phenomena
such as, themes of speech (subjective side of the speech), language sub-skills and skills
(procedural side) and language materials (objective side of learning) played a major role
for improving the content of teaching English which must be discussed.
Some training specialists think that the content of FLT includes: a) exercises of
different types; b) texts for oral and written work; c) laboratory exercises; d) topical
selection of material6. The term of “exercise” is usually used with the aim to master

6
Общая методика преподавания иностранных языков в средних специальных учебных заведениях: Учебное
пособие/Под ред. Миролюбова А.А. и Парахиной А.В. – М.: ВШ, 1978. -264 с.
16
language sub-skills and communicative skills in all speech activities. Exercises are
organized as a system or complex directed to development of language sub-skills and
skills. Exercises are usually shaped with the language material and task performing to
achieve the practical goal. Therefore materials for exercises are taken from the content
of teaching. Thus content of teaching is the foundation, source and object of exercises.
The content of FLT involves a dialectical unity of all specifically arranged teaching
materials, teaching/learning process, sub-skills and skills, and common essential
learning.
The terms “knowledge”, “experience” and “skill” came into this category by
accident which are considered stable and substantiated terms in educational system. A
language is taught for communication and via communication. As knowledge is
absorbed within communicative activity, so a teacher does not conduct a lecture about
language. At the same time knowledge in the content of FLT can take a role of, for
example, socio-cultural knowledge. The assimilation and assessment of the achieved
results connected with the skills and experience. Content of FLT includes knowledge
and skills as well as experience. It is mentioned that, the skill is a step for experience
that’s why experience is considered the final.
The aforementioned makes it possible to conclude that in FLT at school it is
necessary to proceed from speech to language sequence, i.e. to teach the language via
speech in real life situations.
The final purpose of ELT is development of abilities for usage and using language
in different situations of communication. On the assumption of this the content of ELT
from the subjective and procedural sides of speech activity can be presented in a
following way: a) means of communication (phonetic, lexical, grammatical, country-
study); b) knowledge – how to use these means in the process of communication; c)
subskills and skills provide using them in communication which are developed in
teaching/learning process; d) areas, themes, situations of communication within which
the content of ELT can be realized; e) culture created the material basis of the ELT
content.

3.2. Content components of teaching English

In the teaching process a teacher and students are main communicants so it is

necessary to present ELT content within two systems.

The objects of teaching The objects of learning (assimilation)

Language Knowledge and subskills
(pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar)
Speech Subskills (mechanics of speech
production and perception)
Speech activity Skills in listening, speaking, reading and
writing
Culture Knowledge and skills related to cultural
awareness
17
 The first component of the content of FLT is the linguistic one which includes
language material (phonetic, grammatical, and lexical minima) and speech material
(utterances of different lengths) to be used in real acts of communication.
The selection of linguistic material, the so-called minimum vocabulary, minimum
grammar is circumscribed by the syllabus for secondary schools.
For organization of successive intercultural communication we should single out
linguo-cultural material which integrates cultural content and cultural learning
components7 as domains:
 Cultural knowledge. Culturally marked lexical units (proverbs, sayings, tongue
twisters, nursery rhymes, idioms, aphorisms and etc.)
 Cultural values. The ‘psyche’ of the country, what people think is important; it
includes things like family, hospitality, patriotism, fairness etc.
 Cultural behavior. The knowledge of daily routines and behavior.
 Cultural skills. The development of intercultural sensitivity and awareness, using
the English language as the medium of interaction.
These domains can be reflected in the structure and content of the cultural
awareness, which is the foundation of communication and it involves the ability of to
understand cultural values, beliefs and perceptions in both languages.
The second component of “what to teach” is a psychological one. We have already
described the relation of methodology to other sciences, particularly methodology and
psychology. It should be mentioned that dynamic stereotypes serve as psychological
bases for subskills as automatic components of conscious activity formed as a result of
drills or exercises. Language proficiency largely depends on the mastery of a system
of speech subskills and skills. In language acquisition these are subskills in
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary; skills in listening comprehension, speaking,
reading and writing.
Thus, a psychological component is related to the development of subskills and
skills to use a FL for communicative purposes.
The third component of “what to teach” is an instructional one, i.e. rational
approaches to FLT: the students should be taught how to learn English, how to work on
the subject to achieve the ultimate goals.
Thus, an understanding of current theories of language learning and the
achievement of related sciences give all grounds to define the content of FLT in the
following terms8:
1) linguistic component covering language and speech material;
2) linguo-cultural component covering cultural-marked items and cultural information;

7
Cortazzi M., Jin L. Cultural mirrors. Materials and methods in the EFL classrooms. // In: E. Hinkel ed. Culture in
Second Language Teaching and learning. –Cambridge: CUP, 2007. –P. 196-219.

8
Рогова Г.В., Рабинович Ф.М., Сахарова Т.Е. Методика обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе. -М.:
Просвещение, 1991. -С.36-37; Фокина К.В., Тернова Л.Н., Костычева Н.В. Методика преподавания иностранного
языка. Конспект лекций. - М.: ЮРАЙТ Высшее образование, 2009. -С.54-55.
18
3) psychological component, which includes development of sub-skills and skills, as
well as cultural awareness which enable the learners to use them for communicative
purposes;
4) methodological/instructional component that is related to techniques and procedures
derived from application of didactic principles.
The content of FLT can be general and special. As it is determined in the State
education standard (SES) content of FLT consists of themes included into curriculum of
schools and secondary special schools. In all types of education the learning material
should provide continuity and succession. In the SES the content of ELT and
requirements to a certain proficiency level are presented. But a language material for a
certain language is specified. Language material for FLT content is selected taking into
account difficulties of language items for assimilation and interference phenomenon.
Linguistic and psychological components can be described in another way
suggested by J. Jalalov9. There are three components of content teaching of the English
language: speech themes and situations10; language skills and language material.
Determination of themes depends on the type of an educational establishment. The
second component proposes developing language skills according to the curriculum
requirements to a certain level of the language proficiency of students in listening,
speaking, reading and writing.
One of the important problems of FLT content is selection. Present time selection
of FLT content is organized taking into account purpose and stage of students. The main
principles for selection are: 1) adequacy, sufficiency of content for achievement of the
goal of teaching; 2) relevance and availability of the content for its assimilation. Besides
for selection of content of FLT the following principles are used: frequency of
functions and notions; complication of difficulties depending on stages of teaching;
motivation, which implies the choice of domains and communicative situations, which
are typical of students’ life and close to them; potential of content for further
individuals’ development.
The criteria for selection of cultural material: 1) accessibility to the students; 2)
cultural diversity; 3) students’ needs; 4) correlation of information with the target and
native languages and cultures; 5) variability of the cultural material and its significance
for the communicative aim.
In the process of selection of cultural material a teacher should answer the
question: What difficulties can students face in the work with these materials?
Domains are spheres of communication (actions), areas of concern in which the
social life is organized. There are four domains, taught at schools, colleges and lyceums:
- personal domain is centered on life style within a family and friends;
- public domain studies a person as a member of the society;
- professional (occupational for college) domain, where a person is engaged in his/her
job or profession;
- educational domain – a person is engaged in the organization of his/her learning.

9
Jalalov J.J.Chet til o’qitish metodikasi. Foreign language teaching methodology. -Т. Ўқитувчи, 2012.
10
The subjects of the content of FLT in the book: Гальскова Н.Д., Гез Н.И. Методика обучения иностранным языкам.
Лингводидактика и методика. -М. Академия, 2007. -С.124-125.
19
 The speech themes (topics) are chosen according to the goal of teaching the
English language. The themes are considered as extra linguistic socio-psychological
phenomena and they have not been researched completely yet. The main reason of it
there is no total combination of themes. It is a usual thing because according to the
epistemology studies there are no absolute borders. Speech themes should be chosen
from real life situations. At secondary schools learning the English language is provided
with minimum. The themes are based on the methodical tendency named “students and
their surroundings”. First of all, students are required to be able to give information
about themselves, their family, school and their relatives. The methodical classification
of these themes consists of three topics: “The surrounding of a student”, “Our country”,
“English speaking countries”. These three topics are based on the following scientific
methodical tendencies:
Firstly, a student doesn’t know any language items in the initial period of
learning. Criteria: a language is strange but theme is familiar.
Secondly, according to oral topics the patterns and situations of interaction are
taught, because listening and speaking comprehension will be a base for other skills.
Criteria: oral topics are considered important.
Thirdly, themes are divided into two groups: reading (listening) and speaking
(listening). Criteria: oral themes are base for reading and writing. Reading themes
(upper intermediate) are used only for listening (speaking and writing are not important
for reading themes).
Fourthly, there are no exact themes for listening and writing. Criteria: speaking
and reading themes are completely irrelevant to listening and partially irrelevant to
writing.
Fifthly, the lexical units in reading themes are used in speaking; but not
compulsory in writing. Criteria: the degree of understanding of the text is checked on
the basis of oral speech themes.
Sixthly, speech situations are given together with oral speech themes. Criteria:
speech situations should be also chosen with speech themes.
Seventhly, during the choosing process of speech themes and speech situations
receiving information should be taken into account. It means that the theme is connected
with general speech situation but demanded information is appointed by subthemes.
Criteria: topic and situation should be considered as support of information.
Eighthly, in the curriculum regulation oral speech themes and subthemes are
given fully, speech situations are given in certain samples, reading themes are indicated
with the names of genres and kinds of texts. For example, political, scientific and
cultural themes are recommended for reading. Written text is chosen on the basis of
foreign language sources. Criteria: themes are appointed according to types of speech
interactions (skills).
Ninthly, there are two reasons for given speech themes firstly that most taken
information in the English language depends on themes, from another side, choosing the
language material is also based on themes. Criteria: the information in the English

20
language forms the internal feature of themes so information and theme are two sides of
the teaching material11.
The main principle of teaching is providing learners with information, it doesn’t
matter where, when or how it is taught.
The information should be suitable for learners’ interest and needs and based on
the materials directed to raise students’ language level and intercultural awareness.
Well, theme as external indicator, information as internal indicator comprise as
one component of the content of teaching the English language.
There is also a general criterion for selecting of the content of teaching the
English language. Three of them are widely used in practice12. The first criterion is
sufficiency of fulfilling the goals. It means that chosen content provides development of
language sub-skills and skills. Theme and language material serve for developing
experiences.
The second criterion in choosing content of teaching is the existence of teaching
conditions and possibilities. Condition (the type of educational institution – school,
lyceum, college) psychological age factor of a learner, language experience, number of
learners and weekly hours of the lesson) helps learners in assimilation of possibility
content of teaching. The third criterion is taking into consideration receptive and
reproductive features of the assimilation.
To show the methodical component we take developing listening skills for
illustration. The term “listening” means hearing and comprehension of the content of
received speech. Listening is a receptive kind of language activity. It is both an aim and
a means of teaching. Language comprehension (LC) as a means of teaching can be:
1) the way of introduction of the language material in oral form (in a conversation,
in speech patterns);
2) means of forming well-set acoustic images of language phenomena (words)
together with their meanings, which is ensured by multiple perception of the same
material by the ear;
3) means of acquiring pronunciation sub-skills, because instruction only won’t help
students to pronounce a sound which is strange to their mother-tongue if they don’t hear
how it is pronounced by a teacher or by the speaker;
4) major means of teaching speaking. Psychologists and training specialists
(beginning with H. Palmer) have admitted the necessity of listening coming before
outstripping speaking;
5) means of mastering the (teaching) phonic mechanics for reading aloud
comprised also acoustic images. Feedback of reading a text aloud is organized in the
aspects of correctness and fluency. LC as the means of teaching permits multiple
listening of one and the same speech material; while LC as a language activity
constitutes a skill of comprehending speech by ear at single (presented but once)
perception (presentation).

11
Jalolov J.. Chet til o’qitish metodikasi. –T.: O’qituvchi, 2012. -59-60 b.
12
Теоретические основы методики обучения иностранным языкам в средней школе // Под ред. Климентенко А.Д.,
Миролюбов А.А. –М.: Педагогика, 1981. -C 89-90.

21
 The psychological mechanisms of auditory perception of the speech: Mechanism
I - physical perception of speech. Mechanism II – auditory memory, i.e. ability of
keeping the accepted images in memory. Short-term memory provides preservation of
the coming information during the perception phase. Long-term memory preserves the
articulator images of words, word-combinations, constructions, rules, which ensure
comprehension. Mechanism III – mechanism of inner speech. It has interrupted
character. The more familiar the received information is the more broken inner speech
will be. Mechanism IV – recognition on the basis of language experience, the limits of
the active and passive vocabulary, intonation. Mechanism V – anticipation. It sets the
listener to logical understanding, comprehension. Mechanism VI – Logical
comprehension. It requires some interest in what is being said (to the subject), a certain
tempo of mental activity, attention and concentration.
Difficulties of listening and comprehension of the speech and factors influencing
the success of listening comprehension you can see in the “teaching listening” section.
Difficult phenomena are included in the content of teaching listening.

3.3. Content of teaching language material

It was mentioned before, that language material envelops vocabulary, grammar

and pronunciation aspects.
Content of teaching vocabulary. There are active and passive types of lexical
material. As it has already been mentioned, active lexicon is a vocabulary used when a
pupil expresses his/her own opinion in English or comprehends the others’ speech.
Passive is used when a student apprehends emerged vocabulary. Active one is
reproductive and passive one is receptive vocabulary. Both of them make the real
vocabulary of a student.
When a student runs into unfamiliar vocabulary he/she can understand it because
of the resemblance in the mother tongue and this is called potential vocabulary. If a
pupil understands the word independently then it is considered as potential vocabulary.
This kind of words include international words: (tennis – tennis, business – biznes, club
– klub); conversion (belonging to deferent parts of speech, but similar in its form: work
– ishlamoq, ish. About – yaqinida, haqida.); compound words (book+shop, pen+friend);
stem familiar words (work, write, sing-worker, writer, singer). Another type of these
words can be understood in context.
Vocabulary in speech is divided into 3 parts: easy, comparatively difficult and
most difficult words.
Potential vocabulary belongs to the first one and can be divided into the following
subtypes: 1. Form and meaning are common in the English language and in mother
tongue (club – klub, tennis – tennis); 2. Conversion in English (a work – to work:
ishlamoq, ish; far – uzoq, uzoqda); 3. Parts of the word taught before (bookshop,
schoolboy, homework); 4. Stem and affixes are familiar (work+er, difficult+y); 5. Full
forms are familiar to recognize its abbreviation (UK – United Kingdom, Ruz – Republic
of Uzbekistan).
Comparatively difficult words are frequently used which don’t cause any lexical
22
mistakes according to function and semantics (Ex. Qalam – pencil; gapirmoq – speak;
non – bread). Content area of these words is similar in two languages and it helps to
learn but they are considered comparatively difficult words.
The most difficult type of lexicon causes semantic, functional and formal
difficulties. They are classified as followings: poly-semantic words; compound words
with the unfamiliar stems; “false” similar words (magazine – jurnal); champion
(champions of peace – tinchlik tarafdorlari); functional words – prepositions; article;
auxiliary verbs).
Comparatively difficult and the most difficult words consist of content of
teaching lexicon. Content of teaching lexicon includes the words which are the part of
lexical minimum and learned by doing special exercises because of their difficulties.
The difficulty appears in the form, meaning or usage of the words in different context.
Actually, words can be difficult for their semantic, functional, formal points.
We should take into consideration lexical approximation. A learner doesn’t have
to use an exact word, which means she/he may use another synonym instead, which
may not fully coincide with the context.
The content of teaching grammar. Content of teaching materials of language
claimed as part of teaching grammar. Content of teaching grammar envelopes a
teaching part of grammar phenomena with the help of special rules (not exact rules but
models or algorithms) and particular exercises. We can say that each side of grammar
phenomenon, two or three of them (function, semantics, and form) can be placed in
content of teaching grammar.
Units of the English languages can be divided into the two following groups
according to their difficulty: 1) the most complicated grammar phenomena in which
quantity of mistakes increases while changing grades; 2) average difficult grammar
occurrences which quantity of mistakes are met in different grades; 3) grammar
occurrences in which reducing quantity of mistakes are considered or no mistakes
during occurring speech.
It is clear from schooling experiences that some occurrences are taught easily. For
example, the usage of the nouns in plural, function of possessive, meaning of
prepositions, etc.
There exist other grammar occurrences in which mistakes are quickly resolved
with the help of a teacher’s footnote (ordinary general rule). But there are such kinds of
grammar errors among them which are very stable (living) and they move from grade to
grade. They are needed to be explained in details, not as special rules but with the help
of models and speech patterns.
Teachers know well that to teach the article to the pupils is very complicated
since comparing to the Uzbek language the article is “alien”. Indefinite article has three
meanings in the pupils` reproductive speech: 1) to express unknown thing (person); 2)
to express any item (event) in certain area; 3) to describe a person or an item who/what
that is. Learning the article offers the difficulties in form, meaning and function.
Therefore in order to teach “the article” the teacher should make his pupils to do, at
least, four lessons. Teaching the most difficult grammar occurrences requires doing

23
rational exercises and learning the rules indeed (exercises are done without the rules
while learning easier grammar units concerning the forth group).
The content of teaching grammar of the English language should be chosen
according to the three following methodic measures: taking into consideration students’
grammar experiences in the native language basing on the earned experiences of the
English language and reckoning with order of grammar occurrences. These scientific
measures belong to training specialist T.Q. Sattorov who researched perfectly grammar
teaching matters of the English language at Uzbek schools. But anyway we shouldn’t
forget about grammar approximation. It means that we couldn’t demand the students’
perfect type of speech.
The content of teaching pronunciation. The main goal of Teaching
Pronunciation at a secondary school is developing phonological competence, i.e.
pronunciation and intonation sub-skills. The English pronunciation norm is called
Received Pronunciation (RP). Components of Phonological competence: sounds, stress,
rhyme, rhythm, intonation. Teaching Pronunciation at a secondary school is centered on
the idea of approximation, which means:
- reducing the amount of phonetic material (4 types of English intonation are studied);
- admittance of some deterioration of pronouncing particular sounds (t, d, l, n, th, r),
which does not disrupt communication between speakers.
In its syntactical function intonation serves:
1) to differentiate between the communicative types of sentences;
2) in its emotional function – it contributes to conveying the speaker’s conversation, to
the interlocutor;
3) in the function of separation it can promote differentiation of essential info from
insignificant one.
The criteria to the selection of minimum pronunciation for a secondary school:
- adequateness to the needs of communication: The minimum intonation comprises
four types of intonation patterns corresponding to four communicative types of
sentences: statements, imperatives, questions, exclamations;
- styles of speech;
- normal/standard pronunciation: it means excluding jargonisms, elliptical forms
(‘cause, gimme, it aint gonna happen, wanna). Groups of English phonemes: vowels
(long and short), consonants (which have their positional variants), double vowels, or
diphthongs (which are strange to Uzbek-speaking pupils).
The general regularities of the English pronunciation are:
- no palatalization of consonants;
- no devoicing of voiced consonants in the final position or before the voiceless
consonants: eyes – ice, back – bag;
- observing short and long vowels: e.g. sheep or ship;
- making two stresses in a long word.
By pronunciation sub-skills we mean sub-skills of correct articulation of sounds
and join them in words, word combinations and sentences, as well as recognition of all
the studied sounds. Speech sound articulation is important not only for pronouncing the
words but also recognizing and spelling them.
24
 By rhythmical-intonation sub-skills we mean sub-skills as producing
intonationally and rhythmically correct speech and comprehension of the received
speech.
In order to comprehend a spoken message, four main types of knowledge may be
drawn on: phonological – the sound system; syntactic – how words are put together;
semantic – word and propositional knowledge; and pragmatic – the meaning of
utterances in particular situations. We review these types of meaning in turn, suggesting
what role they might play in the overall listening process. In addition, we consider non-
verbal signal bring the additional meaning, that’s why learners should assimilate kinetic
knowledge conveyed by the facial and bodily movement of the speaker. This type of
meaning takes place when the speaker is visible. 13

Questions:
1. How do you differentiate the terms “language material, language minimum and
content of teaching”?
2. What types of components content of teaching English do you know?
3. What types of approximation are there in the content of teaching English?
4. What kinds of criteria are there for choosing language material in the content of
teaching?
5. What kind of approaches to listening do you know?
6. For specific levels of learners – elementary, intermediate, advanced – which
approach to teaching listening do you consider the most suitable? Why?
7. When would an integrated approach to teaching listening be most appropriate?

Tasks:
1. Give the detailed definition of speech themes, speech skills (sub-skills) and
language materials.
2. Here are some questions to be discussed. Read them and give your own
opinions.
What do you think …
* Is vocabulary or grammar more important for organizing communication?
* Do the language learners need immediate or long-term rewards?
* What is the role of motivation in teaching language material?
* Should a communicative class give special attention to accuracy or fluency?
* Do the language learners learn best by using plenty of analysis or intuition?
3. Read guidelines for renewing the curriculum goal. Write a report on the topic
“What has been done in the system of FLT under the given items of guidelines?” in
order:
- to understand contemporary trends in curriculum design and curriculum renewal;
- to define principles to guide the language teaching/learning process;
- to create syllabuses;

13
Second Language Listening: Theory and Practice. / John Flowerdew, Lindsay Miller (ed.). -Cambridge University Press,
2005. -45 p.

25
- to devise strategies to cope with classes of mixed ability, mixed language background,
and mixed achievement;
- to elaborate assessment schemes to monitor, record and report on students’ progress;
- to choose, adapt, create and use appropriate teaching/learning materials and
equipment;
- to create schemes of work for particular groups of learners;
- to evaluate classroom practices and improve them, and thus assist teachers to learn
how to renew their own curriculum.
4. Work out some kind of topics according to SES for level A1 (which should
cover all skills).

Independent work:

1. Look through these sites for further information. Write down your own notes on
the topic.
1. http://waucondastore.com/methods-teaching-english/
2. www.Content-English.org
3. http://www.onestopenglish.com/

2. Study the information (taken from the work by Millrood14 and Celce-Murcia15).
Give your arguments why these strategies are important for communication. Do we
need mastering the strategic competence for communication? Prove your statements.
Success of communication depends on the choosing the successful discursive
strategies adequate to the situation. E.g. The Prince (in «The Prince and the Pauper» by
Mark Twain) was unable «to ask» because he was only competent in how to «gave the
orders».
Successful strategies are known as the four maxims (by H. Grice) of good
communication. These maxims include 1) quality (say only what is supported by
evidence), 2) quantity (say no more and no less than you think is needed), 3) relevance
(say what is relevant to the point of communication), 4) manner (present your ideas
clearly and unambiguously). The four maxims of successful communication can be used
in teaching how communicate effectively.
Strategic competence in the communicative aspect includes:
*Achievement: strategies of approximation, circumlocution, code-switching,
miming, etc.
*Stalling or time gaining: using phrases like «Where was I? Could you repeat
that?»
*Self-monitoring: using phrases that allow for self repair like I mean…

14
Millrood R.P. English Teaching Methodology. – M.: Drofa, 2007.
15
Celce-Murcia M. Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language Teaching/
Soler E.A., Safond Jorda M.P. (eds). Intercultural language Use and Language Learning. -Springer,
2007.
26
 *Interacting: these are strategies that include appeals for help/clarification, which
involve seeking out native speakers to practice with, actively looking for opportunities
to use TL.

Lecture 4
METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Plan:
1. Distinction between the main categories of methodology.
2. Communicative language teaching and learning.
3. Linguo-cultural teaching and learning.
4. Methods of FL teaching and learning.
5. Age groups for choice of methods in teaching process.

Key terms: methodical categories, approach, method, technique, technology as a

procedure, instruction, principle, communicative language teaching and learning, co-
teaching and co-learning, linguo-cultural teaching and learning, thesaurus, the second
language personality, linguo-cultural competence, interactive learning, learner-centered
learning, cooperative learning, content-based learning, task-based learning, accuracy,
fluency, age groups.

Methods of FL teaching

In methodology of FLT the different approaches are used to distinguish methods. They can be
classified according to different criteria.
1. According to the sources of information (sources transmission and acquiring the knowledge): 1)
verbal methods – lecture, conversation, explanation; 2) method of working with a book – working on
textbook, reading additional literature, preparation of messages, abstracts; 3) method of observation,
experiment; 4) methods of exercises and practice – practical experience of learners.
2. According to the quality parameters, as particular features of cognitive process, they are: 1)
explanative-illustrative method; 2) reproductive method; 3) problem-recount method; 4) partly-searching
method; 5) research.
3. In agreement with specifics of FLT and its action-oriented character there are methods of
teaching: 1) demonstration (presentation); 2) explanation; 3) practice (training); 4) feedback and self-
control.
4. The methods of interaction between a teacher and learners oriented to the FLT in the aspect of
organization are: 1) familiarization of the teaching material on the basis of visual-sensory perception; 2)
27
independent comprehension of teaching material and operations with it; 3) practice for production of
speech; 4) practice for reception of speech; 5) motivational production of oral and written speech; 6)
motivational reception of oral and written speech; 7) control, correction and evaluation of speech acts in
a productive aspect; 8) control, correction, evaluation of speech acts in a receptive aspect.
These methods demonstrate the interaction between a teacher and learners: a teacher (or textbook)
organizes the algorithm of operations and actions, and learners implement them. These methods related to
the general didactic methods reflect the specificity of EL as a subject and levels of FL acquisition. But at
the same time they bring the dominant idea, for instance, method of observation or explanative-
illustrative method. They are tools which can be used consecutively while working on the new material.
If we use visual aids, motivational strategies, various situational contexts, during the presentation of new
material, then learners will better percept, comprehend and remember the new material.
These methods put together a hierarchical system; they are in collateral subordination; a learner
moves from step of familiarization to comprehension, then to training and to using, i.e. to communication.
As well as in teaching process it is necessary to undertake an assessment for effective gaining accuracy
and fluency by learners. For this aims various ways (methods) are used.

Distinction between the main categories of

methodology

In determination of methods, the distinction between «philosophy of language

teaching at the level of theory and principles and a set of derived procedures for
teaching a language, is central»16. Although these categories of methodology is othen
mixed.
E.Antony17 identified three levels of conceptualization and organization, which he
named approach, method and technique. According to his model: approach is the level
at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified;
method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made
about particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the
content will be presented; technique is a level at which classroom procedures are
described.
Approach is considered to be the theory about the feature of language and language
learning that stands as the source of practices and principles in language teaching.
J.C.Richards and Th.S.Rodgers present linguistic and psycholinguistic aspects of
approach, as follows: a) theory of language which has three different theoretical views
of language and nature of language proficiency: the structural, functional and
interactional view; b) theory of language learning which associates with a method at the
level of approach emphasizing either one or both of these dimensions: process oriented
and condition oriented theories18. The second level at which approaches and methods
are treated is a design and it is a dimension specially developed for an instructional
system which leads an approach to a method. At this level of method analysis
objectives, language content, learning tasks and teaching activities, role of students, role
16
Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge:
CUP, 2002. -P.19.
17
Antony (1963:63-67), cited in the book: Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
18
Richards J.C., Rodgers Th. S. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second ed. -Cambridge:
CUP, 2002. -P.19.
28
of teachers and role of instructional materials are designated. And the third level of
approach and methods analysis as procedure is concerned with how the tasks and
activities are integrated into lessons and used as a basis for teaching and learning.
Thus, methods are held to be fixed in teaching systems with prescribed techniques
and practices, whereas approaches represent language teaching philosophies that can be
interpreted and applied in a variety of different ways in the classroom. Method can be
distinguished according to the teaching and learning context and it is used in wide
context (Communicative language teaching) and narrow context (project work,
problem-solving, brainstorming). Approach and method are based on the principles as
initial theoretical points. Procedure itself includes task, techniques and activities. Tasks
and activities can be considered as exercises. Technique is a way for a teacher to
organize a learner’s activity. Through techniques we develop in learners productive,
receptive and interactive skills that are necessary for effective communication.
Technology is meant as a procedure of teaching and learning FL in the classrooms.
By technology of teaching we understand the complex or system including algorithm of
operations and actions and ways of acquiring the content of FLT for achievement the
result of FLT/ FLL as a certain level of communicative competence.
Pedagogical technology is the systematic method of creation, application and
determination of the FLT process and acquiring the knowledge with the help of
technical and human resources and their interaction for the goals of optimizing the
forms of education. Technology can be manifested also at the level of operations and
actions in the teaching and learning process.
In methodology the following technologies are distinguished:
- illustrative;
- dialogic;
- playing;
- problem-solving;
- project;
- case study;
- information-communication.
But we can meet and other classifications in methodology of FLT.

2. Communicative language teaching and learning

Communicative language teaching/learning (CLT/ CLL) can be interpreted in

many different ways and used to describe a wide variety of classroom procedures,
because it refers to a diverse set of rather general and uncontroversial principles. We
sum principles pointed by J.C. Richards19 and basic characteristics of this approach in
the Table 4. It is worth to compare their correspondence between two columns.

19
Richards J.C. (n.d.) 30 years of TEFL/TESL: A Personal reflection. - Singapore: SEAMEO Regional
Language Centre.
29
 Table 4. Principles and basic characteristics of CLT/CLL

Principles of CLT/CLL Basic characteristics of CLT/CLL

1. The general goal of language 1. An emphasis on learning to communicate
learning is communicative through interaction in the target language.
competence. 2. The introduction of authentic texts into
2. Learners learn a language learning situation.
through using it to communicate. 3. The provision of opportunities for
3. Authentic and meaningful learners focus, not only on the language but
communication should be the also on the learning process itself.
goal of classroom activities. 4. An enhancement of the learner’s own
4. Fluency and accuracy are both personal experiences as an important
important dimensions of contributing element to classroom learning.
communication. 5. An attempt to link classroom language
5. Communication involves the learning with language activation outside
integration of different language the classroom.
skills. 6. Contextualization as a basic premise and
6. Learning is a gradual process linguistic variation is a central concept in
that involves trial and errors. materials and methods.
7. Fluency as acceptable language is a
primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the
abstract but in context20.
Communicative approach is dominant one in teaching L2 and FL instruction and it
emphasizes that language is best learned by using the communicative meaning, rather
than focusing on explicit learning grammar and vocabulary, especially at schools.
The concept of communicativeness meets the needs of students and presents
objectives, content and methods as a prevalent basis of the CEFR, being the accepted
framework in the field of language teaching and learning; makes it possible to facilitate
communication and interaction among students in order to promote students’ mobility.
The following types of learning are associated with the Communicative Approach:
1. Interactive Learning: This concept goes right to the heart of communication
itself, stressing the dual roles of «receiver» and «sender» in any communicative
situation. Learning through interaction is proposed as alternative to learning through
repetition and habit formation. Interaction and negotiation of meaning are seen as
central of learning through tasks that require attention to meaning, transfer of
information, and pushed output. The concept of interactive learning entails to be a lot of
pair and group work in the classroom, as well as genuine language input from the «real
world» for meaningful communication.
2. Learner-centered Learning: This kind of instruction involves the giving over
of some «power» in the language learning process to the learners themselves. It also
strives to allow for personal creativity and input from the learners, as well as taking into

20
English4room/info/.
30
account their learning needs and objectives. Learner-centered curricula are designed by
considering the needs and interests of students, and process-oriented syllabuses which
center on procedures, tasks and content.
3. Cooperative/Collaborative Learning essentially involves students learning
from each other in groups. It has been comprised as a way of encouraging
communicative instruction in the classroom and is seen as a stretch of the procedures of
CLT. It is viewed as a learner-centered approach offering the advantages over teacher-
fronted classroom methods, fostered competition rather than cooperation and favored
majority of students. The concept of this type of learning stresses the «team» like
nature of the classroom and emphasizes cooperation as opposed to competition.
Learners share information and try to achieve their learning goals in a group. Within
this approach teachers teach students collaborative or social skills so that they can work
together more effectively.
4. Content-based Learning as an instruction in which teaching is arranged around
the content of information that students will acquire. It joins language learning to
content/subject matter and engages them both concurrently. Special information
provides natural content for language instruction. Language is seen as a tool or medium
for acquiring knowledge about other things, instantly proving its usefulness. An
important factor in this kind of learning is that the content itself determines what
language items need to be mastered, not the other way around. When learners study
math or science using English as the medium, they are more intrinsically motivated to
learn more of the language.
5. Task-based Learning: This type of learning proposes tasks as useful vehicles
and instruction in FLT. This concept equates the idea of a «learning task» to a language
learning technique in itself. This could be a problem solving activity or a project, but
the task should have a clear objective, appropriate content, a working/application
procedure, and a set range of outcomes. As learners work to complete a task, they have
abundant opportunity to interact. During interaction they facilitate language acquisition,
they get to listen to the language which may be beyond their present ability, but which
may be assimilated into their knowledge of the target language for use at a later time.
As with content-based instruction, a task-based approach aims to provide learners
with a natural context for language use. One way of attaining the focus on meaning is
through content- or theme-based instruction, and contemporary teaching approaches
such as content-based and task-based ones which are all applications of the
communicative approach at vocational colleges.
Content and language integrated learning presupposes to enhance learners’
linguistic competence thanks to a higher amount of a target language exposure. Among
most favorably influenced by this kind of learning is the learner’s lexicon. Through
receiving FL input in different content subjects learners acquire more profound
knowledge and specialized terminology for their future profession. But we should take
into consideration that at vocational colleges we teach 1) general English and 2)
specialized English. At the same time content-based instruction is aimed to use of
socially oriented themes, represents an effort to link students with the world in which

31
students live. That’s why this instruction can also be used in teaching/learning English
at academic lyceums too.

3. Linguo-cultural teaching and learning

For the effective intercultural communication learners should know both the
language and culture. Lack of knowledge of cultural specifics has a negative impact on
understanding between the representatives of different cultures. That’s why, in ELT the
co-teaching and co-learning the language and culture is implemented.
Co-teaching/co-learning language and culture focus on values and beliefs, on one
hand, and attitudes and behaviors, on the other. In fact a social or cultural blunder can
be far more serious than a linguistic error when one is engaged in oral communication.
Even when good cultural descriptions are available, it is hard to get learners to change
their native verbal behavior based on a new set of assumptions.
There are social contextual factors, stylistic appropriateness and cultural factors21
which influence the norms and conventions of intercultural communication: 1) social
contextual factors: the participants’ age, gender, status, social distance and their
relations to each other (e.g. Distance of power and affect); 2) stylistic appropriateness:
politeness strategies, a sense of genres and registers; 3) cultural factors: background
knowledge of the target language group, major dialects/regional differences, and cross
cultural awareness.
Nowadays, the most accepted instructional framework in the co-teaching and
learning programms is communicative approach, whose main goal is to increase
learners’ communicative competence. This theoretical term means being able to use the
linguistic system effectively and appropriately in the target language and culture.
However, it is also demands integrating culture-oriented instruction. One of the variants
of culture-oriented approaches is linguo-cultural teaching and learning.
A language is a means of communication and a form of culture. That’s why linguo-
cultural approach matches many of the goals of Communicative Language Teaching by
seeking: 1) an integration of linguistic and cultural learning to facilitate communication
and interaction; 2) the potential co-teaching/co-learning language and culture to prepare
learners to communicate with the representatives of the native speakers and non-native
speakers in English in an appropriate way. English has become an international
language or a lingua franca (language-mediator), that’s why the bounds of usage the EL
have been extended.
From the position of linguists the linguo-cultural approach is directed to study the
current condition and functioning of a language and culture in the close interrelation in
the different types of discourse22. This approach to FLT gives an opportunity to interpret

21
Celce-Murcia M. Rethinking the Role of Communicative Competence in Language Teaching/
Soler E.A., Safond Jorda M.P. (eds). Intercultural Language Use and Language Learning. -Springer,
2007. -P.46.
22
Воробьев В.В. Лингвокультурология. – М.: РУДН, 2008; Маслова В.А.
Лингвокультурология. -М.: Академия, 2007.
32
the language meaning as a result of cultural experience or as units of cultural memory of
people23.
Linguo-cultural teaching and learning is based on the formula «from language facts
to culture facts; from culture facts to language facts» and directed at developing the
«second language personality» and the certain communicative skills which are
necessary for undertaking the intercultural interaction. This approach presupposes to
study the national-cultural features and differences between the target and native
languages and aims for developing an intercultural/cross-cultural competence where the
thesaurus of lexicon and thesaurus of conceptual world picture of the native speakers
are to develop. So, teaching EL integrates itself teaching culture as a set of beliefs,
values and norms shared by community members, serving their self-identity with this
social group. This competence related to cultural awareness and influenced the
productivity of intercultural communication. The result of developing the «second
language personality» is a set of knowledge, abilities and skills for productive
undertaking of intercultural communication.
Under the linguo-cultural approach the culture becomes the means of cognitive
activity and language itself is a means of receiving new information about world picture
of the English language speakers. Linguo-cultural teaching and learning is implemented
through content-based and context-based language instruction. Content-based teaching
of culture focuses on culture-related information, while context-based instruction
emphasizes real-world situations where people need to behave in culturally appropriate
way. Content-based teaching is knowledge-oriented and context-based instruction is
skill-oriented.
The linguo-cultural aspect runs through all components of communicative
competence, which includes: 1) cultural knowledge and its representations in language
units’ meaning and texts; 2) skills for comprehension of linguo-cultural information
within the language units and texts; 3) skills to produce texts taking into consideration
the linguo-cultural features.
Within integrating communicative and linguo-cultural teaching and learning
(taking the linguo-cultural component as a point of departure) a variety of activities in
the four language skills are presented for teaching intercultural communication.
No doubt, that an extended living experience among members of the target
language group is probably the best experience for language acquisition if the learner
has adequate basic preparation in both linguistic and socio-cultural competence coupled
with good power of observation24. In this case the native speaker may become as a
model that is implicit in both the linguistic and sociolinguistic competences.

23
Красных В.В. Этнопсихолингвистика и лингвокультурология. - М.: Гносис, 2002. -C. 36.
24
Celce-Murcia M. Rethinking the role of Communicative Competence in language Teaching/
Soler E.A., Safond Jorda M.P. (eds). Intercultural language Use and Language Learning. -Springer,
2007. -P.46.
33
 4. Methods of FL teaching

In methodology of FLT the different approaches are used to distinguish methods.

They can be classified according to different criteria.
1. According to the sources of information (sources transmission and acquiring the
knowledge): 1) verbal methods – lecture, conversation, explanation; 2) method of
working with a book – working on textbook, reading additional literature, preparation of
messages, abstracts; 3) method of observation, experiment; 4) methods of exercises and
practice – practical experience of learners.
2. According to the quality parameters, as particular features of cognitive process,
they are: 1) explanative-illustrative method; 2) reproductive method; 3) problem-
recount method; 4) partly-searching method; 5) research.
3. In agreement with specifics of FLT and its action-oriented character there are
methods of teaching: 1) demonstration (presentation); 2) explanation; 3) practice
(training); 4) feedback and self-control.
4. The methods of interaction between a teacher and learners oriented to the FLT
in the aspect of organization are: 1) familiarization of the teaching material on the basis
of visual-sensory perception; 2) independent comprehension of teaching material and
operations with it; 3) practice for production of speech; 4) practice for reception of
speech; 5) motivational production of oral and written speech; 6) motivational reception
of oral and written speech; 7) control, correction and evaluation of speech acts in a
productive aspect; 8) control, correction, evaluation of speech acts in a receptive aspect.
These methods demonstrate the interaction between a teacher and learners: a
teacher (or textbook) organizes the algorithm of operations and actions, and learners
implement them. These methods related to the general didactic methods reflect the
specificity of EL as a subject and levels of FL acquisition. But at the same time they
bring the dominant idea, for instance, method of observation or explanative-illustrative
method. They are tools which can be used consecutively while working on the new
material. If we use visual aids, motivational strategies, various situational contexts,
during the presentation of new material, then learners will better percept, comprehend
and remember the new material.
These methods put together a hierarchical system; they are in collateral
subordination; a learner moves from step of familiarization to comprehension, then to
training and to using, i.e. to communication. As well as in teaching process it is
necessary to undertake an assessment for effective gaining accuracy and fluency by
learners. For this aims various ways (methods) are used.

5. Age groups for choice of methods in teaching process

It is important for teachers to get acquainted with current instructional methods and
their underlying principles as well as effective classroom techniques, materials, and
assessment strategies appropriate to a certain stage depending on the learners’ age
group.

34
 «Age» can be seen as a learner variable, a contextual consideration that can be
rated alongside knowing «who» exactly your students are, and «where» and «why» they
are learning English as foreign language. While it would perhaps be rash to say that this
or that specific method matches this or that specific age group of learners, there are
definitely general considerations for various age groups that ought to encourage
teachers to be mindful/selective of the kinds of teaching methods and techniques they
use according to the age of their students. Features of age groups and stages of
education are presented in the Table 5.
We need to compare them in the aspect of opportunities for the ELT intellectual
development.
Each approach and method put into practice will be shaped at least by the teacher,
the students, the conditions of instruction, and the broader socio-cultural context. A
particular method cannot be participation for success for everyone.

Table 5. Age group of learners

Stage of
Age groups of learners
education
1. Young Learners: It is well-known that children (ages 5-12)
are very much orientated in their minds around the «here and
now» and directly visible/perceivable environment. Grammatical
rules/explanations are usually lost on them, as are somewhat
«adult» notions of what is correct and what isn't. They develop
Pre-school
well when given plenty of examples and patterns to follow. They
and primary
tend to have a much shorter attention span and need activities
education.
that capture their immediate interest. They also need much in the
1-6 forms.
way of «sensory input» - that is, they need to have many or all of
their five senses stimulated at once. While generally less
inhibited than adults in terms of experimenting with new
language, they tend to have more fragile egos and can be very
sensitive to their peers.
2. Teenagers: The ages 12-18 coincide with a time of rapid
transition and change, both mentally and physically. As Secondary
teenagers begin to develop more cognitive ability, they can be education.
exposed to language learning techniques that require more 7-9 forms.
logical and/or abstract thinking. Attention span begins to Special
lengthen, but there are also more distractions of an emotional secondary
nature. Probably the most important considerations for these education -
learners are «affective» ones. Issues to do with ego and self- academic
esteem are at their height, and teenagers can be incredibly lyceum and
sensitive to the ways others see their physical, mental and vocational
emotional development. Real or perceived errors can shatter college
confidence and detract from risk-taking. Teachers of teenagers students.
need to be able to find ways to draw on and develop cognitive,
35
 analytical and logic skills, whilst being constantly mindful of
feedback techniques and confidence building strategies.
3. Adults: Teachers of adults need to bear in mind that these
learners have longer attention spans and can handle learning that
requires more cognition and abstract thinking. They tend to
Higher
respond well to the teaching of grammatical rules. They may not
education.
be as willing to be «risk-takers», and generally need to feel
respected and that they have a «choice-making» role in the
classroom.

First of all, choosing the method depends on the goal, characteristic, age, and
contents of the lesson. The English teacher may choose from a wide range of methods
such as conversation, presentation, re-telling, translation, etc. An EL teacher might also
consider selecting from this range of methods.
For the 1-2 class learners at school the EL is presented, practiced and learned
through speaking and listening. For these learners effective classroom strategies are
traditionally involved as using plays, songs, rhymes and stories with repeated language
structures. One way to capture young children under 7-8 years attention and keep them
engaged in activities is to supplement the activities with lots of brightly colored visuals,
toys, puppets, or objects to match the stories that a teacher tells or songs that a teacher
sings. These can also help make the language comprehensible and can be used for
follow-up activities, such as retelling stories or guessing games. Listening and drawing
the pictures (animals) is a very effective method for teaching young children in the
English classrooms. It is successful to move smoothly from one activity to another; one
activity can be only for 5-10 minutes.
The goal of all early language education (1-4 forms) should be to hook pupils
when they are young and keep them interested in learning English for the rest of their
lives. So, the goals of English instruction for young learners should be to: 1) make
children feel competent and confident while learning English; 2) provide a safe,
entertaining, and educational environment: 3) create basis for life-long learning English.
ELT at colleges is organized within content-based and task-based instructions.
The methods which are used at college: analysis and reading the specialized texts,
working with terms, problem-solving, clustering, grouping, matching, etc. Word-
problem activity can be built around almost any theme.
The audio/video means can be used in teenager groups at schools, academic
lyceums and colleges. Diligently used, they help teachers assure themselves that their
students perceive intonation and pronunciation easier, and understand English leisurely
by hearing it. Students’ reading may be corrected handier. Explanations may be offered
to learners while they are watching a certain video material on the topic. While
watching a film or a documentary they have the chance to hear native speakers talking.
Students can also write a dictation (recorded on tape). Literary passages may be
recorded and after the learners have heard them, they comment or analyze them, etc.
When it comes strictly to video materials, we can distinguish between before-watching
activities, while-watching activities, and after-watching activities. Including all these in
36
a lesson, working with the video images becomes really productive and offers learners
the possibility to broaden both their cultural horizon and their knowledge.

Questions:

1. What differences can be pointed out between approach and method?

2. Can we say that technology is the same as method or not?
3. What principles of FLT do you know?
4. Why is CLT a dominant and effective approach in FLT? How is language
viewed?
5. Can you interpret Linguo-cultural teaching and learning?
6. What criteria are used for distinguishing methods?
7. What kind of methods are used for organization of the new material?
8. Can we use the same methods in all stages of education?

Tasks:

1. Think of types of EL learning. What difference between them have you found
out?
2. Tell about factors connected with communicate adequately norms and
convention of intercultural communication?
3. Discussion on the topic: «Communication is a process». Explain the notion «to
negotiate meaning».
4. Work in the small groups on the topic: «Instructions are suitable to ELT at
school/lyceum/college».

Independent work:

1. Read the text and think of the issues connected with the communicative
approach.
Communicative teaching language is widely used all over the world. A brief
description of CLT is value-laden and direct transposition of this method and its
principles carry the ideological value about choice, freedom, and equality that are not
universal. According to P.N. Sullivan, Western values are reflected not only in
principles of CLT but also in common CLT classroom activities and practices25, such as
pair and group work, and information gap activities. For mentality of learners from
Eastern and Asian countries freedom of choice and equality and others in the EL
classrooms are not appropriate. Effective classroom activities are not necessarily pair
and group work in information gap activities, but activities that fit the students’
discourse styles. Depending on the cultural, or even the physical setting, a teacher can
use tasks, pair and small group learning or the whole class format. Often a combination
of the three or two is appropriate.

25
Sullivan P.N. Playfulness as mediation in communicative language teaching in a Vietnamese classroom/
In: Socio-cultural theory and second language learning. Eds. J.R. Lantolf . -Oxford: OUP, 2000. -P.115-132.
37
 «Communicative language teaching methods designed to enhance the
interpretation, expression, and negotiation of meaning continue to be explored and
adapted»26. That’s why, the CLT needs to be adapted to fit local context, local teachers
in many EL settings may also need reexamine some of their traditional beliefs and
assumptions about language teaching and learning. Embedded in communicative
approach to teaching is a belief in humanistic and communicative nature of language,
which is not always in accordance with traditional views.
2. Read and compare cognitive-acting approach with linguo-cultural teaching and
learning. Think about the levels of the cognitive process.

Cognitive-action approach
Cognitive-action approach presupposes the language as a means of cognitive
activity which is functioning at two levels: 1) cognitive level connected with the
thinking (intellectual) operations; 2) action-oriented level connected with the process of
production and comprehension of various discourses. That’s why cognitive level is the
library of meanings and the action is the library of texts. From the methodical point of
view by the cognitive aspect we understand the level of acquiring foreign codes, and
action is the level of communicative culture development.
Cognitive level includes thesaurus-1 related to the associative-verbal net of the
language that forms the language picture of the world, the thesaurus -2 forms the
conceptual (global) picture of the world (EL native speakers).
Taking into consideration cognitive process in EL acquisition we can point out the
following levels: 1) the level of rules – realization of the speech action in accordance
with the rules; 2) the level of meaning – understanding the meaning; 3) the level of
speech activity – scheme of production of the utterances; 4) cultural level –
understanding the social and cultural context; 5) cognitive level – understanding the
cognitive strategies for the speech production and having opportunity to evaluate the
language and speech levels himself/herself.

Lecture 5

Teaching aids and teaching materials for EFL classes

The questions to be discussed
1. The definition of teaching aids and teaching materials
2. The requirements for modern textbooks for teaching a foreign language
3. Classification of teaching aids

26
Savignon S.J. Communicative Curriculum Design for the 21-st Century// J. English Teaching Forum.
2002, 40 (1). -P 2.
38
 Key terms: authenticity, clarity, practicality, appropriateness, Actual objects, Flash
Cards, Slides, Charts, Pictures, Maps.

As we know, teaching is an art, which includes knowledge, presentation, an art

of dissemination. Teaching demands broad knowledge of subject matter in all horizons,
complete curriculum with standards, positive and caring attitude with enthusiasm, and
a desire for learning and techniques of classroom management and a desire to make
a difference in the lives of young people. I am sure that nobody will deny the fact that
a teacher is an aid and the activities used by the teachers are materials in the classroom.
Teaching materials are the materials, which the teacher can use to help pupils
learn a foreign language through visual or audio perception. They must be capable
of contributing to the achievement of the practical, cultural, and educational aims
of learning a foreign language. Good teaching materials will be helpful to reinforce the
pupils’ initial desire to learn the language.
By teaching materials, we mean the materials, which the teacher can use to help
pupils learn a foreign language through visual or audio perception. They must
be capable of contributing to the achievement of the practical, cultural, and educational
aims of learning a foreign language.
The modern textbooks for teaching a foreign language should meet the following
requirements:
1. The textbooks should provide pupils with the knowledge of the language
sufficient for developing language skills, i.e., they must include the fundamentals of the
target language.
2. They ensure pupils activity in speaking, reading and writing, i.e., they must
correspond to the aims of foreign language teaching in schools
3. The textbooks must arouse pupils’ interest and excite their curiosity
4. The textbooks must extend pupils’ educational horizon, i.e., the material
of textbooks should be of educational value.
Teaching materials acquire special importance in gaining cultural aims. In this
connection, it is necessity to mention the qualities teaching materials should possess:
1. Authenticity
2. Clarity
3. Practicality
4. Appropriateness
The followings are the samples of teaching materials which are useful for every
EFL classes:
39
 Wall-charts: A wall-chart is a big sheet of paper with drawing or words
to be hung in the classroom and used for revision or generalization of some linguistic
phenomenon, such as “English Tenses”, “Passive Voice”, “Rules of Reading” and
so on.
Posters or series of illustrations portraying a story. They are used as “props”
inretelling a story read or heard.
Pictures. a) Object pictures (a bed, a cat, a table)
b) Situational pictures (the picture of a boy lying in bed)
c) Topical picture (a picture of a bedroom)
According to A. Spicer, “The purpose of teaching materials is not to usurp the role
of the teacher, nor even to make his work easier. Their main purpose is to make
it possible for the teacher to teach more effectively, more interestingly and more
economically. It is equally important that the material should help the pupil to learn
more easily and more rapidly.”
Teaching aids used in various combinations allow the teacher to develop his
pupils’ oral-aural skills: These materials are valuable for presentation, exercised,
revision, testing. Visual materials have an important role to play in the development
of hearing and speaking skills.
Teaching became as important as tools of teaching in the past that you could not
think of classroom without a teacher standing at the blackboard with chalk in hand,
drawing diagrams and pictures or writing the lesson notes on the blackboard, which the
students busily copied in their notebooks. However, the same methods are continuing
in most of the Indian schools, but many schools have changed to the modern methods
of teachings as explained above. The best is to make use of both the traditional as well
as the modern methods of teaching. Teachers of today have to keep abreast of the
modern technology available for teaching and use each and every opportunity to get
their classrooms equipped with the same. The teachers of today will need to change
their teaching strategies according to the need of the hour. They have to be selective
in choosing teaching aids relevant to the lessons and subjects they teach.

Examples of teaching aids

 Actual objects
 Flash Cards
 Slides
 Charts
40
  Pictures
 Maps
 Bulletin Boards
 Models

Thus, these are examples of teaching aids, it is very helpful for teachers and also
students.

Classification Of Teaching aids

Different list of teaching aids classified as follows:

Traditional Teaching Aids: Traditional teaching aids include learning through Books,
Periodicals, Blackboard etc.

Visual Teaching Aids: Visual Teaching aids include posters, model, figure, chart,
graph etc. It also includes graphics such as diagrams, cut-outs, globe, objects, cartoon,
info-graphs, bulletin board, flannel board, picture, map and others.
Mechanical Teaching Aids: Mechanical teaching aids include an Audio teaching
machine, tape recorder, radio, motion picture, Projector, epidiascope, filmstrips.
Audio-Visual Teaching Aids: This type of teaching aid includes video, Cassettes,
Films, television, and others.
Visual Material Teaching Aids: Outline charts, organization charts, tabular charts,
flow charts etc. are also used in visual Material Teaching aids.
Types of Teaching Aids
Following are the different types of teaching aids:
1. Visual Aids
Teaching aids which include learning through visual representation is called visual aids.
Visual aids are the kind of material that we can see with our eyes. It is the most
important teaching aid that teachers always use in their teaching-learning process
everyday like book, blackboard, chalk, duster, indicator, picture, map, graphs, charts,
posters, bulletin boards, museums, projectors and also important visual aids.
Ground substance: The ground substance is the substance that the student can see and
touch. The student inspects and examines by touching and observing matter, which
develops the students’ senses, as well as the development of his thinking, understanding
and observing power.

Model: When the actual substance cannot be brought into the classroom or its size is so
large or it is not available then teachers prepare its sample or model which is shown in
the classroom so that the student can easily be explained.

41
Image: Pictures affect students very much. Students are lost in reality by seeing
pictures, so teachers also present any story or science or any other subject related
picture to the students so that they can be shown and explained. The things taught
through the picture can be remembered by the students for a long time, as well as the
pictures can be easily shown in the classroom.
Map: We use the map only when we have to teach the students about historical events
and geographical elements or places. While using the map, teachers should take care of
some points such as names, titles, directions and signs etc. should be written on it.
Sketch: We need a drawing only when we do not have any real substance or model or
map. In such conditions, we show students by drawing a drawing or sketch on a
blackboard or on a whiteboard, like making a map of India, showing any state etc.
Graph: A teacher uses graphs only when he has to show any increasing or decreasing
pattern. A graph is used in many subjects such as geography, history, mathematics,
science, or also to explain climate. And graphs are used to give information about
population etc. as well. Also, the graph is most commonly used in teaching mathematics
and science.
Chart: The chart is used in Hindi, English, Geography, History, Economics, Civics,
Mathematics and Science. For example, to show various forms of nouns in grammar in
English or Hindi.
Bulletin board: A bulletin board is a board where students display pictures, villages,
figures, articles or essential information in relation to the country’s political, economic
and social problems. Bulletin boards continuously increase the knowledge of the
students.

Museum: The museum is also an important tool of education to increase the knowledge
of the students in which all the objects are kept in one place, making the text more
interesting and alive with these objects. The museum collects items that are very helpful
in subjects like geography, history, mathematics, science.

Projector: Projectors play the most important role among the most used tools in the
modern education system. Teaching-learning is made more simple and interesting
through projectors. Through the projector, the students get a different kind of enjoyment
and memory, development of observational power, curiosity etc.
Slides and Films: Slides and film are used as teaching aids and a projector is used for
this. Slides of pictures or film strips can be shown by the projector in a sequence to give
students knowledge.
Globe: With the help of the globe, children are shown the boundaries of continent,
ocean, river, mountain. In the topic of geography, the globe is used for the most part, to

42
tell students about the shape of the earth, northern and southern hemisphere, latitude and
longitude lines.

Audio Aids
This teaching aid targets to enhance the listening and communication skills of the
students. There are some students in every classroom who are auditory learners, such
students can get benefit with audio aids. Audio aids are included in audio content such
as gramophone, radio, telephone, teleconferencing, and tape recorders in which students
develop their mental powers and hearing powers by listening to contents.
Radio: Through radio, children are informed about the latest happenings and
information. Teaching programs related to different subjects of different classes are
narrated on the radio which develops the ability of the students’ learning, listening,
understanding and remembering as well.

Tape Recorder: Tape-recorder is a popular tool in the education world. With the help
of a tape recorder, students can enjoy and learn through speeches of great leaders and
poems of famous writers, their stories and the music of famous artists. It helps to correct
all errors and thoughts related to students’ speed of speech.

Teleconferencing: With the help of teleconferencing, students can be informed.

Teleconferencing is a medium through which many schools can be linked together.
Different teachers and different children can gain important information by talking
through teleconferencing.

Audio-Visual Aids
Technology has developed and enhanced the experience of students with the addition of
Audio-Visual educational aids.
Films: There are many advantages of movies or cinema in the field of education. The
knowledge gained by it is more useful than other mediums because students can learn
well by watching and listening. By showing movies, documentaries, and films, children
can be easily given knowledge of different countries, places and events.

Television: All the benefits from cinema or film can also be derived from television, but
its scope is much wider than cinema. In today’s modern era, television broadcasts many
types of educational programs in addition to entertainment programs to increase the
knowledge of children It is also used by universities like IGNOU and UGC to
broadcast various types of educational programs with the help of satellites so that the
students can learn.
43
Computer: The use of computers is one of the most used tools in the modern education
system. With the help of this electronic device, the education world has got a golden
opportunity of learning. The use of computers can be seen not only in the education
world but also in different areas of their life.

A Learning aid is a process when we understand can others. Learning strategists

understand the learn from lectures, reading, preparing, etc. It enhances learning and
retention by the learner.
With the help of different types of teaching aids, the teacher makes teaching and
learning interesting and attractive. It helps students in their mental development. With
its help, the teacher saves time in explaining any topic. So, teaching aids are important
tools in the education system.

Classification Of Teaching aids

Different list of teaching aids classified as follows:
Traditional Teaching Aids: Traditional teaching aids include learning through Books,
Periodicals, Blackboard etc.
Visual Teaching Aids: Visual Teaching aids include posters, model, figure, chart,
graph etc. It also includes graphics such as diagrams, cut-outs, globe, objects, cartoon,
info-graphs, bulletin board, flannel board, picture, map and others.
Mechanical Teaching Aids: Mechanical teaching aids include an Audio teaching
machine, tape recorder, radio, motion picture, Projector, epidiascope, filmstrips.
Audio-Visual Teaching Aids: This type of teaching aid includes video, Cassettes,
Films, television, and others.
Visual Material Teaching Aids: Outline charts, organization charts, tabular charts,
flow charts etc. are also used in visual Material Teaching aids.

Types of Teaching Aids

Following are the different types of teaching aids:

1. Visual Aids
Teaching aids which include learning through visual representation is called ………
These type of teaching aids are the kind of material that we can see with our eyes. It is
the most important teaching aid that teachers always use in their teaching-learning
process everyday like book, blackboard, chalk, duster, indicator, picture, map, graphs,
charts, posters, bulletin boards, museums, projectors and also important
…………………. aids.

44
……………………. is the substance that the student can see and touch. The student
inspects and examines by touching and observing matter, which develops the students’
senses, as well as the development of his thinking, understanding and observing power.

………………………When the actual substance cannot be brought into the classroom

or its size is so large or it is not available then teachers prepare its sample or
……………… which is shown in the classroom so that the student can easily be
explained.

…………………. affect students very much. Students are lost in reality by seeing them,
so teachers also present any story or science or any other subject related to this teaching
aid to the students so that they can be shown and explained. The things taught through it
can be remembered by the students for a long time, as well as they can be easily shown
in the classroom.

We use it only when we have to teach the students about historical events and
geographical elements or places. While using the map, teachers should take care of
some points such as names, titles, directions and signs etc. should be written on it.

……………… We need a drawing only when we do not have any real substance or
model or map. In such conditions, we show students by drawing a drawing or sketch on
a blackboard or on a whiteboard, like making a map of India, showing any state etc.

……………… A teacher uses graphs only when he has to show any increasing or
decreasing pattern. It is used in many subjects such as geography, history, mathematics,
science, or also to explain climate. These type of teaching aids are used to give
information about population etc. as well. Also, it is most commonly used in teaching
mathematics and science.

This teaching aid is a board where students display pictures, villages, figures, articles or
essential information in relation to the country’s political, economic and social
problems. They are continuously increase the knowledge of the students.

It is also an important tool of education to increase the knowledge of the students in

which all the objects are kept in one place, making the text more interesting and alive
with these objects. The collects items that are very helpful in subjects like geography,
history, mathematics, science.

This teaching aid play the most important role among the most used tools in the modern
education system. Teaching-learning is made more simple and interesting through it.

45
Through …………. , the students get a different kind of enjoyment and memory,
development of observational power, curiosity etc.

These type of teaching aids are used as teaching aids and a ……….. is used for this.
Slides of pictures or film strips can be shown by this teaching aid in a sequence to give
students knowledge.

With the help of ………….., children are shown the boundaries of continent, ocean,
river, mountain. In the topic of geography, the ………… is used for the most part, to
tell students about the shape of the earth, northern and southern hemisphere, latitude and
longitude lines.

This teaching aid targets to enhance the listening and communication skills of the
students. There are some students in every classroom who are auditory learners, such
students can get benefit with audio aids. These aids develop students mental powers and
hearing powers by listening to contents.
There are many advantages of them in the field of education. The knowledge
gained by it is more useful than other mediums because students can learn well by
watching and listening. By showing them it can be easy to give knowledge of different
countries, places and events.

The use of this teaching aid is one of the most used tools in the modern education
system. With the help of this electronic device, the education world has got a golden
opportunity of learning. The use of them can be seen not only in the education world but
also in different areas of their life.

Lecture 6
TEACHING THE FOUR MAIN ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS

Teaching English language material

Teaching English vocabulary

The questions to be discussed:

1. The role of vocabulary in FLT.

2. What is vocabulary and what should be taught?
3. Different approaches to recognition of lexical (vocabulary) complexity.
4. Selection of vocabulary minimum.
5. Stages and ways of teaching vocabulary.

46
 Key terms: vocabulary, word, lexicon, formal, functional, semantic, style, active
(productive) minimum, passive (receptive) minimum, combinative, stylistic, frequency,
word-building, polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, context, definition,
interpretation, static stage, dynamic stage, criteria of selection, pre-activity, while-
activity, post-activity.

1. The role of vocabulary in FLT

The term «curriculum» includes the totality of the knowledge that is expected to be
imparted to the learner in a school, lyceum or college. It provides a comprehensive plan
on which the entire system of learning and teaching can be based. Hence, the curriculum
should plan the use of receptive and productive skills, mastery of vocabulary, and
acquaintance with the culture and literature of the people who use English as their first
language27.
Teaching vocabulary is a very important objective in the curriculum. According to
psychologists, human beings learn the life experiences by words, because thoughts are
made by words. Word is a central unit of a language: language first of all is the system
of words. Without a sufficient vocabulary, students cannot communicate effectively and
express ideas. Having a limited vocabulary is also a barrier that prevents students from
learning a foreign language. If learners do not know how to expand their vocabulary,
they gradually lose interest in learning.
The necessity of vocabulary enrichment is pointed out in curriculum. Fortunately,
for students and teachers, the most vocabulary growth takes place through incidental
learning, that is, through exposure to comprehensible language in reading, listening,
speaking, audios and videos and so on.
It is necessary to study both theoretical and practical approaches to teaching
vocabulary. Thus, knowing the vocabulary selecting criteria is significant for an
effective learning.
The main practical aim of teaching vocabulary in the primary and secondary
schools is to develop the learners’ vocabulary subskills as a basic component of all
language and communicative activities. One should realize that the terms “vocabulary”
and “words” are not the same.
Learning a new language is basically a matter of learning the vocabulary of that
language. Not being able to find the words you need to express is the most frustrating
experience in speaking another language. Without doubt vocabulary is not the only
thing you have to know about the language. Other levels of language (grammar,
phonetic, phonological, and stylistic) are also important.
Nevertheless it is possible to have good knowledge of how the language system
works and yet not be able to communicate in it; whereas if we have the vocabulary we
need assimilate to communicate.
Anyone who learns a new language is likely to recognize more words than he/she
can produce. It is difficult to produce a word correctly. It is necessary to pronounce or
spell it in the right way, to use it in the correct grammatical form, to use it appropriately

27
Мильруд Р.П., Максимова И.Р. Современные концептуальные принципы коммуникативного
обучения иностранным языкам // Иностранные языки в школе. – М., 2000. - №4. – С. 9-15.
47
to the context. It may therefore be important for a teacher to decide which words are
appropriate and relevant for students age and stage. What words can form the
‘productive’ or ‘active’ vocabulary? The teacher also should decide which words she/he
wishes her/his students merely to recognize. In other words, what words are considered
as the ‘receptive’ or ‘passive’ vocabulary. The production of words (while speaking or
writing) in the target language takes much greater efforts from the learner. Of course, in
productive vocabulary, the learner has an advantage to choose the word he wishes to
use: whereas in receptive vocabulary (as in listening or reading) he has to handle with
the language level of the speaker or writer.

2. What is vocabulary and what should be taught?

Vocabulary can be defined, roughly, as the words we have to teach in a foreign

language class. However, a new item of the vocabulary may occur not in the form of a
single word: for example, pen-holder and merry-go-round, which are made up of two or
three words but express a single idea. There are also multi-word idioms such as take the
bull by the horns, where the meaning of the phrase cannot be deduced from the analysis
of the component words. A useful convention would be to cover all such cases as
vocabulary «items» rather than «words». It is also called mental lexicon that is
«vocabulary in mind»28. It consists of the smallest independent meaningful units of
speech. These units of speech are called words. The words have the word forms and
meanings assigned to them. Words in the mental lexicon create lexical networks. Once
activated, a lexical item stimulates the spreading of other associated lexical items,
which in its turn causes the activation of a bigger network. Mental lexicon is stored in
our memory and it is the process of mapping the meanings in the mind and putting these
memory traces into some word groups. Mental lexicon performs the functions of word
storage, retrieval, comprehension and use. The storage of words in the mental lexicon
is the result of a person’s cognitive processes in real-world situations. As a result of
cognitive processes, the words make up the situation sets (associated with a particular
situation, objects, phenomena or processes), semantic sets (associated with a concept)
and collocation sets (associated with other words by habitual everyday use).
Language is created and developed by the society with the aims to interact and
transmit material elements of a culture. The language as a means of communication was
and always remains the constant participant of the society and people’s activity. That’s
why the study of the vocabulary is intertwined with all the other aspects of the
language:
a) with pronunciation: the lexical meaning is expressed with the help of phonic
means of the language:
- short and long vowels (fill-feel, knit-neat)
- open and close vowels (beg-bag)
- voiceless and voiced consonants (lad-let);
b) with morphology: book- books;
c) with syntax: structural forms;
28
Ur P. A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and theory. -Cambridge: CUP, 2003. -Pp. 82-90.
48
 d) with spelling: fair tale – fare tail;
e) with stylistics: father, pa, daddy, pop, old man.
Under the vocabulary subskills we mean the ability:
- to transfer a word from the distant memory to immediate memory. The retrieval
of the words from distant memory may be implemented through the activation of the
mental lexicon. The activation is an attempt to map the idea onto words. Sometimes
the meaning cannot be mapped onto the words and it becomes the cause of the «tip-of-
the-tongue phenomenon» when the meaning needs to be expressed but the form cannot
be retrieved from the memory.
- to check the correct selection of a particular word in the given situation. Here we
may see the approximate word usage which can be hampered by the absence of the
corresponding word in processing memory or in the mental storage. In this case the
language users resort to lexical strategies such as circumlocution (putting the idea in a
different way), word coinage (creating a non-existent word) and derivation (forming a
word from the one that is known to the language user). Another strategy is using
gestures and mimicry.
- to evaluate combinability of the word chosen instantly with other vocabulary
items. A process of cognition produces the meaning, that a person is willing to
communicate in the circumstances. It is necessary to consider the «word pragmatics»,
i.e. to see that a word does not elicit an unwanted reaction from other participants in the
communication. Using a word means recognizing certain grammar norms and rules.
Finally, the word is accessed in memory and is produced either in graphical or oral
form.
- to choose the proper paradigmatic form of the word quickly suitable for a
particular structure. This case is related to the use of words in both the speech
production and comprehension cognitive processes. The perception of the situation
presupposes looking for an appropriate word in the «master-file» (the main storage of
words)).
What should be taught? The learner has to know how does a word sound like (its
pronunciation) and how does it look like (its spelling form). These are fairly obvious
characteristics, and one or the other will be perceived by the learner when encountering
the item for the first time. In teaching, we need to make sure that both these aspects are
accurately presented and learned. Another point is grammar. The grammar of a new
item will need to be taught if this is not obviously covered by general grammatical rules.
An item may have an unpredictable change of form in certain grammatical contexts or
may have some idiosyncratic ways of connecting with other words in sentences; it is
important to provide learners with this information at the same time as we teach the
basic form. When teaching a new verb, for example, we might give also its past form, if
this is irregular (go, went), and we might note if it is transitive or intransitive.
Similarly, when teaching a noun, we may wish to present its plural form, if
irregular (foot, feet), or draw learners’ attention to the fact that it has no plural at all
(advice, information). We may present verbs such as want and enjoy together with the
verb form that follows them (want+to do, enjoy+doing), or adjectives or verbs together
with their following prepositions (wait for, listen to). The collocations typical of
49
particular items are another factor that makes a particular combination sound «right» or
«wrong» in a given context. So this is another piece of information about a new item
which it may be worth teaching. When introducing words like decision and conclusion,
for example, we may note that you take or make the one, but usually come to the other;
similarly, you throw a ball but toss a coin; you may talk about someone being dead
tired but it sounds odd to say dead fatigued. Another typical feature is idiomatic word
use or collocations. They often serve as instruments of individual expressive power.
Collocations are also often noted in dictionaries, either by providing the whole
collocation under one of the head-words, or by a note in parenthesis. Teacher should
appeal learners’ attention to the differentiative features of idiomatic expressions with
word combinations.
By methodological typology of the language material we mean distribution of
lexical units into groups in accordance with the degree of their complexity for
assimilation.

3. Different approaches to recognition of lexical (vocabulary) complexity

There are different approaches to recognition of lexical (vocabulary) complexity:

- taking into account qualitative characteristics of words, that is formal, functional
and semantic peculiarities of a particular word and complexity of their assimilation
under the condition of contacted languages. When people are speaking or writing, their
choice of words depends on the situation they are in. A variety of the language in a
communicative situation is called a language style. It may be appropriate to use an
informal style with close friends, a neutral style with business acquaintances and a
formal style with an employer. Often in communication it is necessary to select specific
vocabulary that helps to convey the message in the best way. People switch the
vocabulary they use when they talk to different specialists or non-specialists, to adults
or children, to indifferent or sensitive people. The selection of vocabulary for the
purpose of achieving the best communicative result is called language register29.
- taking into account quantitative characteristics of words (metaphorical word
usage and word polysemy which is represented by homophones with a variety of
assigned meanings) which imply wide use of words as well as their length which is
measured in the number of letters or syllables.
The world is formed as the symbols of things and so are words in our mind. The
word reminds us the symbol of the object and circumstance of the second signal system,
for instance: when you hear or read the word «bread» you can easily imagine «food».
The relationship between notions should be taken into consideration while teaching
vocabulary. Firstly, in other words, there are narrow and wide-spread notions, for
example: woman, man – person; daughter, son - child. Secondly, coinciding – two
notions are different in their meanings: to visit– to come; thirdly, partly coinciding
notions - one notion can partly cover the other one: scientist-methodist, pedagogue-
musician; fourthly, words which do not coincide with each other, for example: pen-
twighlight, algorithm-holiday.
29
Millrood R.P. English Teaching Methodology. -M.: Drofa, 2007. -P.93-94.
50
 You can see the differences in the Table 9.

Table 9. Differences in the word notion

Relationships
between Uzbek English Spanish Deutch French Russian
notions
Fully the same Suv water agua wasser eau вода

1.arm 1.brazo 1.arm 1.bras

Partly qo‘l рука
2.hand 2.mano 2.hand 2.main
Суб-
Shanbalik ботник
Lunch
Siesta
Fully different
Herr
Grand
dejeneur

Words are very complicated in their meanings, material forms (phoneme,

morpheme, grapheme) and expressions of connection between the objects and
circumstances (its denotations).
Pay attention to the following examples:

Uzbek English Spanish Deutch French Russian

Bormoq Go Ir Gehen Ailer Идти
kelmoq come verir kommen venir

It can be clearly seen from the table that the infinitive form in Uzbek and other
foreign languages has its significant but in Russian there is not significant of infinitive,
it can be expressed in the context.
The associative communication is of great importance for memorizing and using
new words. There are five types of associative communication: 1. synonyms; 2.
antonyms; 3. equally related notions: table-chair (furniture); 4. widening of the
meaning: table-furniture, apple-fruit; 5. connection of the notions: illness-death (cause
and effect relations), soldier-army (the relations between the part and the whole).

4. Selection of vocabulary minimum

51
 The term «selection» is widely spread in methodology of FLT. Vocabulary
selection concerns solution of two problems: 1) defining units/items and principles
(criteria) of selection.
Word-meaning is a practically rational for unit/item of lexical minimum selection.
A word, word-combination, or phrase can be considered as a unit of selection.
Under the principle of selection we understand the measurement of indications, on
which the evaluation of the lexicon is organized.
In accordance with indications’ characteristics all the principles are distinguished
into interrelated groups:
1 group – statistical principles:
- frequency (the total number of the word occurrence in the source or sources);
-range (words that occur across a wide variety of texts).
2 group – methodical principles:
- thematic (related to the topics given in the curriculum);
- semantic (words which reflect the main concepts of the topic, or situation);
- learnability (spelling, phonological difficulties, syntactic properties, polysemy,
false friends, cultural aspects).
3 group – linguistic principles:
- combinability,
- word-building value,
- polysemantic words,
- stylistic unboundedness.
Methodological preparation of a new vocabulary should be done in two stages.
The first stage correlates with the selection of the words for teaching. This stage is
called static, then dynamic stage follows.
The phenomenon of making microsystem for students learning according to certain
scientific criteria is called as methodological choice.
The active (productive) vocabulary is used in oral speech, passive (receptive) is
used in written speech. The active (productive) minimum of foreign language in schools
includes approximately 1000-1200 words. passive (receptive) vocabulary is chosen in
compliance of the active (productive) minimum.
The basic principles of selection of the active (productive) minimum vocabulary
are:
- semantic approach;
- combinative approach;
- stylistic approach;
- frequency approach;
- word-building value;
- value of polysemantic words;
- excluding synonyms;
- excluding international words.
The active (productive) minimum of vocabulary is selected from topics and
communicative situations, dialogues and written speech, video- and audio-texts.
The criteria of selection of the passive (receptive) minimum vocabulary are:
52
 - derivability;
- polysemantic character;
- frequency and wide usage;
- topical associations;
- semantic and word-building value.

5. Stages and ways of teaching vocabulary

The process of development of vocabulary subskills in the English classrooms

proposes three stages.
Stage I is related to the presentation of a new vocabulary. The aim is to introduce
a new word and disclose the meaning of each word. Ways and techniques to convey the
meaning of a word are:
Direct way
- dictionaries – used in conveying the meaning of a word;
- synonyms– items that mean the same, or nearly the same; for example, clever,
smart may serve as synonyms of intelligent;
- antonyms– items that mean the opposite; rich is an antonym of poor;
- hyponyms – items that serve as specific examples of a general concept; dog. lion,
mouse are hyponyms of animal;
- morphological analysis (word building) – You may wish to teach the common
prefixes and suffixes: for example, it learners know the meaning of sub-, un- and -able,
this will help them guess the meanings of words like substandard, ungrateful and
untranslatable. They should, however, be warned that in many common words the
affixes no longer have any obvious connection with their root meaning (for example,
subject, comfortable). New combinations of prefixes are not unusual, and the learner is
expected to gather the meaning from understanding of the components (ultra-modern,
super-hero). Another way to learn the vocabulary structure is combining two words
(two nouns, or a gerund and a noun, or a noun and a verb) to make one item: compound
word, or two separate, sometimes hyphenated words (bookcase, follow-up, swimming
pool).
- contextual guessing – understanding the meaning through the context, or previous
experience;
- definitions – explanation of meaning in English with the words familiar for learners;
- examples – situational and interesting information which can motivate learners;
- interpretation – if there is no equivalent in the native language;
- matching – synonyms, antonyms;
- analysis of the structure – familiar components of the word;
- making list of family words – finding the meaning of the general word via familiar
words;
- familiar or famous (international) words.
Visual
- demonstration of school paraphernalia or drawings on the black board (realia);
- illustration material-pictures / objects;
53
- models;
- demonstration of movements, mime, body language;
- pictograms, pictures, schemes.
Translation
- giving an equivalent;
- translation-interpretation;
- comparing a foreign word to the native language word.
The choice of a successful way of semantization depends on the following factors:
1) whether the word belongs to the active (productive) or passive (receptive)
vocabulary minimum;
2) on the stage of learning: at the junior level – visual techniques, speech-patterns,
translation; at the intermediate level – synonyms, antonyms, word-building analysis; at
the senior level - context, definitions;
3) on the level of the language performance of the learners in a certain stage of
education;
4) on the qualitative characteristics of a word.
While introducing new vocabulary can be used direct and indirect ways for
semantization. The more effective way is direct as definition, context, etc.
It is time to deal with the matters, first, how to work on a new word. There are 2
ways: 1) a word in isolation; 2) via the context.
The second, how to work on an isolated word:
- when you deal with proper names, geographical names;
- sometimes you can give some words to develop the language guessing abilities
(the first word is given in the context, the rest – in isolation: a runner – in the context; a
jumper – will be easily guessed);
- when teaching the students to work with a dictionary.
The work on a new word in the context is more widely used, in particular, in a
phrase, in a situation, in a story, in question-answer form, in a talk. It leads to better
assimilation of new words.
Stage II – drilling, its aim is to create or form the stereotypes of usage of a new
word.
Stage III – situational (communicative practice) aimed to developing or improving
the vocabulary subskills in the aspect of using vocabulary in the speech.
People can communicate using 400-500 words. An educated person uses 3000-
5000 words to express his ideas in the written and spoken forms of speech. A person
should know more than 3000-5000 words for reading and listening. Famous writers and
poets use 20-25 thousand words in their works.
Many language teaching programmes aspire to teach only about 2000 words. Are
the remaining words learnt from a dictionary? Definitely not. If the meanings have not
been supplied by outside sources, as it were, then where have they been found? The
answer is, of course, that we guess the meanings of the words by hearing them used in a
certain situation or by reading them in a certain context and guessing their meaning
from the context30.
30
Lado R., Fries C. Lessons in Vocabulary. - Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, 1990.
54
 In connection with the matter of guessing importance in the communicative
activity (during reading or listening) it is necessary to discuss some ways to learn words
in the context in detail.
Inferring the word meaning from the context allows the student to infer or guess
the meaning from the context or illustrations. Through the context students obtain a
general understanding of an unfamiliar word if 1) they continue reading, if students
know something about the content of reading or listening materials from their
knowledge of the first language reading; 2) students know how the meaning of the
words they learn refers to parts of reality.
For this purpose teachers need to know how to train students’ subskills. The
teacher can use the following techniques (for efficient readers) suggested by Yang
Zhihong31:
1. Look at the unknown word and decide its part of speech. Is it a noun, a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb?
2. Look at the clause or sentence containing unknown word. If the unknown word
is a noun, what does this noun do, or what is done to it? And what adjectives describe
it? What verb is it near? If it is a verb, what nouns does it it go with? Is it modified by
an adverb? If it is an adjective, what noun does it go with? If it is an adverb, what verb
is it modifying?
3. Look at the relationship between the clause or sentences containing the
unknown word and other sentences or paragraphs. Sometimes this relationship will be
signaled by conjunctions like but, because, if, when, or by adverbs like however, as a
result. The possible types of relationship include cause and effect, contrast, time,
exemplification, and summary.
4. Use the knowledge you have gained from steps 1 to 3 to guess the meaning of
the word.
5. Check if your guess is correct.
a) See the part of speech of your guess is the same.
b) Replace the unknown word with your guess. Does the sentence make sense?
c) Break the unknown word into its prefix, root, and suffix, if it possible. Is the
meaning of the prefix and root correspond to your guess?
Through a range of instructional activities, student can actively and consciously
develop their vocabulary subskills. Meaningful instruction should of course include the
explicit teaching of word meaning and discussion about words and their prefixes,
suffixes, and roots. But it should also include dictionary exercises, word family
activities, semantic mapping, semantic feature analysis, word associations, synonym
and antonym activities, cognate awareness exercises, practice with lexical sets,
classification activities.
Although classroom instruction of these types of vocabulary work cannot account
for all the words students need to learn to assimilate vocabulary via direct teaching.
The process of vocabulary acquisition has a certain laws and rules. The first
encounter with the word is sometimes more important than its frequency in exercises.
That is why it is essential to «prime the word», i.e. to prepare the learners for the
31
Yang Zhihong. Learning words. // English Teaching Forum. 2000. V.38, No3. - P. 19.
55
encounter with the new word through activation of prior knowledge and creating the
necessity of using the word. Development of vocabulary in mind depends on the
complexity of the concepts that are expressed with the help of words, because words
with a concrete meaning are acquired easier and sooner than abstract ones. Learners
acquire separate meanings of a word. First they acquire one component of meaning and
then another. Basic terms (e.g. potato) are learned before superordinate words
(vegetables). The storage of words in memory depends on the depth of meaning
processing. The deeper learners get the meaning of the words in examples and
associations, the stronger memory traces will be. Receptive skills come before
productive skills and the learners find it easier first to understand a word and then to
use it. The knowledge of a vocabulary item comes before the knowledge of a
vocabulary collocation, i.e. the learners first acquire words and then learn how to
combine them in collocations. Words are best remembered in their situational context
(combination with other words) yet situational context can limit the potential use of the
words to particular situations only. In a motivation activity the word is remembered the
best. Motivation activities are more important than continuous repetitions.
There is a three-phase framework of teaching vocabulary. They can be
broken down into three phases such as pre-activity, while-activity and post-activity
(Table 10).

Table 10. Phases and activities

Phase Activity

Exploring vocabulary forms (word derivation models).

Pre-activity Exploring vocabulary meaning (synonyms, antonyms,
polysemy). Exploring potential vocabulary use.

Deriving words (e.g. creating the necessary form of the words).

Using vocabulary (e.g. choose the right synonym).
While-activity
Communicating the message (e.g. describe the gadget using
technical jargon) .

Reflecting on task fulfillment: focusing on vocabulary use;

Post-activity integrating vocabulary with teaching communicative skills
(reading, listening, writing and speaking).

Questions:

1. What is the difference between word and vocabulary terms?

2. What aspects of the language are connected with the vocabulary?
56
 3. Why do we enrich vocabulary?
5. How do you explain the term «mental lexicon»?
6. What kinds of abilities are meant by vocabulary subskills?
7. What are the basic principles and criteria for selection the active vocabulary
minimum?
8. What is the methodological preparation of new vocabulary?
9. Describe the three-phase framework of teaching vocabulary.

Tasks:

1. Give the explanation of terms «resource of choice», «criterion of choice»,

«unit of choice» and mark the statements as T (true), F (false) or D (debatable).

Statements T F D
1. Vocabulary is more important in communication than grammar.
2. Vocabulary is stored in our memory as separate units.
3. Vocabulary is stored in our memory as collocations.
4. Vocabulary is stored in our memory as networks.
5. Recalling a word always means activating many words in memory.
6. One word of the same language means the same for different
people.
7. Any meaning can be expressed by a word in any language.

2. As it has been mentioned there are some types of vocabulary sets (situation
sets, semantic sets and collocation sets), match the following vocabulary units with the
types of «vocabulary sets».

Vocabulary items Vocabulary sets

1. Custom-built car
Situation set
2. Rust-proof paint
3. Far-reaching consequences Semantic set

4. Drought-affected regions Collocation set

5. The worst flood ever

6. Wintry showers
7. Beggarly pay

3. Find out one word which is used in the sense of: a physical organ; ‘a group ’,
‘corpse ’, ‘masses and ‘trunk’ or ‘mainpart’. (Make your own examples).

57
 4. Read this extract; find out phrasal verbs with the verb «talk» and explain their
meanings.
Every time I try to talk up a new idea to my boss, he talks down to me, or talks
around the issue. I can talk back to him but fail to talk him into anything. We can talk
over and out the problem but there is no way to talk him round. So we are just talking
away. I talk up but we never come to talking through.
5. Think about activities for learning vocabulary through speaking.

Independent work:
1. Decide which are the core words in these sets. What reasons would you give?
a) cause, bring about, effect, instigate, precipitate
b) slim, slender, thin, emaciated, scrawny
c) aspire, seek, desire, aim, strive
d) assign, give to, hand over, allot, distribute, delegate
e) grief, distress, bereavement, sorrow, affliction, trouble.
2. Find the active vocabulary in the given text taking into account the selection
principles.
This is old Market Hill. At the bottom, is Market Square, and Queen’s Walk is just
at the top. At the bottom right corner, there is a travel agency. Just opposite it, is the
supermarket. Next to it, is a large school that extends to the next corner. Halfway to the
top of the hill there is a zebra crossing and a traffic light. Nearby is the main post office.
Between the post office and the travel agency, there is a new fast food restaurant.
Behind the post office, there is a very nice park where we usually go for a work.
3. Within one theme create a system of exercises for developing vocabulary skills.
4. Make up your own while-activity and post-activity tasks for EL classrooms at
school, lyceum and college.
5. Look through these sites for further information. Write down your own notes on
the topic.
Short Vocabulary Activities for the ESL Teacher - Readers provide the…
Using the Internet to teach English for Special Purposes (ESP)
effective…for-teaching-vocabulary/

Lecture 7
Mastering the sounds of the language
The questions to be discussed:

1. The essence of teaching pronunciation.

2. Distribution and typology of pronunciation material.
3. Ways and principles of developing pronunciation subskills.

Key terms: pronunciation subskill, phonetic material, pronunciation minimum,

content of teaching pronunciation (CTP), pronunciation norm, pronunciation unit,
58
phonetic phenomenon, phonetic system, phonetic exercise, phoneme/sound,
approximation.

1. The essence of teaching pronunciation

Pronunciation plays a special role in the content of language material.
Pronunciation mechanism envelops three parts as hearing (acoustic), uttering (motor)
and meaning (semantic). Mastering phonetic side of the language, i.e. mastering
pronunciation subskill is one of the core conditions of successful communication. We
need to answer a question: What does pronunciation mean in the aspect of FLT?
Current opinion in FLT methodology regarding teaching pronunciation in the
English classroom has at least two generally accepted theoretical cornerstones32. The
suprasegmental features of English – stress, rhythm intonation, linking (connection of
speech across words boundaries, where one ends in a vowel sound and the next begins
with a consonant sound, or vice versa), reduction, and deletion – are called prosodies.
These contribute more to meaning and overall listener perception of nonnative speaker
fluency than do the segmentals, the individual vowel and consonant sounds. Although
rules for suprasegmental use exist, these rules are broader and have much more
variation than involved in learning articulation of the individual sounds. Because supra-
segmentals carry more meaning and are difficult to learn, they require more focused,
structured attention and more practice than the segmentals.
Second, pronunciation taught in isolation does not carry over to improved
pronunciation in actual communication. This is true for both the segmental features and
supra-segmental elements. Practicing sounds and prosodic elements in structure drill is
important and useful, more communicative activities using connected speech are crucial
in helping to build automacity and carryover.
There a question appears – Is it possible to achieve a perfect pronunciation in
English? Training specialists have the exact answer: it is difficult to achieve perfect
pronunciation in teaching language at school, that’s why the requirements are
determined on the assumption of approximation. According to this assumption of
approximation, it is available to limit the phonetic input and it is tolerated lower quality
of some sounds articulation. But both of them occur in the bounds of non-infringement
of process of oral communication. At the same time it is important to achieve the high
level of approximation in articulating the long – short vowel sounds in English, voiced
and unvoiced consonants in the end of the word, otherwise the meaning will be changed
or even lost. For example: bed – bet.
Approximated pronunciation is firstly characterized by the conditions of the
secondary education, i.e. the unnatural environment of teaching English, so
pronunciation is more complex than vocabulary and grammar.
The main requirement is acquiring relatively fluent English pronunciation. Firstly
it provides comprehension of communicants, secondly it demands acquiring middle

32
Parker M. Pronunciation and Grammar. Using Video and Audio Activities. // English Teaching Forum. 2000. V.38. No
1. –P.25.

59
speed of speech (it is known the speed of the EL speech – average pronunciation 130-
150 words per minute. Keeping in mind that oral speech units exist only in sound
images and that pronunciation is mixed with vocabulary and grammar subskills, they
are usually acquired integrally. Pronunciation sub-skill provides the expression of
speech units through relevant sounds.
The issue of when to start teaching pronunciation was the reason of various
discussions. It is not logical to define a certain grade or stage in methodology as
mastering pronunciation goes together with development of language skills. It is
necessary to realize that almost all sounds are introduced in the initial stage of
education; the middle stage continues teaching new sound combinations, stress and
intonation; in the middle or higher stages pronunciation sub-skills are improved.
Through listening pronunciation sub-skills are developing.

2. Distribution and typology of pronunciation material

EL phonetic minimum is selected in concordance with the vocabulary and

grammar minima. Language material usually consists of active and passive minima. The
notions of active and passive in phonetic (pronunciation) minimum are treated
differently. Active and passive pronunciation minima are learned simultaneously. They
are included in the complex of the language sub-skills and appear in speaking and
listening.
Active and passive minima are distinguished as follow: active minimum admits
approximation, but it is not found in passive one. Active minimum works in the range of
limited phonetic material and in passive it is possible to meet variants of the English
language phonemes.
Pronunciation minimum is general for a certain stage, for example, for secondary
schools in spite of the learners’ language experience. Pronunciation minimum includes
sounds, sound combinations, stress, and main types of intonation.
It is known that pronunciation units that are easy to learn are not taught in separate
exercises, because they are not included into the content of teaching pronunciation.
Thus, minimum doesn’t consider language experience, and the content of teaching
pronunciation includes only difficult for assimilation phonetic phenomena that require
special time and efforts.
There is a classification that takes into account the difficulties of assimilation
which groups are included in the content of teaching pronunciation (CTP): difficult
phenomena referring to articulation, opposition, position and acoustics.
The phonetic material is selected in compliance with the following criteria: (1)
compliance with the need of communication; (2) appropriate style and standardized
pronunciation; (4) prevalence.
According to the first criterion, there phonemes and intonation models are selected
that have different meaning, as pronunciation minimum includes all phonemes (but not
their variants).
Appropriate style for selection takes as a base full style of pronunciation, i.e.,
literary, academic style. Literary style could seem to be more artificial but it is more
60
suitable for secondary education. As a standard, the Received Pronunciation (RP) is
admitted. Pronunciation minimum excludes the dialectal variants of pronunciation and
conversation style of speech.
Prevalence is also like criteria of style and norm. The most used phonetic units are
selected and included into phonetic minimum.
In addition, the most used intonation models in speech and difficult phonetic
phenomena are included into minimum. In keeping the criteria, the phonetic
peculiarities of the EL are taken into consideration.
In distribution of vocabulary and grammar material the first issue was to divide
into active and passive. Distribution of phonetic material in pronunciation is particular.
Distribution of phonetic material occurs according to the following scientific-
methodical criteria: 1) speech orientation; 2) distribution of difficulties. The received
lexical-grammatical distribution predetermines pronunciation distribution.
Typology of pronunciation material. The most appropriate methodological way is
that phonetic material is distributed into types for developing pronunciation subskills.
There are two types in the FLT methodology. The first leads to find reasonable
methods of teaching pronunciation through dividing all units of phonetic minimum into
easy and difficult.
According to the second type only difficult units of the content of teaching
pronunciation are divided into noted above four groups as articulation, opposition,
position and acoustics.
From the content of typology we see that it covers sounds, sound units and
phonetic phenomena. Typology of intonation is of another kind.
Methodical typology of the pronunciation units is allowed for all stages such as
presentation, focused practice and communicative practice for developing pronunciation
sub-skills.

3. Ways and principles of developing pronunciation subskills

Presentation of the pronunciation material occurs through the utterance of phonetic

units by a teacher and hearing of the students. It is very important to solve the problems
of presenting a pronunciation unit alone, in a word or in a sentence objectively for
development of pronunciation sub-skills.
The following approaches are used for teaching pronunciation:
1. Articulatory approach – explanation of sounds articulation to students. The
stages of working: 1) orientation – giving instructions about positions of the organs of
speech for sound pronunciation; 2) articulation – students pronounce a sound; 3)
pronunciation training in various combinations via exercises.
2. Acoustic approach to teaching pronunciation where emphasis is put on the
conscious assimilation articulation features, on listening and imitation. Exercises are
based on repetition and imitation
3. Differentiated approach proposes using of different analyses for developing
pronunciation sub-skills from all positions. Here the more attention is paid to listening.

61
Besides ways of articulation of a sound are explained articulation, even attracting the
mother tongue.
Thus, the main methods of teaching pronunciation are imitation and analysis.
Imitative method is natural and simple. But it is based on unconscious acquisition of the
language and its pronunciation.
Imitation requires from the teacher accurate pronunciation and from the learners
sharp hearing ability.
Analysis-method, on the contrary, requires the work through consciousness, which
results in the development of logical thinking. Understanding and uttering of a
pronunciation unit is fulfilled via analysis.
Imitative method can be used alone when the existing pronunciation skill has a
positive influence, but the analysis-method is always accompanied by imitation.
Phonetic exercises support the developing pronunciation sub-skills of the English
language. It is necessary to point out that an exercise is a mental action directed to
repetition, acquisition and development of actions.
Mastering pronunciation in the process of teaching English very much differs from
learning lexical and grammar material, hence from learning native language
pronunciation. Pronunciation is taught according to the following principles:
1. Taking into account the results of the comparative analysis of the English
phonetic systems and typical errors of students’ speech. Comparative analysis helps to
define the difference and similarity between phonetic systems of the contacted
languages.
2. Synchronous formation of speech action and hearing images of English
pronunciation. Teaching pronunciation sub-skills of hearing and speech actions
compose inseparable unit. Oral utterance is controlled by hearing analyzer.
3. Using reasonable methods in teaching pronunciation. At the beginning stage an
imitation is recommended. Taking into consideration important pronunciation
peculiarities of the learned language only the teacher who has language experience can
be a sample of English pronunciation.
4. Wide using of educational technical means in teaching pronunciation.
Acquisition of phonetic material is not restrained by a teacher’s pronunciation. Learners
hear a live speech of the teacher, or his/her recorded speech and speeches of other
persons (speakers).
5. Separate usage of ways of pronunciation material presentation. According to the
difficulty of the English phonetic units in methodology they are usually presented in a
sentence, in a word or separately. Learners hear the sound in the sentence, in the word
or separately, but in utterance they learn some of them separately, and others in the
sentences.
The most relevant features of pronunciation – stress, rhythm, and intonation – play
a greater role in English communication under school conditions than individual sound
themselves. Therefore, teaching speech from the perspective of supra-segmentals seems
indispensable, in communicative language teaching settings learning pronunciation
should not be limited to finding stress and comparing individual vowel and consonant

62
sounds in a given word. It is necessary to develop a communicative competence where
pronunciation is reflected in the linguistic competence.

Questions:

1. What can you say about the core of acquiring approximated pronunciation?
2. What are the main principles (criteria) of selecting phonetic/pronunciation
minimum?
3. What elements does the content of teaching pronunciation include?
4. What backgrounds are put into the distribution and typology of phonetic
material?
5. Describe the methods and ways of teaching pronunciation.
6. Name the principles of teaching pronunciation.
7. What do you think, should we work on the pronunciation at lyceums and
colleges?

Tasks:

1. Analyze the terms concerning the matters of developing pronunciation skills.

2. Make up exercises on teaching pronunciation.
3. Analyze the presentation of phonetic drills in the English language coursebooks
at school.

Independent work:

1. Find the additional information about ways, techniques of working on the

pronunciation material at school.
2. Read about Letters-and-sounds approach. Think about other integrative
approaches, for example whole-language approach.
A teacher teaches children individual sounds of the letters that are classified into
several phases including so called tricky words (those that are exceptions to the rules: I,
me and etc.) per phase. Having been introduced to certain amount of graphemes,
children are encouraged to sound out the individual phonemes within a particular word
and blend them all together afterwards. For instance, s, a, t, p, i, n are set 1 of phase 2
phonics; once children know how to properly say the sounds e.g. s is for snake, a is for
apple and etc. they are asked to read the graphemes within a particular word and blend
them into a word: s a t -sat, p i n –pin.

Lecture 8
Investigating the learning and teaching of grammar

1. Teaching grammar
2. Selection of the grammar material
3. The factors and ways of developing grammar skills
63
4. Principles of teaching grammar
Tayanch so’z va iboralar: Selection of the grammar material, Grammar, theoretical work,
Micro-form, micro-meaning and micro-usage, approach
Teaching grammar
Grammar is central to the teaching and learning of languages. It is also one of the more difficult
aspects of language to teach well. Many people, including language teachers, hear the word "grammar"
and think of a fixed set of word forms and rules of usage. They associate "good" grammar with the
prestige forms of the language, such as those used in writing and in formal oral presentations, and
"bad" or "no" grammar with the language used in everyday conversation or used by speakers of
nonprestige forms. Language teachers who adopt this definition focus on grammar as a set of forms
and rules. They teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling students on them.
This results in bored, disaffected students who can produce correct forms on exercises and tests, but
consistently make errors when they try to use the language in context.
Other language teachers, influenced by recent theoretical work on the difference between language
learning and language acquisition, tend not to teach grammar at all. Believing that children acquire
their first language without overt grammar instruction, they expect students to learn their second
language the same way. They assume that students will absorb grammar rules as they hear, read, and
use the language in communication activities. This approach does not allow students to use one of the
major tools they have as learners: their active understanding of what grammar is and how it works in
the language they already know. The communicative competence model balances these extremes. The
model recognizes that overt grammar instruction helps students acquire the language more efficiently,
but it incorporates grammar teaching and learning into the larger context of teaching students to use
the language. Instructors using this model teach students the grammar they need to know to
accomplish defined communication tasks.
Selection of the grammar material
Micro-form, micro-meaning and micro-usage are recognized as the unit of grammar selection. The
grammar phenomena for the oral speech of the learners are selected from the real live speech of
foreign native speakers and fictions. The resource of selection active grammar is the spoken literary
language. Passive grammar minimum is selected from the written texts for students’ receptive speech
development.
Active and passive minima do not differ very much as in vocabulary (active minimum is in the
passive input), active minimum is selected for all stages of the secondary schools and passive grammar
minimum is selected only for lyceums and colleges – for advanced students.
The formation of grammar minima directly deals with the speech themes and vocabulary minima
which impact on the grammar selection.
The methodological criteria in preparation of educational grammar are classified as follow.
Criteria of selecting activegrammar minimum:
1. Criterion of prevalence of grammar phenomena in oral and written speech. The most
frequent phenomena in people’s speech are «picked up» from the all grammar system or material.
2. Criterion of being grammar unit as a sample. It requires the ability to developing grammar
subskills through given samples (e.g., building noun, adjective, adverb with the help of suffixes).
3. Criterion of isolation of mono-semantic facts. With the aim to prevent difficulties the most
frequent and stylistically appropriate units are selected, but only one of the grammar form to
excluding synonyms is selected.
Criteria of selecting passivegrammar minimum:
1. Criterion of wide usage in literary written style of speech.
2. Criterion of polysemantics.
The element of action and criteria of selecting grammar material are directly linked. Some of
them function as the main, others as complementary. Types of speech activity need various language
material input. The most demanding in them are reading and listening. The grammar input for
speaking and writing is relatively less than for reading and listening.

64
 The preparation of the English language grammar material requires successful approaches to the
selection, distribution and methodical typology of the content of grammar teaching. That’s why the
selection should be relevant to the above criteria.
The next task of preparation of language material is the presentation of the selected minimum.
The distribution of the grammar minimum requires functional approach (according to the
communicative tasks). Grammar is divided into communicative units (sentence), so the speech pattern
performs as a unit of distribution.
The speech pattern embodies in itself all sides of speech, i.e. vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and graphic
aspects, as speech pattern is considered to be the unit of learning and distribution.
Reproductive way of learning English is based on speech patterns leading to expected results. The speech pattern
means a model of a sentence/utterance which is recognized as a grammar unit/item. Grammar was distributed in two
ways: with the help of the rules and speech patterns. The third way is «lexical approach» which is used when the grammar
phenomenon is presented in isolation: if it is used in the only sentence, it needs to be learned without a rule, it should be
learnt as a word (lexical item). According to the current educational requirements the method of grammar distribution
means using primarily speech patterns, and necessary grammar rules if it is necessary.
The process of distribution consists of three stages: 1) defining the general sequence; 2) distribution among the
grades; 3) distribution in a school year. Each stage has its own methodological criteria. General distribution is measured
according to the criterion of importance of grammar phenomena. For example, in distribution of present indefinite and
present continuous tenses of the English language, the first one is considered to be the most important for the speech
process. The most important grammar phenomena are distributed at the initial stage of education.
Besides, the importance of distribution of grammar among grades occurs when one takes into account the criterion
of correlation of grammar with vocabulary. The vocabulary in this case is of primary significance which in its turn
influences the distribution of grammar units.
The third stage is a very complex process of distribution. Here are detected the cases of positive or negative transfer
of language experience of students. This instructional measure is a major factor of preventing difficulties, i.e. this criterion
is directed to prevent the expected grammar errors in the language acquisition. It is called preventing difficulties appearing
in the speech.
The first and second distribution is presented in syllabus. The third one is reflected in the English language course-
books. The result of analysis of translingual and intralingual comparison of the selected language material are the basis of
the grammar typology determination. It was emphasized in the typology of vocabulary material, that the
grammatical facts for learning are also differentiated. The details of easy/difficult acquisition are looked thoroughly.
Identification of difficulties and their typology give the opportunity to create a system of exercises, to work out ways of
teaching and assign the time period of assimilating the material. The typology of grammar material can be associated with
the typology of difficulties in the process of assimilation. It is known that identification of the difficulties is a multistage
instructional organization: analysis of language errors, comparison of the contacted languages (a foreign and native
languages) and contrast of the dissimilar elements. The analysis of the errors, comparing and contrasting are organized
according to grammatical meaning, form and usage. Grammar phenomena are taught for developing grammar subskills
with the aim to communicate. The process of developing students’ grammar subskills is organized within three stages:
1. Presentation stage, in which we introduce the grammar structure, either inductively or deductively. There are a
variety of techniques and resources that can be used during this stage. Selection of them should be made according to
teacher strengths, student preferences, and the nature of the grammar phenomenon.
2. Focused practice stage, in which the learner manipulates the structure in question while all other variables are
held constantly. The goal of this stage is to allow the learner to gain control of the form without pressure and distraction
trying to use the proper form of communication.
3. Communicative practice stage, in which the learner is engaged in communicative activities to practice the
structures being learned.
It is necessary to pay attention also to teachers’ feedback and error correction which can take place throughout the
aforementioned two stages, in particular, on the 2-d stage when correction should be predominantly straightforward and
immediate; on the 3-d stage communication should not be interrupted, but the teacher should take notes of the errors and
deal with them after the communicative exercises. Moreover grammar facts presented in the speech patterns are introduced
orally to learners at the lower and middle stages of education, and in written form at the middle and higher stages.
Grammar phenomenon is presented via speech pattern or a rule, or via lexical approach. There are two kinds of rules: rule-
instruction and rule-generalization. The rule-instruction is a mental activity aimed at using or reading/listening
comprehension of structures, in psycholinguistics the rule is studied in speech issues, this program is called algorithm.
Introducing the rule is the advance guiding base directed to providing speech act. In other words, a rule can be defined as a
base of speech practice. The rule-generalization is a simple theoretical information related to grammar material that was
learned in the process of speech acquisition. The rule should be laconic, clear and accurately formulated directed to using
or recognizing grammar phenomenon.
The rule and model are methodological notions with the same essence. The usage of the model provides capturing
of the structural form in person’s mind. Verbal abstraction is expressed by words occurred discursively. The speech
patterns play the role of samples for composing sentences. Discursiveness must be limited as much as possible.
65
 Lecture 9
TEACHING LISTENING IN ENGLISH
Plan:

Tayanch so’zlar: listening-comprehension, audio materials, content

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 Lecture 10
TEACHING SPEAKING IN ENGLISH
Plan:

Tayanch so’z va iboralar: speaking, activity, difficulty, content, technique

71
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 Lecture 11
TEACHING READING IN ENGLISH
Plan:

Tayanch so’z va iboralar: reading, skill, mistakes, learning process

74
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 Lecture 12
TEACHING WRITING IN ENGLISH
Plan:

78
Tayanch so’z va iboralar: writing, difficulties, stages, writing proficiency, writing,
difficulties, stages, writing proficiency

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 Lecture 13
TEACHING THE TEXT: THE GOALS
Plan:
1. The main goals of teaching the text
2. Comprehension of content
3. Language learning
Procedure:
Pre-activity
Students should read the text and judge how truthful, consistent or logical the text is.
Stress
Almost everyone is society has a job to do. Having work is important as it gives certain social status,
pays salary and maintains self-esteem. Job can be rather rewarding. However, many people nowadays
are leading hectic lifestyles. They work too much and have little breaks. This inevitably leads to stress.
We often hear the word “stress” in everyday life, although it is not clear what it really is. “Stress”
means pressure and tension. It is a common problem in modern life. Unfortunately, too much stress
results into physical, emotional and mental health problems. The reasons for stress are numerous. It’s
not only overworking or having no time for rest. Stress factors also include dangerous situations,
difficulties at home, divorce, loss of close friends, etc. Changes for the better can also cause stress. For
example, getting married, having a baby, moving houses, entering a university. Of course, everything
depends on the way a person reacts. Experts advise not to worry too much and stay calm in any
situation. It is very important to try to avoid stress or at least to minimize it. When noticed on early
stages, it can be fixed easier. One of the best ways to fight stress is to keep a sense of humor in
difficult situations. Even doctors agree that laughter is the best medicine for all diseases. Other ways to
cope with stress include regular leisure activities and interesting hobbies. If someone feels depressed, a
good solution is taking up yoga classes or swimming, bicycling, knitting, gardening, painting, etc.
Anything, that can help a person to relax and get a new lease on life, is considered to be helpful.

While-activity
Task 2 Read the following passage and look at the statements below, which are all True as regards
the text. Each statement has a blank space and after each one there are four alternatives (a-d). Add
each alternative in turn to the statement and decide what effect each one has on the sentence: is the
information in the sentence now True/ False/Not Given?

UFFIZI TO DOUBLE IN SIZE

Italy is to try to turn the Uffizi gallery in Florence into Europe's premier art museum, with an
ambitious 56m euro ($69m) scheme to double its exhibition space. GiulianoUrbani, Italy's culture
minister, said the enlarged gallery would surpass "even the Louvre". By the time work is completed,
visitors to the extensively remodeled Uffizi will be able to see 800 new works, including many now
84
confined to the gallery's storerooms for lack of space. The project - the outcome of nine months of
intensive work by a team of architects, engineers and technicians - is a centrepiece of the cultural
policy of Silvio Berlusconi's government.
With refurbishment plans also afoot for the Accademia in Venice and the Brera in Milan, Italy is bent
on securing its share of a market for cultural tourism that is threatened by the Louvre and by the "art
triangle" of Madrid, which takes in the Prado, the Thyssen collection and the Reina Sofia museum of
art.
Schemes for the expansion of the Uffizi's exhibition space stretch back almost 60 years. The latest was
mooted in the 1990s. But the one adopted by the current government has reached a far more advanced
stage than any of its forerunners. Roberto Cecchi, the government official in charge of the project, said
last month that all that remained to do was to tender for contracts. The target date for completion of the
project is 2006.
But the first changes will be seen as early as this month when a collection of pictures by Caravaggio
and his school, currently crammed into a tiny room on the second floor, is to be moved to larger
premises on the first.
MrCecchi said the biggest problem was "inserting a museum into a building that is itself a monument".
The horseshoe-shaped Palazzo degli Uffizi, begun in 1560, was designed by the artist and historian
Giorgio Vasari.
The latest plans are bound to stir controversy, involving as they do the creation of new stairwells and
lifts in the heart of the building. There has already been an outcry over one proposed element, a seven-
storey, canopy-like structure for a new exit by the Japanese architect Arata Isozaki.
At the heart of the plan is the opening up of the first floor, which for decades was occupied by the local
branch of the national archives. This will allow visitors to follow a more extensive, and ordered,
itinerary that would turn the Uffizi into what Antonio Paolucci, Tuscany's top art official, called "a
textbook of art history".
As at present, visitors will be channeled to the second floor, where they will be able to study early
works by Cimabue and Giotto before moving on to admire the gallery's extraordinary collection of
Renaissance masterpieces, including Botticelli's Primavera. Asked if the expansion might increase the
risk of inducing Stendhal's syndrome - the disorientation, noted by the French novelist, in those who
encounter dozens of Italian Renaissance masterpieces - MrCecchi replied fatalistically: "Yes. It'll
double it."

Example:

There are plans to increase … the space for displaying art at the Uffizi.
(a) twofold (b) slightly (c) by 100% (d) with great care

(a) True. It says in the text: “to double”

(b) False. See (a).
(c) True. It says in the text: … to double …, which means an increase of 100%
(d) Not Given. There is no mention of whether care or great care will be taken, even if we expect it to
happen ourselves.

1. … works are not displayed, because there is not enough space in the gallery.
(a) About half of the Uffizi’s (b) Many of the Uffizi’s
(c) Large examples of the Uffizi’s (d) The majority of the Uffizi’s

2. Architects … have been working on the Uffizi project.

(a) as well as other professionals (b) engineers and technicians
(c) of international repute (d) from all over the world

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3. Architects have been working on the Uffizi project _____.
(a) with great enthusiasm (b) with various other agencies
(c) for nine months (d) for more than nine months

4. … the plan to increase the space for displaying art at the Uffizi gallery is ambitious.
(a) The writer feels that (b) It is clear that the cultural minister does not feel
(c) To most Italians, (d) The writer does not feel

5. From the author’s point of view, the plan to increase the space for displaying art at the Uffizi gallery
is … ambitious.
(a) not that (b) not at all
(c) fairly (d) clearly
6. Plans to increase exhibition space at the Uffizi go back … years.
(a) 60 (b) exactly 60
(c) nearly 60 (d) more than 60

7. The Uffizi scheme will … be finished by 2006.

(a) possibly (b) ,at all costs,
(c) definitely (d) have to

8. The present scheme will … be controversial.

(a) possibly (b) definitely
(c) probably (d) not

9. The Palazzo degli Uffizi was designed by Giorgio Vasari, … .

(a) who was an artist (b) who was an historian
(c) who was not a well-known historian (d) who wrote many books on art history
10. A collection of pictures … , now in a small room on the second floor, will soon be transferred to
larger premises.
(a) by Caravaggio (b) by Caravaggio and other artists
(c) of international importance (d) by Caravaggio and his followers

11. One proposed seven-storey building at the Uffizi is … disapproved of.

(a) not (b) very much
(c) widely (d) unfortunately

12. The first floor of the Uffizi gallery was occupied by the local branch of the national archives ….
(a) for a long time (b) for a few years
(c) which frustrated the Uffizi administration (d) for many years

13. Removing the national archives from the Uffizi will allow … visitors to follow a more extensive,
and ordered, itinerary.
(a) most but not all (b) all
(c) only some (d) the majority of

14. … the Renaissance masterpieces at the Uffizi, including Botticelli's Primavera, are extraordinary.
(a) To all Italians, (b) The writer does not think
(c) To most people, (d) According to the author,

Post-activity
Answer the questions
86
 1. What are the main goals of teaching the text?
2. What is the comprehension of content?
3. What is language learning?

LECTURE 14
TYPES OF TESTS AND ASSESSMENT OF TEACHING FOREIGN
LANGUAGES
Plan:
Aim of the lesson: By the end of the lesson the Ss will be able to explain what is Assessment as a
new method, to learn Assessment as a new method
Plan:
1. Teaching and Testing
2. Assessment
3. Types of assessment
What are the principles of language testing?
Appendix 3
How can we define them?
What is testing???
What factors can influence them?
 Definition: “A test is an activity whose main purpose is to convey (usually to the tester) how well the
How or
cancan
we do
measure them?(Ur 1996:33)
testee knows something”
esting Assessment
Evaluation

87
 Testing and Assessment
Two types of assessment:
 Formative

it’s assessment with the purpose to check on

students’ progress or to see how far they have
mastered what should they learn.
 Summative
it’s used at the end of the term, semester or year
in order to measure what has been achieved by
groups and individuals

Effect of testing
The effect of testing on teaching and learning is
known as backwash. There are two different
backwashes in the test, they are:
 The test will cause harmful backwash if the test
content and testing techniques are at variance
with the objective of the course.
 It will have beneficial backwash If the result of the
test give an immediate effect on teaching (the
syllabus was redesigned, new books were
chosen, classes were conducted differently)

Assessment Process
• Within 2 working days
• Within 5 working days –
• Induction
– initial summary
• Preliminary – Learning opportunities &
interview outcomes
• Intermediate – Learning strategies
interview • Formal feedback, progress and
action plan
• Final interview
• Full evaluation and assessment
• Re-sit period of performance. Sign off mentor
• Takes place immediately on
same placement

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 The Experience!!

• Placement experience from

week 6
• Diversity of experience
• Minimum of 5 disciplines
• Access to 12+ speciality
services

What is meant by “writing”?

• Writing is highly sophisticated skill combining a number of diverse

elements, only some of which are strictly linguistics.

• Mainly, the following elements are recognized by most of the

teachers—

1. Content/ideas

2. Organization of the content

3. Use of the grammatical forms and syntactic patterns

4. Style – choice of structure and words to give a particular tone.

5. Mechanics – punctuation marks and spellings

89
 Difference between composition or essay

 Composition is a task where students manipulate words in

grammatically correct sentences and link them to form a piece
of continuous writing. It communicates the writer’s thoughts and
ideas on a certain topic.

 Essay writing is not just to produce grammatically correct

sentences. It demands creativity and originality. The purpose is
not only to inform but also to entertain.

Types of writing tests

 Subjective test—
1. Situational composition
Guided writing
2. Controlled writing
3. Free/creative writing

 Objective test—
1. Reference, linkage, expansion

2. Grammar, style, organization, mechanics

3. Judgement skills, etc.

How a writing test should be

 Clearly defined purpose and audience for writing

 No choice of tasks

 Restrict students’ answers

 Test only writing ability, nothing else

 Well-defined and authentic task

 Ensure long enough sample

 Appropriate scales for scoring

90
 Introducing assessment
Students need to understand clearly what is expected from them
 Ways we can support students to undertake the assessment
include:
 Discussing the assessment tasks and its requirements including its
relevance to the learning outcomes
 Developing shared understanding of relationship between the
assessment task and assessment criteria and standards
 Providing scaffolding tasks in tutorials that assist students to undertake
the tasks.
 Scaffolding is breaking learning down into stages or its elements.
 Examples include presenting a draft of a foundational element of the
assessment for feedback, provide a planning template for students to
complete.
 Activities may directly relate to summative assessment or be in a related
context.

Warning: Avoid reducing responses to a formula. Ensure that any

sample assessment or scaffolding does not limit opportunities for
students to innovate. We need to encourage innovative responses
to tasks.

Formative and
Summative Assessment
 Summative assessment is that which is graded

 Formative assessment is that which is offered as advice or

feedback to student and which does not contribute marks
toward their final grade

 Tutorials are important times for students to obtain

feedback on their work prior to them submitting summative
assessment
 Summative assessment tasks provide an opportunity for
formative feedback to support students to improve on later
tasks

Supporting learning
through feedback
 Feedback should be specific and timely not just a grade
 Relate to criteria for assessment - No hidden criteria
 Stay as objective as possible - It is important to focus on the
students’ work rather than on comments that could have the
effect of personally downgrading or humiliating students.
 Include suggestions for improvement - It is not enough simply
to make demands. If you don’t let students understand how to
arrive at the demands, there’s no point in making them.
Encourage your students to see feedback as opportunity for
improvement.
 Be encouraging in feedback - Avoid negating positive
comments with ‘but’ or ‘however’
 Use the Rule of Thumb - Positive, areas for improvement and
plan for actions

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 Other sources of
feedback
 Self assessment - Students assessing their own work
Benefits:
 Develops reflective practice skills
 Encourages self directed learners
Note:
 Students need support to reflect effectively. This could include
frameworks for reflection or developing relevant criteria for assessing
their own or others’ work

 Peer Assessment - Students assessing their peers’ work

Benefits :
 Assists students to focus on the requirements of the tasks
 Interchanges are in the language students are familiar with
 Students are more likely to ask for clarification from their peers
 Frees teacher to reflect on issues arising across the whole group and
provide useful inventions
Note:
 Students need guidance to provide relevant and supportive feedback to
others

Lecture 15

Assessment of vocabulary and grammar

1. Assessment of language performance in English.

2. Language portfolio.
Key terms: assessment, control, objects of assessment, functions of assessment,
forms of assessment, evaluation, testing, feedback, content feedback, form feedback,
errors and mistakes, language shortcomings/ language gaps, language portfolio

Assessment of language performance in English

Assessment of language subskills

Linguistic competence refers to the mastery of knowledge of the language code

itself. It involves controlling the format organization of the language for producing or
recognizing «correct» sentences and organizing them to form texts.
Pronunciation is tested globally in different types of conversational exchange.
Interview, reading aloud, etc., that go in the classroom. The purpose of testing
pronunciation is not only to evaluate knowledge and award grades, but also to motivate
students to be sensitive to this aspect of English. The most effective way of testing
pronunciation is to actually listen to the learner. But it is not always possible in the
teaching condition. So, the alternatives are: testing segments and word stress with the
help of dictation exercises, listening activities designed to test the learners’ ability to
discriminate phonemes or group of phonemes.
The following exercises can be used for this purpose:

92
 1. «Same or Different?»: The students listen to a pair of words or pair of sentences
and indicate whether they are the same or different:
Bad – bed; suck – sock; spring – springer.
2. Fill in the Gap: the students listen to a sentence and select from a set of words
the one they hear and need for the sentence:
Where did you see the…… ? (pupil, purple)
He can … national songs? (think, sing, thin).
Vocabulary and grammar skills are the integral part of communicative skills
(reading, listening, speaking and writing). They influence the effectiveness of speech
reception and production. Vocabulary and grammar skills are tested when language is
used.
Examples for testing vocabulary skills:
1. Choose the appropriate synonym to the given word.
Shape a) form, b) size, c) rate, d) oval
2. Complete the sentence with suitable words.
Use this_____ to find an ________ answer to the problem. (option/ appropriate)
Do not spend _________time _____________ piano. (much/playing)
Examples for testing grammar skills:
1) Complete the dialogue with will or be going to.
Stan: _______ you _____ (have) lunch with me tomorrow?
Tess: Sorry, I _____ (not be) in town tomorrow.
2) Write questions to the given short answers.
- Yes, I am.
- No I can’t.
- Yes, he did.

Assessing of listening

The goal of assessment is revealing the level of listening proficiency, i.e. reception
and comprehension of the oral speech/audio-text.
In domestic methodology four levels of comprehension are singled out:
1) the level of fragmental comprehension;
2) the level of general comprehension;
3) the level of details comprehension;
4) the level of critical comprehension.
It is accepted that the first level gives evidence that the students’ listening
comprehension skills are not full because they comprehend only some fragments. So,
we deal with the following three levels of comprehension, where the fragmental level of
comprehension can be defined as assessment. In Table 19 the ways for testing of these
three levels of comprehension are given.

Table 19. The ways of assessment of different levels of listening comprehension

General/global Comprehension of details Critical comprehension

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 comprehension
- question-answering - question-answering task and activities - review of the text;
activities and tasks touching the general content and annotation;
touching the general details/facts; comparison of different
content of the text; - making the full scaled plan; points of view;
- multiple choice; - retelling the text using visual aids agreement or disagreement
- telling the key idea of the (picture, schemata, key words or plan); to the author’s views and
text; - dramatization on the basis of the text inferences;
- enumeration of the main content; interviewing;
facts; - resume/ text evaluation; discussion or conversation.
- making the plan; - drawing diagram, scheme, table, picture;
- singling out key words - dividing the text into paragraphs and
after re-listening; finding the headlines to them;
- defining the main subject - evaluation of people’ behavior;
and type of the text; - filling the gaps.
- matching the
headline/picture with the
content of the text.

Assessment of the first two levels of comprehension (given in the table) can be
organized during teaching process at school, lyceum and college. The tasks and texts
should correspond the students’ age and be practical. Depending on the complicity of
the texts and purpose, listening skills of students are tested within scanning, skimming,
intensive and extensive listening through appropriate tests. But the level of critical
comprehension demands language experience and fluency in reception and listening
skills. So, it can be achieved in the linguistic schools, lyceum and colleges.
Testing of listening comprehension may involve macro- and micro-skills:
Macro-skills: listening for specific information (details, facts); listening for
understanding the gist (the main idea of the text); following directions; following
instructions;
Micro-skills: interpretation of intonation patterns (e.g. recognition of impolite tone,
or irony); recognition of functions (e.g. request, command, advice, etc.)
For testing (exams) the text should replicate those (what?) used in everyday life,
taking into account the students’ age and level of English. Teachers can use: radio
news, weather forecast, short stories, dialogues, announcements, monologues,
instructions, directions, etc.

Assessing of speaking

An assessment of spoken proficiency is carried out within production and

interaction aspects, given or chosen themes, dialogue or monologue, prepared or
spontaneous talk. Speaking is in a close interrelation with listening, because one of the
communicants is a speaker-producer of the verbal/oral speech, the second one is a
listener-receptor.
Among the macro-skills of language, it has been widely recognized that speaking
in EL is the most difficult language skill to assess.

94
 Assessment of spoken speech is shaped as the use of activities undertaken to
acquire and streamline the data about students’ speaking outcomes during and after
teaching/learning activities. Assessment of speaking performance can be organized
through different speaking activities such as discussions, problem-solving, role- plays,
conversations, story-telling, and so on.
Arthur Hughes singled out the operations and skills for assessing oral abilities33,
which we should take into consideration (see Table 20).

Table 20. Operations and skills for assessment of oral abilities

Operations Skills
Expressing: likes, dislikes, preferences, agreement /
disagreement, requirements, opinions, comment, Informational skills: express,
attitude, confirmation, complaints, reasons, describe, explain, make comparisons,
justifications, comparisons. analyze, apologize, summarize, etc.
Directing: instructing, persuading, advising, Interactional skills: respond, express
prioritizing. (dis)agreement, indicate, suggest,
Describing: actions, events, objects, people, argue, elicit, repair breakdowns, etc.
processes. Skills in managing interactions:
Eliciting: information, directions, clarification, help. initiate interactions, change topics,
Narration: sequence of events. turn-taking, come to a decision, end
Reporting: description, comment, decisions and and interaction
choices.

Below we present a sample of testing students’ speaking performance.

Instruction
1. You have 5 minutes to read the task and think about what you want to say.
2. If there is anything which you don’t understand, please ask the teacher.
3. You can make a few notes if you want to.
4. After this 5 minute preparation time, you will talk about the subject with a teacher.
Task
What makes a good friend?
You are going to talk to the teacher about what you value in your friends.
Look at the suggested information to be incorporated below:
Kindness Honesty Fun to be with Support A 'shoulder to cry on'
Shared interests Other...
Reflection
Do you think it’s better to have one or two really close friends, or a wider circle of less close
friends?
What are the qualities in yourself that you think your friends value?
There is an English saying, «Blood is thicker than water», meaning that family relationships are
more important / reliable than relationships with friends.
Do you agree with this?

33
Hughes A. Testing for Language Teachers. The 2-d ed. - Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
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 There are five components generally recognized by educators in analysis of the
oral speech process: 1) pronunciation, including segmental features, vowels and
consonants, the stress and intonation patterns; 2) grammar; 3) vocabulary; 4) fluency; 5)
comprehension. These components can be taken as macro-criteria for testing students’
speaking performance.
Three frameworks about general purposes of testing oral skills were suggested: 1)
linguistically-oriented, 2) communication-oriented, 3) situation-based.34
1. Linguistically-oriented framework concerns vocabulary, grammar and
pronunciation. This work/goal can be carried out/achieved by structured speaking
tasks, and short-answer questions, reacting to phrases tasks. Structured speaking tasks
are typically used to evaluate pronunciation, spoken vocabulary and spoken grammar
skills. Short-answer questions and reactions to phrases can also be used to
evaluate overall understanding and comprehensibility. Short-answer questions test
shows comprehension of questions and ability to give relevant information in response.
The difference between this and more extended simulations is that the questions and
answers are limited and all the information needed for answering the questions is
usually provided in the task materials. Reacting to phrases is another structured task
which is often used in tape-based tests. The task usually tests the examinees’ knowledge
of conventional politeness exchanges such as greetings, thanks, apologies, expressions
of agreement and polite disagreement, and so on.
2. Communication-oriented framework refers to the overall communication
activity in such a task as telling a narrative or expressing and defending an opinion,
discussing factors that support the chosen opinion and argue against others – for the
beginning and intermediate levels, comparing and contracting things through which
advanced oral skills for description are needed.
3. Situation-based task design belongs to the task-based approach to defining the
test construct. This approach is typically used in specific-purpose testing – ESP at
colleges.
The first two frameworks are appropriate for testing students’ speaking
performance at schools, lyceums and colleges. We can find out how students understand
linguistic rules and use them in communication.
In Table 21 you find some examples, suggested by S. Luoma35, that show the types
of test items and their functions.

Table 21. Speaking tasks and speaking tests

Speaking tasks Examples of speaking tests and their explanation

34
Luoma S. Developing Speaking Tasks. In Assessing Speaking. -Cambridge: CUP, 2004. -Pp.
139-169.
35
Luoma S. Developing Speaking Tasks. In Assessing Speaking. -Cambridge: CUP, 2004. -Pp.
139-169.
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Description tasks Example 1. A one-to-one interview: Describe to me the room or area where
you live.
Example 2. A pair task in an interview test (two pictures are provided):
Describe your pictures to each other and then talk about what is similar in
your pictures and what is different.
Narrative tasks Example 1. A tape-based test (Six pictures should be provided).
Please look at the six pictures below. Tell the story based on these pictures
starting with picture number 1 and going through to picture number 6. Take
one minute to look at the pictures.
Example2: A face-to-face paired interaction test.
Each of you has a set of pictures. Together they make a story. Each of you
tells one part of the story.
The narrative is a monologue, and as the test is tape-based the examinees
have to tell it in one long stretch without any feedback from a listener.
Narrative tasks are used as speaking tests to show how well the examinees
can recount a sequence of events, usually in one time frame, either present
or past. Most often, the tasks are based on picture sequences, where the
content of the pictures guides what will be said. It is likely to create some
interaction even though one of the pupils is always the main speaker while
the narrative is being constructed. Information gap between the two
speakers is therefore likely to occur. Also, the choice of good sequences is
a difficult matter.Personal stories often reveal embarrassing details that
speakers would be shy to discuss in a test or, if not, they may be so
uneventful that the speakers would consider them unworthy to tell.
Instruction Example 1: A one-to-one interview
tasks Imagine that we are standing in front of your house. Tell me how to get to
the shop from there.
Example 2: A face-to-face paired interaction test — Feeding the puppy.
You cannot go home but your puppy needs to be fed. Your friend says he
will do it. Tell your partner exactly what to do, what he’ll need and where
to find things. Follow the instructions below. Find what you need in the
picture. Tasks — what you have to do; what you need; where to find things.
The main purpose in giving directions and instructions is getting the
message to the partner and making sure that it has been understood. This
tends to mean short exchanges between the speaker and the listener.
Comparing and Example: Interaction for a pair task in a paired interview.
contrasting tasks Candidate A compares and contrasts two or three of these photographs,
saying what kind of clothing the people are wearing and why the protection
might be necessary.

Explaining and Example 1: A taped-based test

predicting tasks Explaining the contents of a graph or explaining a process is a fairly
common task in many professional and study settings. To do well on the
task, the speakers need to set the scene and identify parts of the information
or stages in the process that they are explaining and present them in
coherent order. They also need to explain the significance of the important
parts or stages, so that the listeners understand what the explanation is
about and why it is being given. Predictions go together well with
explanation tasks, and they can also be fairly in a monolog way. As
predictions involve speculation, they may become more interactive in a
face-to-face setting.

97
 Decision tasks Example 2: In a paired interview
Discuss and decide together: 1) what the advantages and disadvantages are
of attending trade fairs, for instance, and 2) which members of staff would
most usefully represent a company at a trade fair.
In speaking tests, the issues that need to be decided are usually not clear-
cut, so that arguments for and against different solutions are needed. The
speakers express their opinions about the concerns and justify them in order
to air different viewpoints before negotiating the conclusion.
Role-plays and Role-plays simulate different kinds of communication situations that the
simulations target group of the test could plausibly meet outside the test. They can be
completed between two examinees or between one and a tester.
Example: A job interview.
The employer — inquiring information about candidate’s abilities,
qualifications, and character
The candidate — providing information about himself and inquiring
information about the company
Role-play tasks are a way of making communication in a test more versatile
because, rather than talking to a tester, the examinees take on a new role
and a new, simulated role relationship to their communication partner.
Their performance shows their ability to adapt to the requirements of the
new role and situation. As long as the situation is relevant for the target
audience and the purpose of the test, this gives useful information for the
tester. The information may simply be a new perspective into the
examinees’ linguistic resources, or the use of different functions from other
tasks in the test.

Assessing of reading

Assessment of reading performance is carried out within skimming (reading for

gist), scanning (reading for details), and extensive (reading for pleasure focuses on
informational content). Reading presupposes forming receptive and comprehension
skills.
At the beginning level of reading in English classrooms, the receptive tasks
include: recognition of alphabetic symbols, capitalized and lowercase letters,
punctuation, words, and grapheme-phoneme correspondences. They are referred to as
«literacy» tasks, implying that the learner is in the early stages of becoming ‘literate’.
The following tasks for testing are used: 1) reading aloud; 2) written response;
3) multiple-choice; 4) picture-cued.
Scanning and skimming reading. A combination of bottom-up and top-
down processing may be both used to assess lexical and grammatical aspects of reading
ability. These types of reading involve the different testing tasks: 1) question-answer; 2)
cloze tasks; 3) multiple-choice (form-focused and for reading comprehension); 4) true
or false; 5) matching tasks; 6) editing tasks; 7) picture-cued tasks; 8) gap-filling tasks;
9) ordering tasks; 10) to get the main ideas or details/facts; 11) non-verbal tasks for
information transfer such as charts, maps, graphs, and diagrams; 12) transformation; 13)
extending or compression; 14) summarizing (a synopsis or overview of the text)
and responding (personal opinion on the test as a whole); 15) note-taking and outlining.

98
 Testing (exam) focuses on evaluation of reading comprehension, which can be
involved in macro- and micro-skills.
Macro-skills for testing reading comprehension are: skimming to obtain the
general idea (gist) of the text; scanning to locate specific information in the text;
identifying the stages and arguments; identifying examples in support of the argument
in topic sentence.
Micro-skills for testing can be: identifying referents of pronouns; infer the meaning
of words using the text as a context; understanding the structure.

Assessing of written work

Writing involves content, organization, style, syntax, mechanics, grammar and

spelling. It was pointed out that «If we limit our feedback to pointing out or correcting
errors, our students will concentrate on producing error-free writing, neglecting the
interest or even the meaning of the content. The equation teaching writing – error
elimination is counterproductive»36. So it is necessary to conduct feedback in fair
balance of content feedback and form feedback.
The experienced teachers consider that teachers should ignore the language
mistakes that do not hinder learning, so teachers may correct only those mistakes which
are very basic and those which affect meaning.
Study the ways and strategies of errors correction37 (Table 22) and discuss them in
the group.

Table 22. Ways and strategies of errors

correction

Ways and Goal, functions and explanation of error correction

strategies for
error correction
Giving clear To help the students to concentrate on particular aspects of language, we
instruction can tell them that a piece of work will be corrected for only one thing,
the use of tenses, for instance. By doing this, we ensure that their work
will not be covered by red marks, and we encourage them to focus on
particular aspects of written language. We can individualize language
work by identifying for each student a few kinds of errors and assigning
that focus on these.
Using students Where a piece of writing contains a number of common errors, we may
work as material photocopy the work (erasing the writer’s name) and show it to the whole
class, asking them to identify problems. In this way the attention of the
class can be drawn to common mistakes and photocopied document can
form the basis for remedial work
Discussing errors We will learn about our students’ errors if we give them the opportunity

36
Balan R., Cehan A. & et.al. In-service Distance Training Course for Teachers of English. -Romania:
Polirom, 2003. - P. 201.
37
It was adapted from the book: Balan R., Cehan A. & et.al. In-service Distance Training Course for
Teachers of English. -Romania: Polirom, 2003. - P. 202-203.
99
 to make them, fix them, and discuss them. We can ask our pupils to
discuss where they think their mistakes come from and why they make
them. This will help us to realize which mistakes the pupils can
recognize and which ones they cannot. Asking the pupils to discuss their
mistakes may provide us with wide information about interference,
typical mistakes, usage of skills and give us clear evidence of language
learning.
Pointing out Our students will have the chance to perceive a correct model in their
strengths as well own use of language and will be likely to continue taking risk if they see
as weaknesses that their good qualities are noted and encouraged.

There are different types of writing performance in English which should be

assessed38.
Imitative: at this stage, form is the primary concern to assess learner’s skills in the
fundamental and basic tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief
sentences. This category also includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive
phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system.
Intensive: this refers to producing appropriate vocabulary within a
context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of a
sentence.
Responsive: assessment tasks here require learners to perform at a
limited discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically
connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Form-focused attention is mostly at the
discourse level, with a strong emphasis on context and meaning.
Extensive: extensive writing implies successful management of all the processes
and strategies of writing for all purposes, up to the length of an essay, a term paper, a
major research project report, or even a thesis. Students focus on achieving a purpose,
organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas,
demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the process
of multiple drafts to achieve a final product.
A piece of writing (for instance, essay) as a final work at advanced level can be
evaluated on the basis of criteria: 1) task achievement: relevance and appropriateness of
ideas and examples, coverage, variety, suitability of the text, type and length, awareness
of a target reader, precision; 2) organization: cohesion, coherence sequencing,
paragraphing, layout and punctuation, length/complexity of sentence, textual fluency;
3) range: structures, vocabulary, appropriateness, flexibility, detail, avoidance of
repetition; 4) accuracy: grammar, vocabulary, spelling.

Language portfolio

38
Brown H. D. Language assessment-- principles and classroom practices. - New York: Pearson
Education, Inc., 2004.
100
 The basic idea of a portfolio is to provide a much wider range of evidences of the
language skills of a student. It involves analyzing and evaluating multiple examples of a
student's work and assessing a student's proficiencies and problem areas. Portfolio
involves scoring a wide range of student’s work based on predetermined criteria. All
students can have benefits from this type of self-assessment, because portfolios offer
students the opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned and experienced with
the target language. It can include the whole range of language evidences reflecting a
much wider range of skills. It might include tests, readings, written work, essay plans,
feedback and reflections.
The process of actually developing and finding content for the portfolio often
means that both the teachers and the students play a role in the form they take. For
example, it may be left to the student to decide what examples of writing or reading to
include in the portfolio. In doing this the students ‘own’ their portfolios and learn and
reflect from the process of actually choosing the content for the portfolio itself39.
Language portfolio was created under framework of Council of Europe and it
included three components:
1. The language passport, which is a record of language learning both inside and
outside the classroom. This has personal information like any passport, plus a grid
which provides information about the languages that the person speaks and their level,
using the Common European Framework of Reference.
2. The language biography which is a diagnostic self-assessment of FL, or L2
skills. It is done through a series of ‘can do‘ statements where the student ticks check
boxes to demonstrate what s/he can and can’t do in a given language.
3. Finally, there is a language dossier/file. It is here where the students provide
actual evidence of their language ability through a variety of artifacts.
Questions:

1. What do we mean by assessment?

2. What objects of assessment can you enumerate?
3. What function does assessment fulfill in the ELT process?
4. What are the forms of assessment?
5. What can you say about feedback and correction?
6. Think about purposes of testing spoken skills and how they are undertaken in the
ELT process.

Tasks:

1. Describe the various types of tests which you know.

2. Discuss macro and micro skills testing.
3. Discuss beneficiaries of using language portfolio in the ELT process.

39
Lam R., Lee I. Balancing the dual functions of portfolio assessment// J. English Language
Teaching. 64/1, 2010. -Pp. 54–64.
101
 4. In the sample of Bavarian Assessment Criteria for A2 level (CEFR) described
above macro-criteria are reflected. Examine these criteria and requirements to speaking
proficiency for A1, A2, B1 levels given in the State Educational Standard.

Pronunciation: comprehensibility and effective communication of meaning, including

stress and intonation
Lexical and structural range, flexibility and appropriacy: adequacy of repertoire in
relation to task and topics
Accuracy: lexical and grammatical - frequency and communicative significance of
mistakes and errors
Interaction: initiation, response, independence, participation, negotiation of meaning,
turn-taking and accommodation.
Communicative effectiveness: relevance, coherence, organization of ideas, sequencing
and task achievement.

5. Study the content given in the box.

Tasks for Different Types of Writing40

Imitative writing
1) Tasks in (Hand) writing letters, words, and punctuation
- copying;
- listening cloze selection tasks;
- picture-cued tasks;
- form completion tasks;
- converting numbers and abbreviations to words.
2) Spelling tasks and detecting phoneme-grapheme correspond-dences
- spelling tests;
- picture-cued tasks;
- multiple-choice techniques;
- matching phonetic symbols: n/au - now’ is expected to be written by the test taker.)
Intensive writing
This is also called controlled writing and thought of as a form-focused writing, grammar
writing, or simply guided writing. Students produce language to display their competence in
grammar, vocabulary, or sentence formation, and not necessarily to convey meaning for an
authentic purpose.
1) Dictation and Dicto-Comp (rewrite the paragraph from the best of students’ recollection
from a listening piece).
2) Grammatical transformation tasks:
- change the tenses in a paragraph;
- change full forms of verbs to reduced forms (contractions);
- change statements to yes/no or why-questions;.
- change questions into statements;
- combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun;
- change direct speech to indirect speech;
- change from active to passive voice.
3) Picture-cued tasks:
- short sentences;

40
See: gaining.educ.msu.edu/resources/files/Assessing%20Writing.pdf

102
- picture description;
- picture sequence description.
4) Vocabulary assessment tasks: the major techniques used to assess vocabulary are
(a) defining and (b) using a word in a sentence.
Task forms include:
- multiple-choice techniques;
- matching, picture-cued identification;
- cloze techniques;
- guessing the meaning of a word in context, etc.
Vocabulary assessment is clearly form-focused in the above tasks, but the procedures are
creatively linked by means of the target word, its collocations, and its morphological variants.
5) Ordering tasks: at the sentence level (reordering sentences).
6) Short-answer and sentence completion tasks.
Extensive writing (higher-end production of writing)
The genres of a text that are typically addressed here include:
- short reports (with structured formats and conventions);
- responses to the reading of an article or story;
- summaries of articles or stories;
- brief narratives or descriptions;
- interpretations of graphs, tables, and charts.

6. Study the test formats used for assessment of language skills. Explain their
effectiveness in the EL teaching process .

Language Skills Test Formats

Reading skills 1. Multiple-choice items

2. Short answers test
3. Cloze test
4. Gap-filling test
5. False/true statement

Listening skills 1. Multiple-choice items

2. False/true statements
3. Gap-filling tests
4. Dictations
5. Listening recall

Writing skills 1. Dictations

2. Compositions
3. Reproductions
4. Writing stories
5. Writing diaries
6. Filling-in forms

7. Word formation
8. Sentence transformation

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Speaking skills 1. Retelling stories
2. Describing pictures
3. Describing people
4. Spotting the differences

Independent work:

1. Search the different types of tests in the Internet and prepare a presentation to
the class.
2. Find and study samples of descriptors for self-evaluation in the terms «I can
do», «I understand» and try to create descriptors for school, lyceum and college on the
basis of content and requirements, given in the State Educational Standard.

104
 EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Plan:
1. What is extracurricular activity?
2. Types of EA

Tayanch so’zlar: extracurricular activity, teaching, students development

105
106
 6 – Semester
The syllabus design

The questions to be discussed

1. Types of language teaching syllabus
2. Choosing and Integrating Syllabi
3.

Key words: syllabus design, English courses

"Syllabus Design for English Language Teaching". It mainly provides detailed
elucidation of the process of designing a syllabus as one of systematic steps
of curriculum development in language teaching. Curriculum development in
language teaching should be done since it implies an effort carried out by the
language teachers to improve the quality of language teaching through some
stages of systematic planning such as a needs analysis, formulation of learning
objectives, development of syllabus and teaching materials, teaching
materials’ implementation as well as evaluation to find out the effectiveness of
the curriculum by taking into account the achievement of learning goals in
language teaching program.

107
 Curriculum and syllabus are two major documents necessarily prepared in a course
design task. Where a curriculum describes the broadest contexts in which planning for language
instruction takes place, a syllabus is a more circumscribed document, usually one which has been
prepared for a particular group of learners (Dubin and Olshtain, 1986). In other words, a syllabus is
more specific and more concrete than a curriculum, and a curriculum may contain a number of
syllabi. A curriculum may specify only the goals ± what the learners will be able to do at the end of
the instruction ± while the syllabus specifies the content of the lessons used to lead the learners to
achieve the goals (Krahnke, 23 1987). Content or what is taught is the single aspect of syllabus design
to be considered. It includes behavioral or learning objectives for students, specifications of how the
content will be taught and how it will be evaluated. The aspects of language teaching method which
are closely related to syllabus are the theory of language, theory of learning and the learner type. The
choice of syllabus should take those three aspects into consideration. Furthermore, to design a
syllabus is to decide what gets taught and in what order. For this reason, the theory of language
explicitly or implicitly underlying the method will play a major role in determining what syllabus is
adopted. In addition, a theory of learning will also play an important part in determining the syllabus
choice. For example, a teacher may accept a structural theory of language, but not accept that
learners can acquire language materials according to a strict grammatical sequence of presentation.
While the basic view of language may be structural, the syllabus, in that case, may be more
situational or even content-based. Learner type is another variable in the choice of syllabus of
syllabus. Learner types can be seen in practical and observable terms, such as type of cognitive
activity, life style, aspirations, employment, educational and social backgrounds and so on ((Krahnke,
1987). The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching, and it should be made as
consciously and with as much information as possible. According to Krahnke (1987), there are six
types of language teaching syllabus including:
1. A structural (or formal) syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching is
a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples
of structure include: nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, complex sentences, subordinate
clauses, past tense, and so on, although formal syllabi may include other aspects of language form
such as pronunciation or morphology.
2. A notional/functional syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching is a
collection of the functions that are performed when language is used, or of the notions that language
is used to express. Examples of 24 functions include: informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting,
promising, and so on. Examples of notions include size, age, color, comparison, time, and so on. 3. A
situational syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of real or
imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. A situation usually involves several
participants who are engaged in some activity in a specific setting. The language occurring in the
situation involves a number of functions, combined into a plausible segment of discourse. The
primary purpose of situational language teaching syllabus is to teach the language that occurs in the
situations. Sometimes the situations are purposely relevant to the present or future needs of the
language learners, preparing them to use the new language in the kinds of situations that make up
the syllabus. Examples of situations include: seeing then dentist, complaining to the landlord, buying
a book at the bookstore, meeting a new student, asking directions in a new town, and so on. 4. A
108
skill-based syllabus. It is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of specific
abilities that may play a part in using language. Skills are things that people must be able to do to be
competent in a language, relatively independently of the situation or setting in which the language
use can occur. While situational syllabi group functions together into specific settings of language
use, skill-based syllabi group linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar,
sociolinguistic, and discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken
language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, giving effective oral presentations,
taking language tests, reading texts for main ideas or supporting details, and so on. The primary
purpose of skill-based instruction is to learn a specific language skill. A possible secondary purpose is
to develop more general competence in the language, learning only incidentally any information that
may be available while applying the language skills.
A task-based syllabus. It is similar to content-based syllabus in that both the teaching is not
organized around linguistic features of the language being learned but according to some other
organizing principle. In taskbased instruction the content of the teaching is a series of complex and
purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the language they are learning. The
tasks are defined as activities with a purpose other than language learning, but, as in a content-based
syllabus, the performance of the tasks is approached in a way that is intended to develop
second/foreign language ability. Language learning is subordinated to task performance, and
language teaching occurs only as the need arises during the performance of a given task. Tasks
integrate language (and other) skills in specific settings of language use. They differ from situations in
that while situational teaching has the goal of teaching the specific language content that occurs in
the situation ± a predefined product ± task-based teaching has the goal of teaching students to draw
on resources to complete some piece of work ± a process. The language students draw on a variety of
language forms, functions, and skills, often in an individual and unpredictable way, in completing the
tasks. Tasks that can be used for language learning are, generally, tasks that the learners actually
have to perform in any case. Examples are applying for a job, talking with a social worker, getting
housing information over the telephone, completing bureaucratic forms, collecting information about
preschools to decide which to send a child to, preparing a paper for another course, reading a
textbook for another course, and so on.
6. A content-based syllabus. It is not really a language teaching syllabus at all. In content-
based language teaching, the primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some content or
information using the language that the students are also learning. The students are simultaneously
language students and students of whatever content is being taught. The subject matter is primary,
and language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. The content teaching is not
organized around the language 26 teaching, but vice versa. Content-based language teaching is
concerned with information, while task-based language teaching is concerned with communicative
and cognitive processes. An example of content-based language teaching is a science class taught in
the language that the students need or want to learn, possibly with linguistic adjustments to make
the science more comprehensible. In practice, of course, these different types rarely occur
independently of each other. Almost all actual language teaching syllabi are combinations of two or
more of the types of syllabus described here.

109
 Types of English Syllabus
1. The Structural Syllabus The structural or grammatical syllabus is doubtless the
most familiar of syllabus types. It has a long history, and a major portion of language teaching has
been carried out using some form of it. The structural syllabus is based on a theory of language that
assumes that the grammatical or structural aspects of language form are the most basic or useful.
When functional ability, or ability to use or communicate in the new language, is a goal of instruction,
the structural syllabus can be said to embrace a theory of learning that holds that functional ability
arises from structural knowledge or ability. The content of the structural syllabus is language form,
primarily grammatical form, and the teaching is defined in terms of form. Although the definition of
language form and the most appropriate "grammar " to use in pedagogy have long been disputed,
most existing structural syllabi use some form of traditional, Latin -based, descriptive/prescriptive
grammatical classification and terminology. The usual grammatical categories are the familiar ones of
noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, singular, plural, present tense, past tense, and so on. The domain of
structural syllabi has tended to be limited to the 27 sentence. That is, the sentence is the largest unit
of discourse that is regularly treated. A classification of sentence types usually includes semantically
defined types such as statements or declaratives, questions or interrogatives, exclamations, and
conditionals, and grammatically defined types such as simple, compound, and complex sentences. A
good deal of morphology can also be found in structural syllabi, such as s in gul a r and plural
marking, the forms marking the tense system of the language, and special morphology such as det
erm iners and articles, prepositions and postpositions, gender markers, and so on. Morphology also
deals with vocabular y, specifically formal aspects such as prefixes and suffixes. A key feature of the
structural syllabus is that it is "synthetic" (Wilkins, 1976; Yalden, 1983). Synthetic syllabi require
analyses of the language (content), such word frequency counts, grammatical analysis, and d i s
course ana l ysis. The s yllabus designer uses the elements isolated as a result of the analyses to make
up the content of the syllabus. In most cases there are rules, p atter ns and g r am m ati c al elements,
u s u a l l y with guidelines for their combination and use. Because o f their synthetic nature,
structural syllabi assume a gene r al theory of learning that holds that learners can synthesize the
material being taught in one of at least two ways. First, the analyzed information - the rules and
patterns -are available as the learner attempts to use them in linguistic communication. The l e a r n e
r uses the information either to generate or produce utterances or discourse, or to check the
accuracy of production. Second, anal yz ed information is transformed from analyzed, possibly
conscious knowledge, into the largely unconscious behavior that makes up language use. 2. The
Notional/Functional Syllabus The notional/functional syllabus is the best known of contemporary
language teaching syllabus types. It is, however, also the object of a great deal of misunderstanding.
On the one hand, while notional/functionalism has been referred to as an "approach" (Brumfit &
Johnson, 1979: Widdowson, 1979), it has never been described as anything other than a type of
content of language instruction that can be taught through a variety 28 of classroom techniques. On
the other hand", notional/functionalism has been closely associated with what has been called
"communicative language teaching" (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Richards & Rodgers, 1986;
Widdowson, 1979), a rather amorphous view of language teaching that has been referred to as a
method but is really a collection of different approaches and procedures clustered around
notional/functional content. Because of its broad scope, its confusion with instructional method, and
its own lack of definition, notional/functionalism is difficult to describe clearly. A narrow perspective
is taken here, viewing the notional/functional movement only in terms of a means for defining
instructional content. In this sense, notional/functional syllabi have much in common with structural
syllabi in that both are subject to a variety of interpretations and can be associated with a variety of
110
methodologies. At its simplest, notional/functionalism is, in Richards and Rodgers' (1986) terms, a
theory of language. It holds that basic to language are the uses to which it is put. If language is seen
as a relationship between form and function, notional/functionalism takes the function side of the
equation as primary and the form side as secondary. For example, rather than regarding the future
tense form (with w i l l) in English as basic and discussing the uses to which it can be put (e.g., talking
about the future, making promises) as secondary, in a functional view of language, notions such as
future and functions such as promising are considered basic and the future tense form is discussed as
one way of realizing these notions and functions. Other interpretations and applications have
elaborated on notional/functionalism, but the most basic point of the movement in language
teaching is that categories of language use rather than, categories of Language form have been taken
as the organizing principle for instruction. 3. Situational Syllabi The situational syllabus has a long
history in language teaching, but situational content has mostly been used as an adjunct to
instruction that is primarily focused on language form and structure. Many "methods," from 29
grammar-translation to Berlitz to modern integrated textbooks, have used examples of the language
being learned in situations and settings. These range from short dialogues to lengthy themes with
casts of characters acting and behaving in complex ways. Many collections of conversation or
communication activities are organized in terms of situations. It is important to realize that there is
not just one situational syllabus, but many, differentiated by type of informational content and type
of linguistic content. Alexander (1976) has distinguished three types of situational syllabus,
differentiated by type of information: "limbo," concrete, 'and mythical. The limbo situation is one in
which the specific setting of the situation is of little or no importance. Alexander gives the example of
introductions at a party, where the setting of the party is largely irrelevant, and what is important is
the .particular language focus involved. The concrete situation is one in which the situations are
enacted against specific settings`"(p. 98), and what is important is the setting and the language
associated with it. Ordering a meal in a restaurant and going through customs are examples of
concrete situations. The mythical situation is one that depends on some sort of fictional story line,
frequently with a fictional cast of characters in a fictional place. Among the different linguistic focuses
that can be found in situations is the grammatical focus, with which situations are presented in such a
way that particular structures or sets of structures are emphasized. It. is possible to imagine a
pronunciation focus t h a t emphasizes particular pronunciation problems. Another is a lexical focus,
whose emphasis is on some set of vocabulary items. Situations may emphasize functions, such as
introduction or apology, or n o t i o n , such as time or color or comparison. Finally, situations may be
constructed to present various types of discourse or interactional phenomena. A related way to
distinguish situational syllabi is to consider whether situations are presented to students in the form
of completed discourse, or the students are expected to create or modify parts or all of it. Many
situations are presented in full, and students are then asked to play out the same situation using their
own language and, possibly, settings. On the other hand, situations can be 30 presented as role plays,
in which the students are expected to create, supply, or fill in much of the language that occurs in the
situation. 4. Skill-Based Syllabi Much less is known about the skill-based, task-based, and content-
based syllabi than about the types already discussed. This is especially true of the skill-based syllabus,
a type that has not been previously identified as a separate kind of instructional content in the
literature on language teaching. The term "skill" in language teaching has generally been used to
designate one of the four modes of language: speaking, listening, reading, or writing (Chastain, 1976).
Here, however, the term is used to designate a specific way of defining the content of language
teaching. A working definition of skill for this volume is a specific way of using language that
combines structural and functional ability but exists independently of specific settings or situations.
Examples are reading skills such as skimming and scanning; writing skills such as writing specific topic
sentences and certain kinds of discourse (e.g., memos, research reports, work reports); speaking skills
of' giving instructions, delivering public talks, giving personal information for bureaucratic purposes,
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asking for emergency help over the telephone; and listening skills such as getting specific info
rmation over the telephone, listening to foreign radio broadcasts for news or military information,
taking orders in a restaurant, and so on. Another, and more traditional, way of viewing skill-based
instruction is what is called competency-based instruction. Competencies are similar to behavioral
objectives in that they define what a learner is able to do as a result of instruction. Extensive lists of
competencies have been developed for adult ESL (refugee and immigrant) programs in the United
States. Not all native speakers of a language are equally competent users of language. Also,
individuals have varying competence in the different skill areas. For example, even though anyone
reading this book may be considered a 31 speaker of English, including many native speakers, not all
are reading with the same degree of efficiency. Some are more "skilled" readers than others. At the
same time, one person may be a particularly skilled reader but perform extremely poorly when
required to carry on an emergency conversation on a mobile radio. Or someone who is an inefficient
reader may be adept at getting people to buy waterbeds. The ability to use language in specific ways
(settings and registers) is partially dependent on general language ability, but partly based on
experience and the need for specific skills. Language skills may, in fact, be limited to specific settings.
Many waiters and waitresses in restaurants, and other workers in similar jobs, have learned only the
English skills needed to carry out their work in the restaurant. They have learned a specific second-
language skill. Preparing students to undertake higher education in a second language often involves
teaching them specific skills such as note-taking, writing formal papers, and skimming and scanning
while reading. 5. The Task-Based Syllabus The task-based syllabus is relatively little-known. It is
largely based on work by Krahnke (1981, 1982), Candlin and Murphy (1986), and Johnson (1982). The
defining characteristic of task-based content is that it uses activities that the learners have to do for
noninstructional purposes outside of the classroom as opportunities for language learning. Tasks are
distinct from other activities to the degree that they have a noninstructional purpose and a
measurable outcome. Tasks are a way of bringing the real world into the classroom. Task-based
learning is sometimes similar to situational learning, but the content of the situations is provided by
the students themselves. Tasks are also not static; that is, they should involve a process of
informational manipulation and development. They should also involve informational content that
the language learners do not have at the beginning of the task. Another characteristic of tasks is that
they require the student to apply cognitive processes of evaluation, selection, combination,
modification, or supplementation (so-called "higher-order thinking skills") to a combination of new
and old information. In task-based instruction, 32 language is not taught per se, but is supplied as
needed for the completion of the task. An example of a task is to have the students develop a
guidebook to their school or instructional program for actual use by other students. Immigrant
students might research the availability of health care in their community and develop a guide to
using health care facilities. In an academic setting, students might work on a paper or report that is
actually needed for a content-area class. Beginning students might tackle the process of applying for
a program or job, obtaining the forms and information necessary to complete the process. The intent
of task-based learning is to use learners' real-life needs and activities as learning experiences,
providing motivation through immediacy and relevancy. The focus on processing of new and old
information in an interactional manner stimulates transfer. Language form is learned through
language use. Task-based learning is structurally geared toward language learning or acquisition
because the tasks are part of a language learning environment or program are chosen in part for
what they will contribute to language development, and are implemented in a way that provides as
much experience and feedback as possible. The language needed to carry out tasks is not provided or
taught beforehand, but discovered by students and provided by teachers and other resources as the
task is carried out. 6. The Content-Based Syllabus Content-based language teaching has been in
existence for some time, but has only recently been recognized as a viable way of teaching language
as an end in itself. In concept, content-based teaching is simple: It is the teaching of content or
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information in the language being learned with little r direct or explicit effort to teach the language
itself separately from the content being taught. In practice many programs using a content-based
approach have also included an instructional component specifically 33 focusing on the target
language, but such specific language instruction is not regarded as the primary contributor to target
language acquisition. Recent developments in content-based teaching are closely related to the
broader issue of attempts to provide effective instruction to LEP children in public schools in the
United States and Canada. One solution to the problem of limited school language proficiency has
been some sort of controlled immersion in the language of the school or society. "Immersion"
essentially has meant that students are given content instruction in a language they may not control
well or at all; that is, they simply go to school in that language. When under taken responsibly and
informedly, immersion can maximize the students' comprehension of both the target language and
the content material. The potential for the success of immersion was established by controlled
research carried out in Canada (Lambert S. Tucker, 1972). In this research program, students were
placed in school subject classes, starting at the kindergarten level, that were taught in languages
other than their first. The results of the research demonstrated that such students had learned both
the content being taught and the language in which it was taught, and that cognitive development
was not slowed by such an experience. This type of evidence, and the need to educate large numbers
of non-English-speaking children in the United States and Canada, gave support to bilingual education
programs in both countries as a solution to t h e problem of educating children who do not speak the
language of the educational system. The goals of bilingual education programs have been to keep
non-dominant language speakers in school, to ensure that their cognitive development continues at
an acceptable rate, and to give them ability in the community language that they did not have
proficiency in, leading, ideally, to bilingualism.
Choosing and Integrating Syllabi
The term syllabus, as used here, does not refer to a document guiding the teaching of a
specific language course, but to a more theoretical notion of the types of content involved in
language teaching and the bases for the organization of language courses. In the preceding chapters,
six types of syllabus content were defined and described as ideal or isolated types. In actual teaching
settings, of course, it is rare for one type of syllabus or content to be used exclusively of other types.
Syllabus or content types are usually combined in more or less integrated ways, with one type as the
organizing basis around which the others are arranged and related. For example, many foreign
language courses are organized around a structural syllabus, with each unit or chapter focusing on
several grammatical features. Accompanying the grammatical focus and organization, however, are
other types of content, usually situational (dialogues) and functional (how to introduce yourself).
Basic syllabus design involves several questions. The first question concerns the types of content to
include or exclude. The second is whether to combine various types of syllabus content or to rely on a
single type. The third, assuming that more than one type of content will be included, is whether to
use one type as basic and to organize others around it, or to sequence each type more or less
independently of the other. In discussing syllabus choice and design, then, it should be kept in mind
that the issue is not which type to choose but which types. and how to relate them to each other.
Before this issue is discussed, three factors that affect the choice of syllabus or content in language
teaching²program, teacher, and students²are examined.

Program Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

The major determinant in choosing a syllabus type for second language teaching must be the
goals and objectives of the overall instructional program; that is, the type of knowledge or behavior
desired as an outcome of the instruction. This truism has not been consistently 35 recognized. For
example, for a number of years it has been widely accepted that ability to function communicatively

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in a second language is a desirable outcome (among others) of foreign language instruction in
secondary schools and at the college level. The emphasis in much of this instruction, however, has
remained on the structural and formal aspects of language, presumably under the assumption that
one kind of knowledge (structural will lead to the other (ability to function). Yet ample evidence has
shown that more direct routes to functional ability are possible, using a variety of types of
instructional content such as situational, skill, and notional/functional content. Thus the relationship
of the goals of instruction to the content of instruction has not always been direct. Clearly, another
factor that will affect the type of syllabus or syllabi that can be chosen is the instructional re-sources
available. Resources may include elements such as time, textbooks and other materials, visuals (films,
slides, pictures), realia, and out-of-classroom resources such as other speakers of the language, radio
and television programs, films, field trips, and so on. A final program factor affecting the choice of
instructional content may be the need to make the instruction accountable to authorities or
measurable by external measures²usually tests. The influence of tests on the content of instruction is
a well-known phenomenon. Teachers and instructional programs often teach toward a particular kind
of knowledge if it is going to be tested, even though the knowledge may not be what the students
really need.
Teacher Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design
Along with the more general program factors, teachers play a role in determining what the
content of language instruction will be. A truism of teaching is that teachers tend to teach what they
know. A teacher who is not familiar with the formal aspects of a language will not be likely to try to
teach a grammar lesson, but might, for example, focus on the social uses (functions) of language or
how it is used in various situations. On the other hand, the science teacher with one student who
does not speak the language of the classroom may go ahead and teach 36 science in the best way
possible (content instruction) rather than try to give the student a special language lesson. Some
research in teacher practice suggests that language teachers do not accurately describe their own
practice (Long & Sato, 1983), have contradictory and inconsistent beliefs about language teaching
(Krahnke & Knowles, 1984) and tend to repeat their own experiences as students when they become
teachers. As a result, teachers can have a powerful influence on the actual syllabus of a classroom
even if the official or overt syllabus of the program is entirely different.

Student Factors Affecting Syllabus Choice and Design

Facts about students also affect what instructional content can be used in an instructional
program. The major concerns here are the goals of the students, their experience, expectations, and
prior knowledge, their social and personality types, and the number of students in a given class.
Ideally, the goals the students themselves have for language study will match the goals of the
program. When this is so, the question of goals is easy to settle. Sometimes, however, programs and
students have different goals. For example, one instructional program was designed to teach the
English of the broadcasting profession at a vocational school. The program administrators assumed
that the students ' language learning goals were tied to the professional training they were receiving.
Many students, however, were more interested in attaining general English proficiency to pre-pare
them for even better positions than they were being trained for. One way to meet both sets of goals
would be to increase the amount of general functional, situational, and skill content provided along
with the specialized skill and structural content that was being taught.
Combining and Integrating Syllabus Types
Throughout this monograph, syllabus types have been discussed more or less ideally and
independently, treating each as if it were the sole type being used in instruction. In practice,
however, few instructional programs rely on only one type but combine types in various ways.

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 A distinction exists between combination and integration, although it is not absolute.
Combination is the inclusion of more than one type of syllabus with little at-tempt to relate the
content types to each other. For example, a lesson on the function of disagreeing (functional) could
be followed by one on listening for topic shifts (skill) in which the function of disagreeing has no
significant occurrence. Such combination frequently occurs in language teaching when various
communicative or "fluency" activities (i.e., skills, tasks) are added on to a structural, functional, or
situational syllabus. Little or no attempt is made to relate the content of the two types of instruction.
Integration is when some attempt is made to interrelate content items. For example, if, after a
structural lesson on the subjunctive, students were asked to pre-pare stories on the theme, "What I
would do if I were rich," the two types of instruction would be integrated. Integration is obviously
more difficult and complex to undertake than combination. Integration may seem to be the preferred
way to use different syllabus or content types, and in some ways this perception is accurate.
Instruction that reinforces and relates various syllabus and content types is probably more effective
than instruction that is divided into discrete compartments. On the other hand, again, when specific
knowledge and behavioral outcomes are desired, discrete combinations may be preferable to fully
integrated syllab i .
F o r example, if it is true that instruction in form is directly usable by learners mostly for
Monitoring (Krashen,1982), then it may be that structural or formal syllabi should make up, as
Krashen suggests, a limited but separate part of the overall curriculum, with the objective of enabling
students to use the structural knowledge in test-taking and editing settings, and not of enabling them
to gain active control over the use of the structures in discourse. Another argument in favor of
combination stems from the finding that much of early second language behavior is a combination of
formulaic language use (use of memorized chunks of language for particular functions) and more
creative and synthesized applications of rules (Ellis, 1986). 38 It may be that some situational or
Functional content can be included with the objective of providing the learners with the formulas and
routines they need for immediate and specific communication, and other types of instruction can be
used to foster their overall language acquisition.

A Practical Guide to Syllabus Choice and Design

The resources available for actual language teaching syllabi have been described in this
monograph, along with some of the constraints on choosing and combining them. By now it is clear
that no single type of content is appropriate for all teaching settings, and the needs and conditions of
each setting are so idiosyncratic that specific recommendations for combination are not possible. In
addition, the process of designing and implementing an actual syllabus warrants a separate volume.
Ten steps in preparing a practical language teaching syllabus: 1) Determine, to the extent possible,
what out-comes are desired for the students in the instructional program. That is, as exactly and
realistically as .possible, define what the students should be able to do as a result of the instruction.
2) Rank the syllabus types presented here as to their likelihood of leading to the outcomes desired.
Several rankings may be necessary if outcomes are complex. 3) Evaluate available resources in
expertise (for teaching, needs analysis, materials choice and production, etc.), in materials, and in
training for teachers. 4) Rank the syllabi relative to available resources. That is, determine what
syllabus types would be the easiest to implement given available resources. 5) Compare the lists
made under Nos. 2 and 4. Making as few adjustments to the earlier list as possible, produce a new
ranking based on the resources constraints. 6) Repeat the process, taking into account the
constraints contributed 39 by teacher and student factors described earlier. 7) Determine a final
ranking, taking into account all the information produced by the earlier steps. 8) Designated one or
two syllabus types as dominant and one or two as secondary 9) Review the question of combination
or integration of syllabus type and determine how combination will be achieved and in what

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proportion. 10)Translate decisions into actual teaching units. This guide is intended as a general
procedure to follow in making syllabus decisions for specific instructional programs. It is expected
that quite different designs will emerge for each application, and this is as it should be. What is
important in making practical decisions about syllabus design is that all possible factors that might
affect the teachability of the syllabus be taken into account. This can be done only at the program
level.

Lecture 18
Materials development

1. English Language Teaching Materials: Theory and Practice

2. Factors to consider in designing materials
2. Designing effective English language teaching materials
3. Principles of effective materials development

English Language Teaching Materials

This author states some advantages and disadvantages of designing our own
materials, the factors that we should bear in mind when designing materials, and,
finally, some guidelines for designing effective materials.

As regards the advantages, they provided the following ones:

-Contextualization: commercialised coursebooks and material are not designed

for a specific group of students, they aim at a general audience and, consequently,
they are not always suitable for the group we are teaching at. Therefore, many
teachers decide to adapt or to create their own materials so as to make up for that
lack of “fitting.”

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-Resources available: we should take into consideration the resources we can
make use of. In some teaching contexts we could have access to a vast array of
resources whereas in some others we may not have even a board and a piece of
chalk. Furthermore, there are schools in which there are no coursebooks or other
already designed materials. Therefore, we should design our own. Apart from that,
commercialised books are rather expensive and they could be unaffordable for the
learners, the school or both.
-Individual Needs: no one can understand students´ needs better than their
teacher. The authors of coursebooks have in mind a hypothetical audience when
designing activities, but it is the teacher who knows her students, their needs,
mother tongue, interests, strengthens and weaknesses. That´s why, many teachers
choose to adapt materials so as to make them more suitable. Aside from that,
sometimes the coursebooks present the topics in a certain way – almost always
from a structuralist perspective – and the teacher may consider that the contents
are valuable but not the way in which they are organised and approached.
Consequently, teachers could adapt the materials in a way that suits both her view
of language and her view of language learning.
-Personalization: teacher-produced materials are a way of adding a personal
touch to our teaching. We do so by taking into account our students´ needs,
interests, level of language proficiency, their learning styles, and multiple
intelligences. Students will feel much more motivated and engaged. Besides, they
do appreciate our efforts!

Disadvantages:

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-Organization: whereas coursebooks tend to be organised following a certain
pattern, which tend to give both teachers and students security, some “home-
made” materials may be incoherent and lacking a unifying theme
-Quality: Sometimes teacher-made materials may contain errors. Moreover, they
could lack durability and be unclear as regards their organization and print.
-Time: you may be highly enthusiastic about designing your own materials but
sometimes, especially if you are a “taxi” teacher (a teacher who works in many
schools), you don’t have much time to do so.

Factors we should bear in mind when designing materials:

-Learners: this is the most important factor to be considered. We should design

our materials according to our students´ s needs, interests, motivation, specific
individual needs, and their purposes for learning English.
-Curriculum and context: both of them will influence our choices when
designing materials since “a curriculum outlines the goals and objectives for the
learners and the course of study” (Howard, 2005). Nevertheless, it is our
responsibility to ensure that those goals and course objectives stated on the
curriculum are achieved.
-Resources and Facilities: when designing materials, we should think about the
resources available in the context we are teaching. We should be realistic!
-Personal confidence and competence: whether we are willing to run the risk of
designing materials or not will very much depend on our self-confidence and
competence. Many teachers decide to rely on coursebooks completely since they
do not believe themselves to be capable of undergoing this task of producing
materials. Generally, what teachers tend to do is to add activities, leave some
aside, replace or adapt them, or to change their organisational structures.
-Copyright compliance: we should be aware of the lawful restrictions when
directly copying authentic and published materials, and materials downloaded
from the Internet.
-Time

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Guidelines:

1-English language teaching material should be contextualised: Materials

should be contextualised to the curriculum they are intended to address, to the
students´ realities, needs, interests, experiences, reality, mother tongue and
culture, and to meaningful and purposeful topics and themes.
2-Materials should stimulate interaction and be generative in terms of
language: language should be used for real and purposeful communication.
Language-teaching materials should aim at fulfilling this communicative purpose.
In real communication we need to have something to communicate to someone
with an intention.
3-English language teaching materials should encourage learners to develop
learning skills and strategies: It is important that language teaching materials
help students to learn how to learn not only within the classroom but also outside
the classroom, fostering their autonomy and self-assessment.
4-English language teaching material should allow for a focus on form as well
as function: Form is just one of the sub-systems of this system called
“Language.” Consequently, we cannot focus only on one aspect. Form goes hand
in hand with Function, they are intrinsically interrelated. Hence, one cannot be
separated from the other.
5- English language teaching material should offer opportunities for
integrated language use:commercialised materials tend to focus just on one skill
at the time. Therefore, designing our own materials is an excellent opportunity to
integrate the four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing.
6- English language teaching material should be authentic: they should be
authentic not only in terms of the texts presented (written, spoken and visual ones)
but also in terms of the tasks they should carry out.
7- English language teaching material should link to each other to develop a
progression of skills, understandings and language items: all the tasks and

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 activities designed should be interrelated and organised following a specific
pattern.
8-English language teaching material should be attractive: teacher-produced
materials should be attractive as regards physical appearance, user-friendliness,
durability and ability to be reproduced.
9- English language teaching material should have appropriate
instructions: instructions should be clear, simple, short, to the point and one at
the time.
10- English language teaching material should be flexible: These materials
should be flexible in terms of content. They should offer a wide range of
possibilities from which students can choose from.

After having read this article for the first time, I immediately considered it to be a
must-read piece of writing as it is clear, brief and to the point. Many times we
decide to design materials but we need some guidelines in order to create
appropriate, practical and suitable tasks for the particular group of students we are
working with.
All in all, before designing our own materials, we should weigh up its pros and
cons, keeping in mind some factors, guidelines and, above all, always maintaining
the focus on our objectives and our students.

Examples of Materials
Principle of Language Acquisition 1
This involves us at the beginning of every lesson reading a poem or story, or telling a
joke or anecdote. There are no questions or tasks after the listening, just written copies of
the text for those students who were engaged by it to take home, read and file away. The
students are encouraged to ask me questions about the texts at any time and to return to
read the texts they have collected many times. I also use extensive reading, extensive
listening and extensive viewing to help to apply this principle and I use a text-driven

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approach to developing units of material in which an extensive text drives the skills and
language activities of each unit.
Principle of Language Acquisition 2
In order for the learners to maximize, their exposure to language in use they need to be
engaged both affectively and cognitively in the language experience. If the learners do
not think and feel whilst experiencing the language, they are unlikely to acquire any
elements of it. Thinking whilst experiencing language in use helps to achieve the deep
processing required for effective and durable learning and it helps learners to transfer
high-level skills such as predicting, connecting, interpreting and evaluating to second
language use. If the learners do not feel any emotion whilst exposed to language in use,
they are unlikely to acquire anything from theirexperience. Feeling enjoyment, pleasure
and happiness, feeling empathy,being amused, being excited and being stimulated are
most likely to influence acquisition positively but feeling annoyance, anger, fear,
opposition and sadness is more useful than feeling nothing at all. Ideally, though the
learner should be experiencing positive affect in the sense of being confident, motivated
and willingly engaged even when experiencing‘negative’ emotions. There is a substantial
literature on the value of affective and cognitive engagement whilst engaged in
responding to language in use, with much of it focusing on research into the role
ofemotion in language learning and use or reporting research on cognitive engagement
during language lessons.
Principles of Materials Development
1. Prioritize the potential for engagement by, for example, basing a unit on a text or a
task, which is likely to achieve affective and cognitive engagement, rather than on a
teaching point selected from a syllabus.
2. Make use of activities, which get the learners to think about what they are reading or
listening to and to respond to it personally.
3. Make use of activities, which get learners to think and feel before during and after
using the target language for communication.
Examples of Materials

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Using a text-driven approach in which the starting point for developing each unit is a
potentially engaging spoken or written text. First devise readiness activities, which help
the learners to activate their minds prior to experiencing the text; give the learners an
holistic focus to think about when experiencing the text and invite them to articulate their
personal responses to the text before going on to use it to stimulate their own language
production.
Principle of Language Acquisition 3
Language learners who achieve positive affect are much more likely to achieve
communicative competence than those who do notLanguage learners need to be positive
about the target language, about their learning environment, about their teachers, about
their fellow learners and about their learning materials. They also need to achieve
positive self-esteem and to feel that they are achieving something worthwhile.
Above all, they need to be emotionally involved in the learning process and to respond by
laughing, getting angry, feeling sympathy, feeling happy, feeling sad etc. Positive
emotions seem to be themost useful in relation to language acquisition but it is much
better to feel angry than to feel nothing at all.
Principles of Materials Development
1. Make sure the texts and tasks are as interesting, relevant and enjoyable as possible to
exert a positive influence on the learners’ attitudes to the language and to the process of
learning it.
2. Set achievable challenges, which help to raise the learners’ self-esteem when success
is accomplished.
3. Stimulate emotive responses with music, song, literature, art etc., through making use
of controversial and provocative texts, through personalization and through inviting
learners to articulate their feelings about a text before asking them to analyze it.
Examples of Material
Offer the students choices of texts and of tasks and consult the students about the topics
they would like to read about and discuss. This is what we should do on a national
materials development project and we then respected the students’ requests for texts on
such provocative topics as drug abuse, teenage pregnancy and marital abuse.
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Principle of Language Acquisition 4
L2 language learners can benefit from using those mental resources, which they typically
utilize when acquiring and using their L1.In L1 learning and use learners typically make
use of mental imaging (e.g. seeing pictures in their mind), of inner speech, of emotional
responses, of connections with their own lives, of evaluations, of predictions, ofpersonal
interpretations. In L2 learning and use learners typically focus narrowly on linguistic
decoding and encoding. Multi-dimensional representation of language experienced and
used can enrich the learning process in ways which promote durable acquisition,the
transfer from learning activities to real life use, the development of the ability to use the
language effectively in a variety of situations for a variety of uses and the self-esteem
which derives from performing in the L2 in ways as complex as they typically do in the
L1. There is a considerable literature on the vital use of the inner voice inL1 and the
infrequency of use of the inner voice in the L2. What theliterature demonstrates is that in
the L1 we use the inner voice to give ourown voice to what we hear and read, to make
plans, to makedecisions, to solve problems, to evaluate, to understand and ‘control’
ourenvironment and to prepare outer voice utterances before saying or writing them.
When talking to ourselves we use a restricted code, which consists of short
elliptical utterances expressed in simple tenses with the focus on the comment rather than
the topic, on the predicate rather than the subject. It is cotext and context dependent,
implicit, partial, vague, novel and salient to ourselves. However, L2 users rarely use an
L2 inner voice until they reach an advanced level – though there is evidence that the use
of an L2 inner voice at lower levels can enhance L2 performance and can be facilitated
by teachers and materials. There is also a considerable literature on the role of visual
imaging in language use and acquisition. It demonstrates is that visual imaging plays a
very important role in L1 learning and use, that it tends not to be used by L2 learners and
that L2 learners can be trained to use visual imaging to improve their learning and use of
the L2.
Principles of Materials Development
1. Make use of activities, which get learners to visualize and/or use inner speech before
during and after experiencing a written or spoken text.
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2. Make use of activities, which get learners to visualize and/or use inner speech before
during and after using language themselves.
3. Make use of activities which help the learners to reflect on their mental activity during
a task and then to try to make more use of mental strategies in a similar task.
Examples of Materials
We should build into all our materials activities, which encourage and help the students
to visualize, to talk to themselves in inner speech and to make connections with their
lives. For example, before asking the students to read a poem about a boy’s first day at
school I asked the students to visualize their own first day at school and then to talk to
themselves about how they felt.
Principle of Language Acquisition 5
Language learners can benefit from noticing salient features of the input. If learners
notice for themselves how a particular language item orfeature is used, they are more
likely to develop their language awareness and they are also more likely to achieve
readiness for acquisition. Such noticing is most salient when a learner has been engaged
in a text affectively and cognitively and then returns to it to investigate its language use.
This is likely to lead to the learner paying more attention to similar uses of that item or
feature in subsequent inputs and to increase its potential for eventual acquisition.
Principles of Materials Development
1. Use an experiential approach in which the learners are first provided with an
experience, which engages them holistically. From this experience, they learn implicitly
without focusing conscious attention on any particular features of the experience. Later
they re-visit and reflect on the experience and pay conscious attention to features of it in
order to achieve explicit learning. This enables the learners to apprehend before they
comprehend and to sense before they explore. In addition, it means that when they focus
narrowly on a specific feature of the text they are able to develop their discoveries in
relation to their awareness of the full context of use.
2. Rather than drawing the learners’ attention to a particular feature of a text and then
providing explicit information about its use it is much more powerful to help the learners
(preferably in collaboration) to make discoveries for themselves.
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Examples of Materials
Usemany language awareness materials in which the students experience a potentially
engaging text, respond to it personally and then focus on a particular feature of the text in
order to make discoveries about it. For example, the students read about a student whose
parents gave him a graduation party. They then discussed the reasons why the parents
gave him the party and the reasons he was reluctant to attend it .Next one half of the class
analyzed the father’s use of the interrogative and the other half analyzed the son’s use of
the imperative. They came together in groups to share their discoveries and then they
wrote a version of the text in which the mother (rather than the father) tried to persuade
the son to attend the party.
Principle of Language Acquisition 6
Learners need opportunities to use language to try to achieve communicative
purposes.When using language in this way they are gaining feedback on the hypotheses
they have developed because of generalizing on the language in their intake and on their
ability to make use of them effectively. If they are participating in interaction, they are
also being pushed to clarify and elaborate and they are likely to elicit meaningful and
comprehensible input from their interlocutors.
Principles of Materials Development
1. Provide many opportunities for the learners to produce language in order to achieve
intended outcomes.
2. Make sure that these output activities are designed so that the learners are using
language rather than just practicing specified features of it.
3. Design output activities so that they help learners to develop their ability to
communicate fluently, accurately, appropriately and effectively.
4. Make sure that the output activities are fully contextualized in that the learners are
responding to an authentic stimulus (e.g. a text, a need, a viewpoint, an event), that they
have specific addressees and that they have a clear intended outcome in mind.
5. Try to ensure that opportunities for feedback are built into output activities and are
provided for the learners afterwards.

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 2. Factors to consider in designing materials
Teaching materials form an important part of most English teaching
programs. From textbooks, videotapes and pictures to the Internet, teachers rely
heavily on a diverse range of materials to support their teaching and their students’
learning. However, despite the current rich array of English language teaching
materials commercially available, many teachers continue to produce their own
materials for classroom use. Indeed, most teachers spend considerable time finding,
selecting, evaluating, adapting and making materials to use in their teaching. In the
research,we synthesized a range of ideas from the literature on materials design. We
considered why teachers might want to design their own teaching materials and
looked at some of the advantages and disadvantages. We examined six factors that
teachers need to take into account when considering designing their own materials;
and finally we presented ten guidelines for designing effective English teaching
materials.
Why English Language Teachers May Choose to Design their own Materials
Advantages
An important advantage of teacher-produced materials is contextualization.
A key criticism of commercial materials, particularly those produced for the
worldwide EFL market is that they are necessarily generic and not aimed at any
specific group of learners or any particular cultural or educational context. The
possible lack of ‘fit’ between teaching context and has been expressed thus: “Our
modem coursebooks are full of speech acts and functions based on situations which
most foreign-language students will never encounter. Appealing to the world market
as they do, they cannot by definition draw on local varieties of English and have not
gone very far in recognizing English as an international language, either.” (Altan,
1995, p. 59). For many teachers, designing or adapting their own teaching materials,
enables them to take into account their particular learning environment and to
overcome the lack of' fit’ of the coursebook.
Another aspect of context is the resources available. Some teaching contexts
will be rich in resources such as coursebooks, supplementary texts, readers,
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computers, audio-visualequipment and consumables such as paper, pens and so on.
Other contexts may be extremely impoverished, with little more than an old
blackboard and a few pieces of chalk. A lack of commercial materials forces teachers
to fall back on their own resources and designing their own teaching materials can
enable them to make best use of the resources available in their teaching context. A
further aspect that is not often mentioned in the literature is the cost of commercially
produced resources. For many schools, teacher-produced materials can be the best
option in terms of both school and student budget.
A second area in which teacher-designed materials are an advantage is that
of individual needs. Modem teaching methodology increasingly emphasizes the
importance of identifying and teaching to the individual needs of learners. English
language classrooms are diverse places not only in terms of where they are situated,
but also in terms of the individual learners within each context. Teacher-designed
materials can be responsive to the heterogeneity inherent in the classroom. This
approach encompasses the learners’ first languages and cultures, their learning needs
and their experiences. Few coursebooks deliberately incorporate opportunities for
learners to build on the first language skills already acquired, despite research
suggesting that bilingual approaches are most successful in developing second
language competence (Thomas & Collier, 1997). A teacher can develop materials that
incorporate elements of the learners’ first language and culture, or at least provide
opportunities for acknowledgement and use alongside English. In addition, teacher-
prepared materials provide the opportunity to select texts and activities at exactly the
right level for particular learners, to ensure appropriate challenge and levels of
success.
In conclusion, the advantages of teacher-designed materials can be summed
up in the idea that they avoid the ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach of most commercial
materials.
Disadvantages
There are a number of potential pitfalls for teachers who would be materials
designers. These can be considered under three headings, the first of which is
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organization. Course books are usually organized around an identifiable principle
and follow a discernible pattern throughout. While this can be rather dull and boring
(or ‘unrelenting’) it does provide both teachers and students with some security and a
“coherent body of work to remember and revise from” (Harmer, 2001, p. 7). In
contrast, teacher-designed materials may lack overall coherence and a clear
progression. Without some overall organizing principle, materials may be piecemeal
and can result in poorly focused activities lacking clear direction. This is frustrating
and confusing for learners who may not be able to see how their English is
developing.
A further aspect of organization relates to the physical organization and
storage of materials. Without a clearly thought through and well-organized system,
teacher-produced materials may be difficult to locate for ongoing use, or may end up
damaged or with parts missing.
Possibly the most common criticism levelled against teacher-made materials
is to do with their quality. At the surface level, teacher-made materials may “seem
ragged and unprofessional next to those produced by professionals” (Block, 1991, p.
212, emphasis in original). They may contain errors, be poorly constructed, lack
clarity in layout and print and lack durability. Harmer probably speaks for many when
he says, “If the alternative is a collection of scruffy photocopies, give me a well-
produced coursebook any time” (2001, p. 7).
In addition, a lack of experience and understanding on the part of the teacher
may result in important elements being left out or inadequately covered. Teacher-
made materials may be produced to take advantage of authentic text. However, if not
guided by clear criteria and some experience, teachers may make inconsistent or poor
choices of texts. A further problem may be a lack of clear instructions about how to
make effective use of the materials - particularly instructions designed for students.
Yet another disadvantage of teacher-made materials, and perhaps the key
factor inhibiting many teachers from producing their own teaching materials, is time.
However passionately one may believe in the advantages of teacher-designed

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materials, the reality is that for many teachers, it is simply not viable - at least not all
the time.
Factors to Consider When Designing Materials
We turn now to consider six key factors that teachers need to take into
account when embarking on the design of teaching materials for their learners. These
relate to, and refer back to some of the advantages and disadvantages. Some will also
be expanded further in the guidelines, which follow.
The first and most important factor to be considered is the learners. If the
point of teacher-created materials is relevance, interest, motivation and meeting
specific individual needs, then clearly teachers must ensure they know their learners
well. Any consideration of syllabus or materials design must begin with a needs
analysis. This should reveal learning needs with regard to English language skills in
listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary knowledge and grammar; as well as
individual student’s learning preferences. It is not just learning needs that are relevant
to the teacher as materials designer, however. Equally important is knowledge about
students’ experiences (life and educational), their first language and levels of literacy
in it, their aspirations, their interests and their purposes for learning English.
The curriculum and the context are variables that will significantly
influence decisions about teaching materials. Many teachers are bound by a mandated
curriculum defining the content, skills and values to be taught. Whether imposed at
school or state level, a curriculum outlines the goals and objectives for the learners
and the course of study. Whatever the curriculum, it is the teacher’s responsibility to
ensure that the goals and objectives of the overarching curriculum are kept close at
hand when designing materials (Nunan, 1988).
As noted earlier, the context in which the teaching and learning occurs will
impact on the types of materials that may need to be designed. For example, a
primary-level mainstream, English-speaking setting, with a set curriculum and access
to native speakers may require materials that facilitate interaction about subject
content, and develop cognitive academic language proficiency. However, refugee

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adults may need teaching materials that focus on meeting immediate survival needs
and gaining employment.
The resources and facilities available to the teacher-designer are also
mentioned above as an element of context. Clearly, teachers must be realistic about
what they can achieve in terms of materials design and production within the
limitations of available resources and facilities. Access to resources such as
computers (with or without Internet access), a video player and TV, radio, cassette
recorder, CD player, photocopier, language lab., digital camera, whiteboard, OHP,
scissors, cardboard, laminator etc. will impact on decisions in materials design.
Hadfield and Hadfield (2003) offer some useful suggestions for ‘resourceless’
teaching which address the impoverished reality of some teaching contexts.
Personal confidence and competence are factors that will determine an
individual teacher’s willingness to embark on materials development. The teacher’s
level of teaching experience and his or her perceived creativity or artistic skills and
overall understanding of the principles of materials design and production will
influence this. In reality, most teachersundertake materials design to modify, adapt or
supplement a coursebook, rather than starting from scratch, and this is probably the
most realistic option for most teachers. Decisions available to teachers include the
following (adapted from Harmer, 2001 and Lamie, 1999):
1. Add activities to those already suggested.
2. Leave out activities that do not meet your learners’ needs.
3. Replace or adapt activities or materials with:
Supplementary materials from other commercial texts
Authentic materials (newspapers, radio reports, films etc.)
Teacher-created supplementary materials.
4. Change the organizational structure of the activities, for example, pairs, small
groups or whole class.
Modem technology provides teachers with access to tools that enable professional
results in materials production. Computers with Clipart, Internet access and digital
pictures offer unprecedented means for publishing high quality teaching materials.
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 A less exciting, but important factor to consider in designing materials is
copyright compliance. Teachers need to be aware of the restrictions that copyright
laws place on the copying of authentic materials, published materials and materials
downloaded from the Internet for use in the classroom. This is particularly important
when a large number of classes will use creating course materials that over time.
Copyright law has implications when creating materials that include excerpts from
published works. An example of this would be creating a worksheet that uses a picture
or exercise from a commercial text, alongside teacher-created activities. While an idea
cannot be copyright, the expression of the idea can be and teachers need to be mindful
of this.
Time was discussed earlier as a disadvantage for teachers who wish to
design their own materials. It is thus, important to consider ways to make this aspect
manageable. Block (1991) suggests a number of ways in which teachers can lighten
the load, including sharing materials with other teachers, working in a team to take
turns to design and produce materials, and organizing central storage so materials are
available to everyone.
Guidelines for Designing Effective English Teaching Materials
Teacher designed materials may range from one-off, single use items to
extensive programs of work where the tasks and activities build on each other to
create a coherent progression of skills, concepts and language items. The guidelines
that follow may act as a useful framework for teachers as they navigate the range of
factors and variables to develop materials for their own teaching situations. The
guidelines are offered as just that - guidelines - not mles to be rigidly applied or
adhered to. While not all the guidelines will be relevant or applicable in all materials
design scenarios, overall they provide for coherent design and materials, which
enhance the learning experience.

Lecture 19

Planning the lesson

1. The features of the EL lesson.
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2. Types of lessons and forms of interaction in EL lesson.
3. EL lesson planning.
4. Structure of the EL lesson plan.
5. Independent work and learning.

Key terms: EL lesson, the features of the lesson, requirements to the lesson,
structure of the lesson, cycle of lessons, stages of the lesson, types of the lesson, forms
of classroom interaction, approaches to organizing the lesson, model of lessons,
language atmosphere, phonetic drill, planning, types of plans, principles of planning,
independent work and learning, autonomy.

1. The features of the EL lesson

A lesson is a unit of a teaching process and the main form of organization of the
teaching process. Conducting a lesson is shaped as a collective interrelated activity. The
goal of each lesson is an important part of the final goal. Understanding of a lesson goal
should be relied on the main important particularities: 1) teaching speech activities as a
real process of communication and 2) complexness.
Only one goal makes the lesson logical. Besides of a leading goal the lesson has
accompanied tasks. It is not appropriate to define a goal of some lesson irrelatively with
the whole system of lessons. For example, the task of a cycle of lessons can be
developing speaking, listening and reading skills on a certain theme, language and
speech material. The theme cannot be changed during the series of lessons. But a
language material and type of speech activity can be a new one. That’s why the goal of
each lesson is defined with new skills, which are being developed within a concrete
lesson, or within a system of lessons. The whole teaching process is built on the basis of
speech themes. Exactly the theme in accordance with the content-communicative
principle defines the cycle of lessons. A material is distributed in accordance with the
stages of developing the necessary skills. Such planning allows a teacher to realize
perspectives for the further work. The result of such a cycle working is a qualitatively
new stage in developing communicative skills.
It is necessary to realize the capacity of teaching/learning material in the frame of a
cycle. Given the above purpose we should 1) define words and structures, which must
be learned within a quantum of time for developing required skills; 2) select situations
and patterns, following the necessary grammar and vocabulary units, which are typical,
meaningful and frequently used within this theme; 3) select a material for practice and
production (tasks and activities, their sequence) for developing communicative skills.
The cycle can consist of 3-6 lessons (the early stage – 2-3 lessons, 5-9 forms – 5-6
lessons). All capacity of the work is distributed into the cycle. For illustration the
sample of distribution of the teaching material is shown.
Lesson1: Presentation of a new theme; new vocabulary; structures; or stimulus for
conversation; the text for listening with questions. A new material is presented by the
teacher and repeated by students. It is recommended to present a new material at the

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beginning of the lesson, because it gives an opportunity to have time for practice this
material and assess the learners’ achievements.
Lesson2: Working on a grammar material and skimming reading.
Lesson 3: Active working on speech (dialogues, conversation, and retelling;
making analogous text; creating a text on the basis of several texts).
Lesson4: Lesson for revision – transmission into writing, summarizing the lesson,
writing a composition as a homework.
Thus the goal of the lesson determines the character of homework, because well
formulated goal of the lesson is the result and the homework proposes only what we
teach during the lesson. The goal also determines the selection of tasks and activities.
Exercises are built on the principle «from simplicity to complicity». Besides the lesson
content should be realized on the basis of the interrelation principle with the different
subject matters.
A successful lesson depends on the kinds of interactions a teacher creates during
the lesson. This can include opportunities for interactions between the teacher and the
class as well as interactions among the students themselves. There are four possible
ways to arrange a class, with each offering different learning potentials: whole-class
teaching, individual work, group work, and pair work (See Table 23). A lesson may
begin with a whole-class activity and then move to pair, group, or individual work.
When planning a teacher needs to consider when the whole-class teaching is appropriate
and when the teacher should make the transition to other types of learning in order to
promote student-to-student interaction and allow students to work on tasks at their own
pace.

Table 23. Forms of interaction

Whole-class teaching. This mode of teaching involves teaching all the students
together. Arrangement of a lesson for whole-class teaching depends on the type
of a lesson a teacher is teaching and on the particular stage of the lesson. Whole-
class, teacher-fronted teaching can serve to focus students’ attention quickly on a
learning task. When carefully carried out, it can lead to the quick and effective
achievement of lesson objectives, since time management is maximally under the
teacher’s control.
Individual work. It is necessary to point out at a lesson where students can best
work individually, such as when they are reading or listening to a text, or
completing written exercises in a textbook or workbook. Individual work allows
students to work at their own pace and to work on activities suited to their
proficiency level or interests; having learners work on their own also allows a
teacher to provide them with individual support and/or assistance. In planning
individual work, a teacher needs to consider how well students understand what
is expected of them and whether the task provides adequate challenge, support,
and motivation to sustain their interests.
Pair work. Pair work provides opportunities for sustained interaction and has
long been recommended as a key means of promoting both accuracy and fluency
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in language use. Grouping students in pairs can take into consideration their
ability level, language and cultural background, and other factors that will
facilitate a positive approach to learning. Students who are not familiar with this
learning arrangement may need careful orientation and preparation for pair-work
activities.
Group work. Group-based learning is widely used in all forms of teaching and
significantly changes the interactional dynamics of the classroom. In language
classes, it increases students’ talking time, helps promote self-esteem, and can
increase student motivation by providing a risk-free environment for language
practice.

The modern requirements to the EL lesson are shown in the Table 24.

Table 24. The modern requirements to the EL lesson

Requirements Interpretation
1. Goal -oriented Each of the lessons must provide achievement of
educational, practical, bringing up and
development aims through solving the certain
objectives.
2. Content-value Selecting of the meaningful and relevant teaching
material, adequacy of techniques and exercises to
the teaching objectives and optimal correlation of
practice and production
3. Activity of students The inner and outer activity of students during the
during the lesson lesson must take the form of speech-mental
activity related to the speech initiativeness.
4. Motivation-provided Understanding the success of ELL by students and
seeing their dynamic progress in ELL.
5. Variety of used stimulus Using different verbal and visual stimulus for
at the lesson involving students into communication. The
preference is given to the real-life activities with
audio-visual supporters.
6. Correspondence of From the position of verbal behavior the teacher
verbal and non-verbal carries out the function of the important means of
behavior to the teaching teaching EL, quasi-bringer of the EL.
goal, content and From the position of non-verbal behavior the
conditions. teacher plays the role of an organizer, instructor,
producer, actor, designer, operator, etc.
7. Using up-to-date The teacher must organize the teaching process on
technologies the basis of different up-to-date technologies
(interactive, information-telecommunication
technologies ant others).

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 8. Achievement of the The goal and objectives put at the beginning of
result. the lesson must be achieved at the end of the
lesson.

Pedagogical mastering is seen in the careful and hard preparation to the lesson and
deep self-analysis of his/her activity, study and summarizing of teaching experience and
implementation the progressive experience into practice of ELT. For this the teacher
needs a guider and assessor which helps him/her evaluate own and others’ lessons.
That’s why the above requirements can be put into the scheme of the analysis of the EL
lesson.

1.2. The structure of the EL lesson and types of lessons

There is no general scheme of the lesson structure which can be obligatory for all
lessons. Some of the stages of a lesson are constant, others can be varied. A constant
stage of a lesson is an involving into language atmosphere. This stage includes various
tasks or activities. One of them is a phonetic drill. The atmosphere of communication
created at the beginning of the lesson can last during the whole lesson. The dominant
place is given to the teacher’s communicative action related to motivation, instructions,
control and evaluation.
These stages are considered as reasonable from methodical point of view:
1. Involving into the language atmosphere;
2. Explanation of the new material and algorithm of operations and actions with it;
3. Doing exercises as practicing and activating the new material;
4. Writing down and explanation of the homework, summarizing the lesson’s
results and marking.
In the domestic methodology the following types of the lesson are distinguished41:
1) The lessons are directed to acquire a) language elements on lexical, phonetic
and grammatical levels and language use as a result of this type of a lesson is obtaining
the linguistic competence.
2) The lessons are directed to acquire communicative activity. The aim of this
type of a lesson is developing listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.
3) The lessons which combine previous types of lessons are directed to acquire
knowledge, language sub-skills and communicative skills. In the practice of teaching
the preference is given more to this type of a lesson.
Besides in methodology of FLT the different lesson organization approaches as
teaching models are used: 1) Presentation -> Practice -> Production (PPP); 2) Engage ->
Study -> Activate (ESA); Test -> Teach -> Test (TTT); 4) Task-based approach (TBA).
1. PPP works through the progression of three sequential stages. Presentation
stage represents the introduction to a lesson, and necessarily requires the creation of a
realistic (or realistic-feeling) «situation» requiring the target language to be learned that
can be achieved through using pictures, dialogues, imagination or actual «classroom
41
Jalalov J.J. Chet til o‘qitish metodikasi. Foreign Language Teaching Methodology. -T.: O’qituvchi, 2012.
-P321-322.
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situations». The teacher checks to see that the students understand the nature of the
situation and then he/she builds the «concept» underlying the language to be learned
using small chunks of the language that the students already know. Having understood
the concept, students are then given the language «model» and engage in choral drills to
learn statement, answer and question forms for the target language. This is a very
teacher-orientated stage where error correction is important.
It is necessary to take into consideration that at the presentation stage of the lesson
eliciting is a useful way of involving the class by focusing students’ attention and
making them think; it establishes what students know and what they do not know; and it
encourages students to make guesses and to work out rules for themselves. For example,
eliciting can be organized on the basis of a picture, or a headline of the text as a pre-
reading activity.
The second stage – Practice usually begins with what is termed «mechanical
practice» - open and closed pair-work. Students gradually move into more
«communicative practice» involving procedures like information gap activities,
dialogue creation and controlled role-plays. Practice is seen as the frequency device to
create familiarity and confidence with the new language, and a measuring stick for
accuracy. Thus, learners have practice making sentences with new words and
structures. The teacher still directs and corrects at this stage, but the classroom is
beginning to become more learner-centered.
The third stage – Production is seen as the culmination of the language learning
process, whereby the learners have started to become independent users of the language
rather than students of the language. The teacher's role here is to somehow facilitate a
realistic situation or activity where the students instinctively feel the need to actively
apply the language they have been practicing. The teacher does not correct or become
involved unless students directly appeal to him/her to do so. At the stage of production
learners talk more freely about the known and unknown information/situation This
model is effective for teaching a simple language at low levels.
The PPP approach is relatively straight forward, and structured enough to be easily
understood by both students and new or emerging teachers. It is a good place to start in
terms of applying good communicative language teaching in the classroom. It has also
been criticized considerably for the very characteristic that makes it the easiest method
for 'beginner' teachers, that is, that it is far too teacher-orientated and over controlled.
2. A nice alternative to 'PPP' is Harmer's 'ESA' (Engage ->Study-> Activate) based
on surveys which have shown that the conditions for successful LL are motivation,
exposure to language and chances to use it.
In the Engage stage, a teacher motivate learners and arise their interest by
involving their emotion through using games, music, discussions, stimulating pictures,
dramatic stories, anecdotes, etc. Other ways of encouraging the learners are: asking
them what they think about a topic (predicting, guessing) before reading the text. If
learners are engaged they learn better.
In the Study stage a teacher focuses on vocabulary and constructions or
information. Successful language teaching/learning depends on the degree of quality

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language acquisition (getting language knowledge or skills through listening and
reading), for example, and study activities organized by a teacher.
Activate is the stage where learners use the language knowledge and skills in
given situations. These three stages can be varied, they are not constant. Variation is
even recommended for effective teaching/learning EL.
3. Model «Test -> Teach -> Test». TTT is a frequently used alternative to the PPP
method, wherein the production phase is sequentially moved to the first part of the
lesson. During the (first) test phase that corresponds to the production phase in the PPP
approach, learners are more or less abruptly asked to communicatively produce a
language concept based on their existing knowledge and without any prior guidance
from the teacher. The teacher will then asses the students’ level of competency in the
particular language area, determine their needs, and proceed with the teach phase
(which corresponds to the presentation phase in the PPP approach) based on an overall
assessment. The teach phase allows to discuss problem areas and guide learners
towards the correct use of the language concept.
The final stage of the TTT approach is the second test that aims to check how
students have absorbed the new inputs from the teacher. The logic of this sequencing is
for students to learn the new language concepts better by differentiating its invalid uses
(most likely to be committed during the first test phase) from correct usage (likely to be
accomplished after the teacher presented the language concept during the teach phase).
In general, the TTT approach is a good way for teachers to determine the specific
needs of students in different language areas. With this knowledge, educators can
optimize their teaching strategies to produce optimum learning outcomes. It is best used
at intermediate and higher competency levels, as well as in classes where the students
have mixed language proficiencies. However, one consistent criticism about the TTT
approach is that it has an element of randomness since several unexpected learners’
needs may arise that is beyond the scope of the intended lesson. Despite this disruptive
possibility, the TTT approach is still being adopted by many educators because it is very
«economical» and «focused» in the sense that valuable time need not be wasted on
teaching language areas students are already proficient with.
4. Task-based model /approach. TBA is a good alternative to either the PPP
approach or the TTT method. In TBA-structured classes, teachers do not pre-determine
the language specifics to study but base their lesson strategies on how a central task is
completed by the learners. Similar to the other two approaches, TBA follows a
sequential progression: 1) a pre-task introduction to be conducted by the teacher; 2) the
learners’ completion of a central task involving a particular language aspect; 3)
reporting, analysis and feedback to be performed by the teacher concerning how the
learners accomplished the central task; and 4) practice sessions to hone learner
proficiencies in the language area.
The task-based approach is advocated by many educators because of several clear
advantages. For one thing, TBA allows learners to employ all their language resources
towards the completion of a task and not just pre-selected language areas as in the case
of PPP. In addition, TBA utilizes natural, real-life language contexts that are highly
relevant to learners. Hence, language exploration and learning directly arises from
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students’ actual needs and not as suggested in textbooks. TBA is also based on the
premise that a holistic exposure to language – as opposed to incremental exposures
common to PPP – is a better way of learning a new language.
A good EL lesson consists of much more than a series of activities and exercises
that the teacher has strung together to occupy classroom time – and it involves much
more than simply presenting the material in the current EL textbook. EL teaching is not
only a field of practical activity but also a discipline that draws on a considerable body
of knowledge and practice. Every lesson of a teacher should reflect a solid
understanding of the nature of the language, of the EL learning and teaching, and of
his/her learners – taking into account their needs as well as their learning styles and
preferences.

1.3. EL lesson planning

The important condition of effectiveness of ELT is planning of teachers and

students activity for a lesson and a system of lessons. In the practice of teaching EL at
the lesson, thematic and perspective planning are distinguished.
The aim of EL lesson planning is to define the content of the lesson and algorithm
of operations and actions of the teacher and learners.
Thematic plan is enveloped as a serial number of lessons. As a rule, it is one of the
themes of communication, which includes itself also vocabulary, grammar and country-
study material.
Perspective planning defines the system of a teacher and students activity for the
whole stage of ELT.
There are different principles of lesson planning. The most important among them
are variety, flexibility, examining the subject matter from the learners’ point of view,
considering individual differences, language backgrounds and past experience42.
1. Variety means involving learners in a number of different types of activities and
using a wide selection of material to motivate learners.
2. Flexibility comes into play, when dealing with the plan in the classroom, for a
number of reasons a teacher should have an opportunity to change the plan in
accordance with the situation which can take place during teaching.
3. Examination of the subject matter from the learners’ point of view – the teacher
should examine teaching material and reveal its appropriateness to learners and
difficulties for acquiring this material by learners. During planning a teacher adapt
material and defines ways of overcoming these difficulties.
4. Consideration of individual differences presupposes that learners have different
abilities to learn the language under apparently the same conditions of learning. This
fact should be taking into consideration in planning. This principle is known in the
domestic methodology as individualization and differentiation of teaching.
5. Language backgrounds and past experience – before designing a teacher should
reveal what prior knowledge, abilities and skills the learners have.

42
See: Balan R., Cehan A. & et.al. In-service Distance Training Course for Teachers of English. -Romania:
Polirom, 2003. - P. 83-84.
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 Designing the lesson and outlining its plan is an essential part of the teaching
process. All EL teachers – regardless of training, experience, or competency – need a
carefully drawn lesson plan in order to assist their learners in attaining learning
objectives, both on a daily basis as well as the long-term. Having a lesson plan is like
having a complete and clear visualization of how a learning session is to take place and
how learners are able to grasp and retain the lesson concepts.
The importance of lesson plans in EL education is difficult to overstate. EL
teachers simply need to visualize daily lessons in advance and build the most
appropriate teaching strategies into a comprehensive lesson plan. Otherwise, going to
class without an adequate preparation will most likely be detrimental to both the
teachers and their learners. Having a lesson plan and effectively using it as a guide for
daily teaching will reflect a teacher’s professionalism and reliability. Teachers also
present themselves as good role models for their learners who will come to appreciate
the value of coming to class prepared and primed to achieve the lesson targets.
If a teacher is new to teaching, a lesson plan is basically just a step-by-step guide
on how the teacher intends to present a lesson and the ways by which learners are
expected to learn and appreciate the lessons various concepts. An excellent lesson plan
is one that can be easily and effectively used by another teacher in a job place. This
means that the ideal lesson plan is both clear and comprehensive.

1.4. Structure of the EL lesson plan

The details and elements of lesson plans are varied in accordance with the specific
format mandated by a school, lyceum and college. However, the common components
of a good lesson plan include the following items:

Lesson’s Theme.
The period of time (in minutes, hours, days, or weeks) necessary to complete
the lesson.
Class details (class name or section, age, skill level, etc.)
The lesson objectives.
Instructional approach(es) to be used (this section describes the sequence of
learning events as well as the techniques the teacher will use in helping
students achieve the lesson objectives).
Instructional materials (such as a film, an image gallery, a music video, etc.).
Summary of and derived conclusions from the lesson.
Methods for practicing the lesson concepts.
Evaluation and testing methods to be used.
Contingency plans or elements (This section describes subsidiary topics or
additional techniques and materials that can be used to either fortify the
learning gains generated during the session or productively fill up excess time.
Fun and engaging, seat work, dialogues, and other activities are ideal for this
section).

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 Unless a specific lesson plan format is required by the learning type of institution,
most EL practitioners tailor their lesson plans according to the teaching philosophies or
techniques they believe in or are most comfortable with. In general, however, excellent
EL lesson plans have common characteristics that a teacher should integrate in his/her
own teaching strategies:
1) Ideal lesson plans have a concise summary that fits on a single page. The
detailed plan proper may – and often – exceeds this number, but the idea is to allow
anyone to have a quick overview of the lesson.
2) Great lesson plans are organized in a way that is easy and a delight to follow.
3) Lesson plans should be strongly aligned with the needs and learning
competencies of their intended audience.
4) Each individual lesson plan should adhere to a continuity of lesson concepts and
should not only fit in the curriculum but also reflect the overall vision of the subject.
5) EL Lesson plans should establish platforms for learners to apply language
learning to real-world situations.
In EL education lesson plans are crucial even in purely conversational classes. In
order to establish an environment that encourages high quality learning and draws non-
native speakers to articulate themselves extensively, adequate preparation is of
paramount importance. Having a haphazardly designed plan is also inexcusable.
The most important for teachers is to define aims and objectives of a lesson. At the
beginning of the lesson planning a teacher should answer the following questions: 1)
What language and speech material will students learn within this lesson? 2) What do
they know and are able or unable to do before the beginning of the lesson and what
results they are able to achieve at the end of the lesson?
Answering the first question a teacher formulates the aim of the lesson, whereas
the answer to the second question gives a teacher the objectives.
Then a teacher should answer the following questions43:
1. What kind of language-learning opportunities does the lesson provide?
2. How many opportunities are there for learners to practice meaningful use of the
language?
3. Who has most of the opportunities for language use during the lesson – the
teacher or the students?
4. Do all of the students participate in the lesson, or will some students have more
opportunities for participation and practice than others?
The structure of a lesson is determined by how a teacher deals with three essential
stages of a lesson: opening, sequencing, and closing44.
1. Opening. This phase of the lesson serves primarily to focus the learners’
attention on the aims of the lesson, to make links to previous learning, to arouse interest

43
Richards J.C., Bohlke D. Creative effective language Lessons. – CUP, 2011. //
www.cambridge.org/oyjer_files5/
44
See in detail: Balan R., Cehan A. & et.al. In-service Distance Training Course for Teachers of
English. - Romania: Polirom, 2003; Richards J.C., Bohlke D. Creative effective language Lessons. -
CUP, 2011. // www.cambridge.org/oyjer_files5/
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in the lesson, to activate background knowledge, or to preview language or strategies
learners may need to understand in order to complete activities at the lesson.
2. Sequencing. A lesson is normally devoted to more than one type of activity, and
teachers often have a «script» or preferred sequence that they follow when teaching a
particular type of a lesson (speaking, listening, reading or writing lessons). A common
lesson sequence found in many traditional language classes consists of a sequence of
activities referred to as PPP and other approaches.
In communicative language teaching lessons often begin with accuracy-based
activities and move toward fluency-based activities.
Reading lessons often follow a format consisting of Pre-reading, While-reading,
and Post-reading activities.
Listening lessons follow a similar format.
Conversation lessons often begin with controlled practice activities, such as
dialogue practice, and move toward open-ended activities, such as role plays. Lessons
based on a task-based approach often follow a sequence consisting of Pre-task
activities, a task cycle, the language focus, and a Follow-up task.
The lesson sequence depends on principles such as «easier before more difficult
activities,» «receptive before productive skills,» or «accuracy activities before fluency
activities.» Planning a lesson a teacher should handle the transitions between the
different sequences of the lesson.
3. Closing. The closing phase of a lesson is also an important part of a lesson
sequence. Ideally, it should leave the students with a feeling that they have successfully
achieved the goal they set for themselves or that had been established for the lesson, and
that the lesson was worthwhile and meaningful. At the end of a lesson, it is usually
valuable to summarize what the lesson has tried to achieve, to reinforce the points of the
lesson, to suggest a follow-up work as appropriate, and to prepare students for what will
follow. It is always important to praise the students for their effort and performance.
During the closing stage, students may raise issues or problems that they would like to
discuss or resolve; at this time, a teacher may also encourage them to ask him/her for
suggestions concerning how they can improve.
Planning for transitions involves thinking about how the momentum of the lesson
will be maintained during a transition – for example, while moving from a whole-class
activity to a group-work activity; another issue that teachers need to consider is what
students should do between transitions – for example, if some students complete an
activity before the others.
Teachers generally enjoy their time in the classroom, and teaching from one
perspective is a kind of performance. However, according to R. Senior45 it is important
to remember that «performing» is not the key goal of teaching. Facilitating students’
performance is a more important goal. One way of increasing the amount of students’
participation during a lesson is to vary the grouping arrangements that a teacher uses; in
this way, the teacher does not always dominate the lesson. The use of pair work and

45
Senior R. The experience of language teaching. - New York: Cambridge University Press,
2006.
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group work is one method that has been shown to ensure that students participate
actively at a lesson.

1.5. Independent work and learning

Nowadays the role of an independent work (learning) at all stages of education is

increasing. One of the organizational forms of teaching is independent work (self-study)
run out of direct contact with a teacher (homework, laboratory work) or run under
control of the teacher and run through teaching material and monitoring by the teacher
(distance learning). Independent work is the important part in ELT, because 30 % of
teaching and learning time is given to the independent work. The teacher must 1)
understand the goal of independent work and the final result of ELT at a certain level; 2)
know the procedure of independent work. Independent work can be conducted in the
classroom and out-of-classroom in the written and oral form. Independent work can be
organized as an individual work, or pair and group work.
It is known that independent work activates students’ cognitive activity making
learning process more successful and developing self-learning abilities of learners.
J. Rubin investigated what ‘good language learners’ did to facilitate their learning
and identified some of their learning strategies, ‘the techniques or devices which a
learner may use to acquire knowledge’46. The teacher’s job is not only to teach EL, but
to teach learning, because students need training in learning strategies.
The aim of the teacher is 1) to select the content of ELT, 2) to provide rational
organization of students’ self-learning, 3) to develop students’ self-learning strategies.
Each student uses the source of information depending on his/her needs and capabilities,
he/she works in own tempo to come to some result. That’s why an independent work
shapes flexible form of organization and contributes increasing responsibility of each
student for the results of education.
Independent work correlates with learners’ autonomy as ability to take charge of
one’s own learning. Autonomous learners understand the purpose and process of
learning and are able to choose from available tools and resources to create a productive
learning environment. We should promote learner autonomy for the purpose of
transforming dependent and passive learners. For this aim teachers should encourage
students to be more self-motivated and continue learning outside the classroom so they
can be personally responsible for acquiring English. The teacher promotes autonomous
behavior by suggesting curricular and extracurricular activities, focusing first on those
that students are already engaged in. For example, the teacher may ask students to try
such English activities as writing a letter to pen pals, reading newspapers, magazines;
listening to the radio; watching movies, surfing the Internet; talking with foreigners,
practicing conversation with friends, studying in groups, attendance of English clubs.
It is necessary for development students’ independent learning:
- to become aware of the purpose of activity and all tasks;
- to know the procedure of tasks doing;
- to be able to use different aids for tasks doing;
46
Rubin J. What the «good language learner» can teach us.// TESOL Quarterly 9. -P. 43.
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 - to be able to see the visual and verbal supporters in the material of the task to
overcome the difficulties;
- to provide the appropriate conditions for task doing.
Teachers can train students to take charge of every stage of their independent
learning, which includes:
- setting goals;
- identifying and developing strategies to achieve such goals;
- developing study plans;
- reflecting on learning (which includes identifying problem areas and the means of
addressing these problems);
- identifying and selecting relevant resources and support;
- assessing one’s own progress (which includes a certain criteria for evaluating
performance and learning).
Independent work can be organized as individual work, in pair work, small group
and with whole class. These organizational forms call upon to create and develop a set
of organizational, information, cognitive and communicative skills which provide
moving to language proficiency and learning strategies integratively.

Questions:

1. What features of EL lesson can you say about?

2. What do we mean by the cycle of lessons?
3. What are requirements claimed to the FL lesson organization?
4. Name the forms of interaction. What forms of interaction are more successful in
communicative language learning?
5. Does the lesson plan help you to organize effectively teaching process?
6. How much better will be your lesson if you use visual aids?

Tasks:

1. Work in pair. Analyse the given teaching models (approaches for lesson
organization)?
2. Discuss in the small group students’ errors, repetition drills, explaining grammar
rules and using English in the classroom.
3. Imagine that you are a teacher. Do you give students a chance to practice the
correct forms?
4. Think of one good student and one weaker student in the class. What do you do
to improve a weak student language performance?
5. Read and think why the given items are essential for teachers and learners from
the position of planning47.

For a teacher For learners

47
The items taken from the book: Balan R., Cehan A. & et.al. In-service Distance Training Course for
Teachers of English. -Romania: Polirom, 2003. - P. 79.
143
- ensures efficient language teaching: - encourages them to progress gradually;
- helps avoid inadequate, improvise or - avoids boredom or lack of interest;
useless activities; - avoids wasting time and effort;
- gives a picture of how much you have - contributes significantly to their
done and how much remains to be done; systematic knowledge, linguistic ability
- tells what changes you should make when and their maturity;
you teach the lesson again a year later or
the same year, to another class of learners;
- enriches experience in organization and
administration.

6. Analyze one of the EL textbooks used at school, lyceum and college, and
describe the following items: a) the aim of the lesson, b) the main stages of the lesson,
c) the system of exercises.

Independent work:

1. Taking into consideration the age group abilities and class/course at school, or
lyceum, or college work out a project of the lesson according to the following stages: 1)
Introduction, 2) Reading; 3) Presentation; 4) Practice, 5) Production.
2. There are different activities in the table below. Write in the second column
classes at school or courses at lyceum or college where we can use each activity
thinking about its success and appropriateness to this age group. Choose the given
activities for your lesson.

Classes or courses at
Activities
school, lyceum and college
1. Learning activity done in class 1.
2. Listening a text 2.
3. Answering questions to a text 3.
4. Reading aloud 4.
5. Silent reading 5.
6. Repetition drill 6.
7. Substitution drills 7.
8. Question/answer practice (whole class) 8.
9. Oral practice in pair 9.
10. Guessing games 10.
11. Copying words/sentences 11.
12. Dictations 12.
13. Paragraph writing 13.
14. Role play 14.
15. Free discussion 15.
16. Correction of each other’s work 16.

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 3. There are three views of the learning process: 1) learning by heart, 2) forming
habits by drilling and repetition, 3) acquiring rules naturally through attempts to
communicate. Read this information and think about effectiveness of the given
instructions in the EL teaching and learning process.
Learning by heart. A traditional approach to learning by heart and a lot of people
attempt to learn languages by learning set sentences, dialogues, and texts by heart.
Learning by heart is likely to be most useful in learning things which are fixed and
limited, and it is often found to be a useful way of mastering certain fixed items in a
language, such as numerals or irregular past tense forms. The problem with learning by
heart as a strategy for learning the whole of a language is that language is not something
which is limited and finite; using a language involves understanding and producing an
infinite variety of sentences. Having learned only a dialogue wouldn’t be useful for
language practice for pragmatic aims. Learning set sentences by heart may enable us to
give a few fixed responses, but it is not likely to prepare us for this great variety of
language acquisition what we need to understand and use. It seems clear that language
is not something that we can «learn» in the same way that we might learn a poem or a
set of instructions; it is not a body of knowledge but a set of skills, so ‘learning a
language’ must mean learning to use those skills.
Forming habits. Another view of how language is learnt is to see it as developing
a set of ‘habits’ which we learn by imitation and which gradually become automatic; in
this view, language is seen as similar to more mechanical activities such as eating or
swimming. Central to this view is the belief that children learn their first language by
imitating their parents and by reinforcement on the part of the parents (the parents
«reward’ correct sentences by responding positively to them). This view of language
learning is associated with the behaviorist school of psychology and is reflected in the
audio-lingual approach to LT, which was popular in the 1950s and 1960s. Applied to
learning a FL, it emphasizes the importance of repetition and drilling; and as language is
thought to be learnt by repeating correct sentences, it is considered important for
students to avoid making errors.
Acquiring rules. This view sees language as a system of rules. Learning a
language involves being exposed to samples of language that we can understand; from
this we can acquire the rules of the language and apply them to make an unlimited
number of original sentences. During the process of learning either our L1 or FL, the
rules we apply will often be incomplete or slightly different from the actual rules of the
language, and this will lead to errors. In this view, therefore, errors are a natural part of
the acquisition process, and need not be completely avoided. It is important to clarify
what we mean by ‘acquiring the rules’ of a language. It means being able to apply the
rules (in other words, to understand and use the language correctly); it does not
necessarily mean knowing how to explain the rules (in other words, to talk about the
language). All native speakers of English «know’ the differences between the Present
Perfect and Past Tenses, in the sense that they use them correctly, but very few would
be able to explain the differences; by contrast, some learners of English can explain the
differences between the two tenses (they ‘know’ the rule) but they can not use the tenses
correctly. It is, of course, applying the rules that are important in language this is an
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entirely subconscious process. It may be that in learning a FL too the best way to
acquire rules is subconsciously, by reading and listening to language, rather than by
consciously ‘learning grammar’. All these are valid views of the ways in which
language skills can be developed although the third is the most powerful. Demonstration
and habit formation undoubtedly have a role to play if our aim is to develop the skills to
communicate in unpredicted circumstances then we have to provide our learners with
the opportunity to acquire the underlying rules of the language themselves.
4. To design a cycle of lessons on the environmental problems (animals) for
vocational college a teacher can use the given macro-strategies in the box. This topic is
an umbrella to focus students on vocabulary, information and its issues, discussion,
learning about oral summaries (genre), using information from the oral summaries to
become a participant in a simulated meeting designed to encourage problem-solving and
negotiation for conflict resolution. Study the table and create the cycle of lessons. In
the cycle of lessons news information about animals and movie fragments from «Free
Willy» should be used.

Macro-strategies Explanation
1.Maximize learning At this lesson learning opportunities are maximized by
opportunities organization of a number of learning tasks, organized
from easiest to most difficult across the lesson.
2. Facilitate At this lesson, negotiated interaction occurs in the
negotiated interaction. homework (summary writing) check, group quiz,
discussions, summary check, simulation and debriefing.
3. Minimize At this lesson perceptual mismatches are minimized in
perceptual initial stage through language-focus activities, building
mismatches shares knowledge, and sharing of unique knowledge.
However, for the students activity to minimize
perceptional mismatches can be conducted through
problem-solving and negotiation techniques, and finally
through the debriefing and reflection process.
4. Activate intuitive At this lesson students are able to notice the differences
heuristics in structural and genre choices in the new movie
fragment (video), newspaper report, and the written
piece which they summarize. Although all are dealing
with the same topic they do it in different ways for
different purposes.
5. Foster language At this lesson fostering language awareness is achieved
awareness through vocabulary including idiom work, as well as
through genre awareness work.
6. Contextualize At this lesson linguistic input is contextualized initially
linguistic input through the topic represented by the video and then
through simulation. It is also contextualized macro-
linguistically through reference to genre.
7. Integrate language At this lesson language skills are integrated but also
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 skills. graded from easiest to most challenging. In terms of
language outcomes students write definitions in
English; use new words and idioms in sentences; record
what they have seen; record what they have heard;
answer comprehension questions; discuss; read and
summarize; present their summaries orally to a group;
listen to summaries; use the information gained from
the summaries in a meeting format, negotiating until a
solution is reached; reflect orally on their meeting
experience and write about their reflections of that
experience, as well as encountering several genres.
8. Promote learner’s This lesson attempts to promote learner’s autonomy
autonomy. through language awareness activities; raising critical
awareness abilities; exploring critical listening and
explanatory abilities and awareness of conflict
resolution skills.
9. Raise cultural At this lesson students are exposed to the real-life
consciousness. drama of a movie star they know; they follow the story
of the rehabilitation of a captured marine animal and
understand the debate which has arisen world-wide
about the capture and release of these animals and they
are confronted with morality of keeping animals for
commercial purposes.

Lecture 20
Learning styles and strategies
Questions to be discussed
1. Types of learning styles
2. Presentation Techniques for Learning Styles
3. Activities for Learning Styles

Learning Styles
“Learning styles” are a student’s preferred way of absorbing, processing, comprehending, and
retaining new information and skills. Learning styles are part of a student’s individual
differences. It is important for teachers to understand the differences in their students’ learning
147
styles so that they can present information and use appropriate activities to help their students
learn.
Descriptions of Learning Styles
Although each student learns differently, we can talk about 3 learning styles: Visual, Auditory,
and Kinesthetic. Figure 1 explains the 3 learning styles.

Visual - need to see the teacher and their expressions; usually sit at the front of the
class; think in images and learn best from graphs, illustrations, diagrams, videos; often
take detailed notes
Auditory - learn best by listening to lectures, participating in discussion groups, and
talking things through; notice the pitch, tone, and speed of the teacher's voice; written
information should be reinforced through lecture; benefit from reading aloud and
watching videos
Kinesthetic - learning from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the things around
them; it can be difficult to sit still for long periods; learn from moving while learning
(like throwing a ball, doing exercises, or physical response); playing a game

Presentation Techniques for Learning Styles

Because students absorb, process, comprehend, and retain information in different ways,
teachers should present new information using a variety of techniques. Figure 2 shows
examples of presenting information for different learning styles.

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Figure 2. Learning style techniques.
Activities for Learning Styles
Students also need different types of activities to practice what they are learning. Figure 3.
shows the activities that appeal to different learning styles in the Quizlet activity you completed
in Task 2.

Identifying Learning Styles

It’s important as teachers that we use presentation techniques and activities that appeal to all
learning styles. How can we tell which learning styles our students prefer? One way to identify
student learning styles is to observe which activities they perform the best in. Another way to
identify student learning styles is to use a learning styles quiz. An example of a Learning Styles
Quiz is included on the next pages.
Learning Styles Quiz
Adapted from VARK Questionnaire Version 8.1.

Read the statement. Choose the answer that you prefer.

1. You have been selected as a tutor or a leader for a holiday program. This is interesting for
your friends. You
a) show them the map of where it will be held
b) describe the activities in the program.
c) start practising the activities I will be doing in the program.

2. A new movie has arrived in town. What would most influence your decision to go?
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a) read what others say about it online or in a magazine
b) hear friends talking about it
c) see a preview of it

3. You need to give your friend directions to go to a shop nearby. You prefer to
a) draw a map on a piece of paper or get a map online
b) tell them the directions
c) walk with them

4. You are learning to take photos with your new mobile phone. You prefer
a) clear written instructions with lists and bullet points
b) a chance to ask questions and talk about the camera’s features
c) examples of good and poor photos and how to improve them

5. You want some feedback about a competition or test. You prefer feedback
a) that used a written description or table of the results
b) from somebody who discussed it with me
c) that used examples of what I have done

6. After reading a play you need to do a project. Would you prefer to

a) write about the play?
b) read a speech from the play?
c) act out a scene from the play?

7. You are going to make something special for your family. You
a) decide from pictures in magazines
b) talk it over with your friends
c) make something you have made before

8. A website has a video showing how to make a special graph. There is a person speaking,
some lists and words describing what to do, and some diagrams. You prefer
a) reading the words
b) listening to the person
c) watching the actions
9. You are about to hook up your parent’s new computer. You
a) follow the diagrams that show how it is done
b) phone a friend and ask how to do it
c) unpack the box and start putting the pieces together

10. You prefer a teacher who likes to use

a) a textbook and plenty of handouts
b) class discussions, online chats, and guest speakers
c) field trips, case studies, videos, and hands-on practical sessions

11. You want to plan a surprise party for a friend. You

a) make lists of what to do and what to buy for the party
b) talk about it on the phone or text others
c) invite friends and just let it happen

12. I like websites that have

a) interesting information and articles in print
b) audio channels for music, chat, and discussion
150
c) things I can click on and do

13. You are about to buy a new mobile phone. Other than price, what would most influence
your decision?
a) reading the details about its features
b) the salesperson telling me about it
c) trying it

14. You have a problem with your knee. You prefer the doctor
a) give you an article or brochure that explains the injury
b) describe to you what is wrong
c) demonstrate what is wrong using a model of a knee

15. You have to present your ideas to your class. You

a) write out your speech and learn it by reading it again and again
b) write a few key words and say them again and again
c) gather examples and stories to make it real and practical

16. Remember when you learned how to play a new game. You learned best by
a) reading the instructions
b) listening to somebody explain it and asking questions
c) watching others do it first

Count the number of times you circled each letter. Write those numbers on the corresponding
lines below. Circle the letter you answered most. If you tied on any letters, your learning style is
a combination of those answers.

A=______________ B=______________ C=______________

If you answered with...

Mostly A:
You are a Visual Learner. This means you
understand and remember information better
when it is something you can see such as a
picture, graph, or chart.

Mostly B:
You are an Auditory Learner. This means you
learn best from hearing information.

Mostly C:
You are a Kinesthetic or Physical Learner.
This means you learn best from hands-on
experiences or when you are moving as you
read/listen.

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 Lecture 21
Classroom management and teacher-learner interaction

We’ve been talking a lot about using authentic, meaningful, communicative activities in
your classrooms. These types of activities are highly effective tools for language learning,
but they can also give rise to classroom management issues like too much noise or inappropriate
student behavior. In this presentation, we’ll look at the types of classroom management
problems that typically occur in secondary school English language classrooms and suggest some
strategies for dealing with them. Please have a piece of paper and something to write with as you
watch this presentation.

Here’s what we’ll talk about in this presentation. First we’ll define classroom management.
Then, we’ll talk about some of the challenges that secondary school teachers face in relation to
classroom management. Next we’ll look at some planning and prevention actions you can take so
that these problems don’t occur.
And lastly, we’ll look at some immediate actions you can take if, despite your planning and
prevention measures, you run into difficulties.

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Before we begin discussing classroom management, let’s make sure that we all know what
it means, and possibly more importantly, what it does not mean. ▪ Managing a classroom is like
managing any other complex organization. It involves all of the things that we do to make sure
the organization, which in our case is our classroom, runs smoothly, and that everybody is
working and learning.
▪ It DOES NOT mean that the teacher is simply controlling the students. You will remember that
learning occurs when students feel at ease, when they feel comfortable interacting with their
peers and their teacher. We can’t lower the affective filter if our students are constantly afraid of
breaking a long list of strict classroom rules.

153
The classroom is a complex place. There are lots of things happening at the same time, lots
of things that the teacher has to organize and manage all at once. One way to categorize
classroom management challenges are as behavioral challenges, and contextual and instructional
challenges.
• Behavioral challenges sometimes occur with just one or two learners or sometimes they are
widespread throughout a group of students. They include learners’ unwillingness to speak or
insisting on speaking only in their first language, as well as disiplinary problems, like not paying
attention, making too much noise, being off-task, and disrupting others.
• Contextual and instructional challenges include things like not having enough space to get up
and move around or put students into groups, having a learners of different levels of proficiency
in the same group, the amount of time you have to help your students reach established
objectives, and working with very large groups.
This presentation will suggest a few strategies for dealing with some of these challenges, and
we’ll explore other strategies in the tasks on managing peer work.

154
Now let’s look at a few strategies for dealing with some common classroom management
challenges.
One of the most important classroom management strategies is good planning. Planning
every step of the lesson - what your objectives are, how long you will spend on each task, the
types of interactions required, the materials you need, and so on - will keep your lesson flowing
smoothly and avoid lots of “down time” or time when your students are just sitting there waiting
for you to figure out what comes next. Plan ways to expand tasks for stronger learners who

155
might finish very quickly. Often students are disruptive because they find the task they’ve been
asked to complete too simple or boring. Good planning will ensure that your lessons are
interesting to your students, that they know what to do and why they’re doing it and help keep
them on task.
Another reason students can be disruptive or non-participative is that they aren’t quite sure
what you want them to do. Giving clear step-by-step instructions using very simple language will
help make sure that they know what you are expecting. For complex activities involving a lot of
steps, write the steps on the board and read through them as a class before you begin. If you
aren’t sure, ask instruction check questions like, “How many questions are you going to ask your
partner?” or “How many minutes do you have to finish?” or “Do you have to write down the
answers?”
Modeling what you want them to do also provides a very specific example that they can expand
upon during the activity. And, whether you know it or not, you are also a role model - a model of
the behavior you would like to see in them when they’re in your class.

Now I’d like you to pause this presentation and complete the activity on this slide. Write
your answer on a piece of paper and discuss it with your group.

156
If your students don’t seem to want to talk in class, you may want to reflect a little about your
classroom atmosphere, your classroom community. Building rapport with
students so they feel comfortable with you and encouraging pair and teamwork so they
feel comfortable with each other can go a long way towards lowering the barriers that
sometimes make language learners reluctant to speak.
Sometimes students don’t speak because they don’t feel prepared. We’ve all been in a
situation when speaking another language when someone asks you something and you
kind of freeze. You can’t respond because your mind needs a little time to get your
thoughts in order. Giving your students time to think, plan and make notes before
jumping right into a speaking activity can give them the confidence they need to open
up.
Another idea is to give students working in groups different roles to play, like writer,
reporter, English monitor (whose job is to make sure students speak English), and
participation monitor (whose job is to make sure everyone participates). If these roles
are assigned to different students every time they work in groups, learners will gradually
get used to and better at performing the different skills involved in each of them. This
also takes a bit of the responsibility for classroom management from you and gives it to
your learners.
Establishing routines is crucial in classroom management. One of the most difficult
times to manage a classroom is when you’re transitioning from one type of interaction or task to
another, for example, when you want your students to form small groups, and then after the
task, return to their regular seats. If you haven’t got an established routine for how to do this,
the classroom can become noisy and disorderly and you can waste precious time. In every
classroom, having a “focus on me” cue is essential to bring everybody’s attention to you so you
can tell them what to do next. This signal can be holding up a hand, flicking the lights, clapping
once, or whatever you want. The only requirement is that everyone knows what it means and
that you use it consistently.
Another cue or signal you should establish is one that means “lower the volume”. Interactive
tasks can get noisy, and sometimes noisy is great if your learners are all chattering in English. It
means they are excited about using the language and interested in the activity. But, we all share

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a space with other teachers and other students, and we need to make sure that our learners are
respectful of them. Again, your cue for “lower the volume” can be whatever you want. Visual
cues like a colorful sign you hold up or a flick of the lights work well because they don’t add
noise to an already noisy situation. If you use your cue consistently, you’ll soon see that the
volume lowers almost instantly when you give the signal.

Despite all your careful planning and preparing, you may still face some problems that
require immediate action. It can be difficult to know what to do in these situations.
Let’s look at a few examples now and explore some possible reactions.
Sometimes, especially with secondary school groups, you have a student or two who
likes to be the center of attention, whether good or bad. This might be the “class
clown”, the kid who’s always trying to make others laugh or it could be a student who is
constantly off-task, not paying attention and chatting to others and encouraging them
to not pay attention either.
One strategy for dealing with a disruptive student is to simply move closer to them.
Don’t stop teaching or doing whatever you are doing, but walk over and stand next to
them and continue as usual. Merely your physical presence will let the student know
that you have noticed what he or she is doing. That is often enough.
Another immediate action is to stop talking and establish eye contact with the
disruptive student. This is what my mother used to call “the look”. Again, it is letting the
student know that you have noticed and that nothing will continue until the disruptive
behavior stops.
If non-verbal communication isn’t working to stop the disruptive behavior, and you feel
that you need to say something. It’s a good idea to put yourself at the same level as the
student (bend over or squat down) and talk to him or her in a quiet and calm voice. You
can ask things like, “What are you doing, Ghaffor?” “I see you’re not talking to your partner.
Why not?” This will do two things: It will bring the student’s focus and attention
away from their classmates and onto you, and it will not embarrass the student or make

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him or her angry. Calm is contagious. If you model speaking quietly, calmly and
respectfully, your student will respond similarly.

Another type of attention-seeking behavior that is common in secondary school

learners is wanting to always be the first person to answer, and dominating the
conversation whenever possible. Because opportunities for interaction play such an
important role in language learning, this is particularly important to address when it
happens.
Instead of posing questions to the whole class and allowing the first person that
volunteers to answer, you can use random call-on strategies when reviewing the
answers to homework or asking questions with very specific answers. This is not a good
strategy for opinion questions, because it can make students really nervous to suddenly
have to give their opinion in front of the whole class. One good random call-on strategy
is to have a set of wooden ice-cream bar sticks with each student’s name written on it.
You can pull a stick out of one container and call on that student and then put it in
another container so you don’t call on that student again until everyone else has had a
chance.
Because these types of students like to talk, sometimes the best strategy is to have a
talk with them. Ask them to stay after class and have a pleasant conversation. After a
short chat, you can say things like, “I’m glad you like to practice so much in class, but it’s
important everyone has a chance.” And then if it happens again (and it probably will),
you can say, “Umedjon, let’s give some others a chance, ok?” and the student will know
that you’re not saying that to be cruel or prevent him from speaking, but simply to get to hear
from everyone.
In small group discussions, in addition to the other roles discussed earlier in this
presentation, you can make one student responsible for making sure no one person
speaks for more than, for example, three minutes in a row.

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The classroom is a complex place where lots of different things are happening at the same time.
This can give rise to a wide variety of problems and challenges for the teacher that go beyond
strictly teaching.
There are many, many effective classroom management strategies for preventing inappropriate
behavior from occurring and for handling it if it does occur. Be sure to plan well for successful
classroom management, and be a great role model.
By providing a model of appropriate behavior, you’re already doing a lot towards effective
classroom management.

Lecture 22
The language learning task : TBL, CTB, PBL

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To promote language learning in the classroom, it is important to think about how
people communicate in the world outside the classroom and to design activities that
build these communication skills. If we start with a goal of communication (such as
sharing information or persuading), then we can scaffold the language and skills needed
to achieve this goal. One way to enhance motivation and practice in using a language to
communicate is by choosing “authentic tasks.”

Let’s start with the word “task.” This refers to what students do. The word task is very general
and can refer to anything that the teacher assigns to students. For example, completing a
grammar worksheet is a task. Or, the teacher might ask students to read a passage and then

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answer some multiple choice questions about it. These examples are all tasks; however, these
tasks are very classroom-based—they do not usually take place outside of an educational
environment. They also do not effectively promote communication using the target language.
A well-accepted definition of a task is a piece of classroom work that focuses primarily on
meaning and not as much on form.

Tasks that are based on activities that people engage in outside of the classroom are called
“authentic tasks.” The term authentic tasks can be included along with more traditional
language
learning activities (such as memorization and drills) to provide opportunities for students to go
beyond learning ABOUT language to learning to USE language. One type of common classroom
task is role play, where students act out parts in different situations, like at a restaurant or a
train station. These are useful activities; however, these simulations may only take students’
communication practice so far, as they do not truly require the use of the language to
communicate.
To reach a more communicative purpose for the use of the target language, teachers can plan
authentic tasks that make connections between the classroom and the world beyond the
classroom. For example, an authentic task may involve students identifying a problem in their
community that they wish to solve, conducting research about the problem, and developing a
plan of action, all using the target language. This might gather information about the issue by
sending emails or holding video conferences with experts who speak the target language. They
might create a website or a brochure that explains their findings.
The point is to give students the chance to use the language they are learning (English) “for a
real and useful purpose.” Authentic tasks have a “communicative goal” to “exchange real
information out of a real need for that information” (Dormer, p. 13).

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Pause here for a moment and write down your own definition of “authentic tasks.”
Write down 2 or 3 examples of what an authentic task IS and what an authentic task IS
NOT.

ow that you have your definition, how do you choose tasks with an authentic communicative
purpose? And how can this be done in an EFL setting where the target language is not
commonly
spoken?
First, you need to choose an authentic purpose for using the language. For instance, for your
English class, you might choose providing information to foreign visitors as your purpose.
This purpose can then help decide on the tasks. Students can help brainstorm the different ways

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that they could provide information to foreign visitors: creating a YouTube channel for people
planning a vacation, creating an information booklet or brochure, making a website or blog
about life in your city, or identifying where signs or posters with information could be posted in
the community. Then you can determine how these projects can be divided into smaller tasks
and what language is needed to successfully complete these tasks.
Pause for a moment to think about your school, city, and community. Can you think of tasks that
have an authentic purpose for communication that might work well in your community? Write
down 1-3 ideas.

After you choose a task for the class, you may need to divide it into multiple, smaller tasks. The
screen (Figure 1 from Dormer, p. 16) shows an example from an English class in Indonesia.
Their
class project was to create a booklet about how people live in Indonesia with the authentic
purpose of providing information to foreign visitors to their city. This larger class project was
divided into different tasks for several small groups. Finally, the small group tasks were divided
into individual or pair tasks. All of these tasks will contribute to the class project and involve
language learning.

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Students will need support in the vocabulary, grammar structures, and language skills that are
needed to complete the tasks. Identify what students’ needs will be so that you can plan
instruction. Students may also need to learn about cultural perspectives if their goal is to
communicate with people from other cultures or to share information about their own culture.
Finally, some tasks may also require teachers and students to learn new technology or to find
new sources of information and materials.
Pause for a moment and think about one of the ideas you wrote down earlier for an authentic
task that might work well for your students. Can it be divided into small group tasks and
individual tasks? Can you think of an example of language, cultural knowledge, or materials that
your students will need instruction in to complete this task?

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It is important to put language learning at the forefront when using authentic tasks in the
classroom. Think about how students have opportunities to learn different language skills and
maximize these opportunities through tasks. The table on the screen provides some ideas about
how to monitor and create clear opportunities for students to practice and develop different
language skills through authentic tasks. For example, if the task does not require oral language
use in English, then opportunities should be created, such as by requiring students to present
their findings to the class in the form of an oral presentation.
Pause for a moment to review the ideas about including different language skills into authentic
tasks (from Dormer, p. 16).

Finally, including authentic tasks in the classroom may bring some challenges, especially if

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students have never taken part in these types of tasks before! Use the principles for planning
for change from Task 5 to prepare for any difficulties.

Lecture 23
Blended learning and flipped classroom
The questions to be discussed

1. What Is A Flipped Classroom?

2. What Is Blended Learning?
3. Which Is More Effective and Why?
4. How to Create a Blended Learning Course in Your LMS
The difference between flipped and blended learning is that blended learning creates a more effective
way of presenting course material to employees in an engaging and efficient way while dealing with
the isolation due to the Covid-19 situation.

Blended Learning vs Flipped Classroom

Working towards a safer way to interact with learners in all fields, this global crisis had
led to an increase in at-home learning tools and environments. Some people wonder, is
there an easier way to help these organizations throughout these difficult times? People
are now working towards establishing a blended learning approach or flipped
classroom scenario to better engage with learners in their respective fields
worldwide.
Though it is sometimes hard to determine the difference between blended and flipped
learning, here is the easiest way to understand the differences. Blended learning is the
collaboration between in class or face-to-face education with online learning and other
course components.

In contrast, flipped classrooms are when the instructors create courses, texts, or lectures
that are watched or read at a student's own pace, and in-class teaching assists in
practicing the concepts learned in the videos or other course materials.

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But which one should you use? Here we will provide you with insights into the
significant differences and benefits of each and how they can be applied to a learner's
environment.

What Is a Flipped Classroom?

A flipped classroom reverses the traditional teaching role where the lessons are first
taught, and then homework is assigned.

Instead, the students first study the course material, typically through online
lectures, then learn how to implement what they learned in a classroom setting.
For example, students may watch online lectures, review online course materials and
texts, participate in online discussions or perform research at home.

When in the classroom, students will practice their skillsets by having face-to-face
discussions with peers, debating, making presentations, or having peer-reviewed
assessments. Basically, the students do homework at school in a classroom setting.

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What Are the Benefits of a Flipped Classroom?
There are several benefits of a flipped classroom. These are:

 Direct instruction that moves from group learning to individual learning

 It creates a dynamic and interactive learning environment
 Educators guide students as they learn to apply the concepts
 Student can engage creatively with the subject matter
 Flipping speaks the language of today's busy student, allowing them to excel
 Increases student-teacher and student-student interactions
 Increased transparency
 It gives learners more control over their education
What Are the Downsides to a Flipped Classroom?
When it comes to criticisms about a flipped classroom, the main points of contention
are:

 The reduced opportunity for self-directed, critical thinking

 That flipped classrooms decenter the role of the student
 The curriculum can be rushed and not register with the student
 Creates an almost industrialized approach to learning where students can become
overwhelmed

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  Flipping does not necessarily use the latest technology
 Creates a digital divide, separating those who are technologically-inclined from
those who aren't
 It relies heavily on student preparation, which may be lacking
 Increased time spent in front of a screen
How to Establish Best Practices for Flipped Classrooms
To create an optimum learning environment with a flipped classroom, it is best to create
engaging learning material and lectures. First, it is best to keep your lessons short, as
the average student's attention span begins to degrade after 10-15 minutes.

Creating in-class interactions like small-

group work divides up the time spent teaching and allows the learner to better grasp the
concepts. It would help if you also used online quizzes and gamification (creating online
games to aid understanding) to supplement learning.

However, the upfront cost and time to create online materials, such as videos, can cause
the most significant barrier to creating an effective flipped classroom. It can take
considerable time and technological knowledge to reach your learning objectives.
The good news is that you can reuse the videos year after year, essentially repurposing
them. However, many people do not have the technical know-how to make a flipped
classroom work.

It is best if you also found a balance between online work and in-class activities, making
sure not to overwhelm the student. Peer instruction will also play a major role in the
classroom learning environment. This can cause difficulties as learners may come to the
wrong conclusions based on what they are learning and then negatively influence other
students.

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Here is where mentoring and coaching comes in. To succeed with a flipped
classroom, you need an educator or teacher that understands how to make the
courses more interesting for both students and instructors.
What Is Blended Learning?
Blended learning is a pedagogical or educational approach that combines traditional
teaching methods, such as in a classroom setting, with eLearning technology, such
as online courses, lectures, presentations, quizzes, games and more.
It differs from flipped classroom techniques in that it works collaboratively with a
traditional classroom. Training comes from both the teacher and the online learning
modules that work together compatibly.
Blended Learning's adoption has grown throughout higher education around the world
and has become the new normality in the teaching-learning process. It optimizes the
use of in-classroom learning with an online environment.

Digital technologies have been adopted, creating media-rich digital learning platforms
personalized with adaptive courses and web conferencing tools that connect students
and teachers.

Engagement is key, which is where blended learning comes in. In The All-Important
E's of eLearning: Engagement and Effectiveness, it states that when employees are
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engaged with their work and goals, they outperform their fellow employees by
147%. This engagement is where blended learning shines.
Moving towards an impactful Learning Management System allows for more
personalization for individual learners, resulting in increased efficiency in the
workplace and other educational endeavours.

This ability to personalize the content helps identify struggling students and lets the
educator intercede before the student is too far off-track.

Blended learning creates more meaningful learning experiences and motivates learners
to use critical thinking skills. It also promotes retention in students and increases their
commitment to their educational goals.
It even improves workplace productivity. There are many benefits to a blended learning
environment if done with the right support, technology, and educational objectives.

What Are the Benefits of Blended Learning?

 Learner engagement is increased

 Increased flexibility and personalization in creating course modules

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  Increased one-on-one student interactions
 Learner characteristics and learning experiences are taken into account to
promote engagement that leads to desired outcomes
 Focuses on the potential of each modality to create better and meaningful
learning through effective practices
 Allows online tracking, which can help target 'at risk' learners quickly
 Can create interactive simulations
 Uses visual, auditory and interactive content
 Reduces time strain allowing students to learn at a good pace
 Increases preparedness and knowledge
 Increases quality of training
 Allows for better reporting and analytics
 Tracks and improves engagement
 Overcomes geographical constraints
What Is the Downside to Blended Learning?
 Some technologies can be challenging instead of being useful

 It can require a tutor or mentor that needs to be highly skilled in eLearning

 Total teaching time is about the same between both flipped and blended
classrooms
 Teachers may overdo it with educational activities and content causing a
cognitive overload
 It has been found that in assignments, the credibility of sources decreased, and
plagiarism increased
 Can require a significant investment in technology, like hardware and software
Best Practices for Blended Learning
To create your online learning platform for your business or organization it is best
to determine your primary goals and learning objectives. You can then create a
comprehensive and cohesive learning strategy by picking the best features for your
learning structures.
Your choices should work together seamlessly to best teach your prospective students.
You should also enable communication for the learners through creating forums and

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instant messaging platforms. Also, a successful coach or mentor is needed to bring
blended learning together.
You also need to know your audience. This knowledge allows you to determine your
primary objectives.

Figure out what your learner's abilities are and when or where the learning will take
place. Identify which skillsets and information are required and what your audience's
limitations are. This way, you can create custom learning plans that will stick with those
you are trying to educate.

Which Is More Effective and Why?

As we have seen, both flipped and blended learning can be useful in their own ways.
However, determining which method is best for you and your students' needs should
depend on which will work better for your educational aspirations.

Flipped Learning's Failings

In a 2016 study, a statistics professor changed their teaching method to that of a flipped
classroom. She had her students read the course's textbook ahead of the class, then

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provided regular reading quizzes and worked through problem sets in class. It was
found that students using the flipped model performed 10% better on their overall
course grades.

However, there were many downsides.

The educator found that the flipped classroom wasn't effectively achieved, saying that
they only managed to alter the class to a half or three-quarters flip. Also, the textbook
was found not to be a suitable method of course material delivery.
Meaning, they did not determine the correct balance between course materials and
lectures to maximize students' learning abilities. These are just a few of the weaknesses
of flipped learning.

It was also hard to determine if outcomes were achieved.

They determined that biased grading could have affected the outcome. And they also
found that students were less satisfied with how the flipped classroom format
oriented them towards their learning goals.
The study concluded that this was likely due to poor connections between the online
portions, the assigned homework, and the face-to-face learning environment.

Blended Learning and Its Effectiveness

A study on the effectiveness of using blended learning strategies for teaching and
learning human anatomy showed that those who participated in a blended learning
course had a higher pass rate of 87.9% versus the 71.4% pass rate for a traditional
classroom.
This improved students' success by a whole letter grade, demonstrating the strength of
blended learning.

The case study Blended Learning in Healthcare: A Toolkit for a Blended Learning
Approach in Clinical Training discusses the active learning model that blended learning
creates. Here, the teaching responsibility shifts from the teacher to the student, which
engages and empowers the learner, creating an overall better learning experience.
Connecting what is learned in the courses to the workplace is an essential
step because retention of what a student learns in a classroom or online is not
guaranteed.

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By creating real-life situations to test and measure student success, you can better grasp
where things are slipping through the cracks, thus creating a better learning environment
for future learners.

What Case Studies Say:

In the case study, Canadian Avalanche Association Increases Quality of Training by
Using Blended Learning; you will discover how blended learning has greatly affected
Canadian Avalanche professionals' learning outcomes.
They created a course using a Learning Management System (LMS) and saw a
noticeable increase in their learners' performance, allowing them to perform better
in-field. They also saw a reduction in costs, as they no longer needed to host as many
in-person classes.
These are just a few benefits that make blended learning the best choice for many
organizations and businesses.

Do you want to learn more?

CONTACT US
How to Reach Your Company's Objectives and Stay Compliant With Blended Learning
To increase the effectiveness of your blended learning strategies, you first need to make
sure your course aligns with your business objectives or goals.

The e-book Compliance and Competency Training Made Easy With LMS outlines
seven steps to achieve a solid framework for educating core competencies in your
employees or students in far more depth than we will cover here.
First, you need to define your purpose by asking a few questions, such as:
 Why are you educating your learners?

 Is it for compliance reasons, training, onboarding, or measuring performance?

Once you uncover what your purpose is, you should then observe your employees in
action. For example, you can investigate what they are doing daily, how they are
performing, and what they could be doing better.
Then you need to engage and involve your workers. Try to understand how your
trainees feel about their positions.
Determine if their needs are being met and what they think should be changed about
their roles. This engagement is a vital step in achieving top-performing results.
You can then set your goals by figuring out what you want to accomplish and writing
them down. Define your employee groups by creating hierarchies, establishing
competencies and developing essential skills and areas of training needed.
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It is also vital that you provide the coaching and training which will best help your
company. You need to determine what type of coaching is required and your
educator's ideal skills and attributes.
Finally, you link your research to align with your business's objectives. Outline what
your company's goals are and how training can be linked back to them. You will need
tools that help your company perform and demonstrates the return on investment.
Ask the stakeholders how they would define learner success. This will determine how
the course should be evaluated for ROI, such as training costs, engagement rates, and
working capital.

Studies have found that professional support that focuses on the instructor's beliefs and
ideations provided more success in creating a blended learning structure. This support is
where an excellent LMS with personalized support for your business and educators
comes in.

To learn more, check out Attract Star Talent and Keep Them! Learning Paths for
Employee Retention. Here you will discover ways to tap into a great LMS's features and
create courses that improve employee retention and engagement.
Now that you know a bit about the technological strategies involved with creating an
effective course, you can begin building your blended learning initiative.

Do you want to learn more about us?

CONTACT US
How to Create a Blended Learning Course in Your LMS
Now that you know the tools, you can begin building your course. Once you have the
outline of your course in your Learning Management System, here are the basics of
implementing a blended learning approach.

If you do not currently have an LMS, feel free to take a peek at these additional
resources to determine the right solution for your needs:
 Open Source vs Proprietary LMS: How Do I Choose?
 11 Must-Have LMS Features Checklist for New LMS Buyers

NOTE:
In the following examples we will be showcasing our own Learning Management System (La
Learn).
However, the process and terminology will be essentially the same regardless of which LMS yo
currently utilizing. If you'd like to learn more about Lambda Learn, visit our page here.
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Step 1: Determine Your Course Assets
First, you need to know what your assets are. What is your business’s pre-existing
course content?
Determine what course materials are already in place and what resources you have.
These can include text or audio files, documents, videos, multimedia and interactive
content.

You should also assess what resources you get from outside sources. Once you know
what assets you have, you can then move on to the next step.

Step 2: Audit Your Tools and Features

Now it is time to figure out what the capabilities of your LMS are.

Determine what built-in activities are supported, for instance, course creation tools like
Articulate or H5P. Also, check to see if your LMS supports output file formats like
SCORM. These tools will make up the framework for you to build your course.
Real-time connectivity and engagement are key in a great LMS. Here it is important
that your learner-instructor and learner-learner feedback is made available to your
business.
This way it helps you gauge the effectiveness of your course goals, by ensuring that
you can have lines of open communication and by being able to figure out where the
course’s and your student’s strengths and weaknesses lie.
Ideally, your LMS should support learner activities like chats, discussion forums,
quizzes and other course activities that allow for learner and communication
assessments.
Other LMS capabilities should also include assignment drop boxes, collaborative
wikis and interactive glossaries.
With these in place, your curriculum can be implemented and you can manage and
evaluate the learning process from initiation to completion.

Step 3: How to Add Resources

Resources are files or documents that are used by the course creator to educate the
learner. In order to add course resources, the course creator (CC) or instructional
designer (ID) can add resources in edit mode by clicking the ‘Add an activity or

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resource’ button.

NOTE:

1. In Lambda Learn terminology, an Activity, such as Forums or Quizzes, properly m

something learners can contribute to directly, and is often contrasted to a Resource su
a File or Page, which is the content course presentation media used by the course cr
However, the term activity is sometimes for convenience also used to refe
both Activities and Resources as a group.

A link with an icon will appear which represents the kind of resource you may wish to
add. In Lambda Learn it can look like this:

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Click which one you’d like to add and upload the desired resource. You can then add
descriptions if you wish.

Step 4: How to Add Course Activities

Counter to resources, course activities are features that learners can interact with, as
well as engage with other learners and instructors.
Once again you just need to click the ‘Add Activity or Resource’ button, choose the
appropriate icon and upload your activity. Activities, like quizzes or assignments, are
typically graded through your LMS.
Some examples of Activities you can use for Blended Learning can include:
 Assignments

 Forums
 Chat Groups
 Wikis for Collaborative Work
 Collaborative Glossary
 Database (for community use/contribution),
 Feedback Surveys
 Custom Questionnaires
 H5P Interactive Content

Step 5: Setting Up Seminars

In order to add Seminar activities with Events to a course, the Seminar activity must be
enabled on your site.
In Lambda Learn, site administrators can enable the Seminar activity from
the Administration menu by going to Plugins > Activity modules > Manage activities.
Here you will need to click the Hide/Show toggle icon ( , ) next to
the Seminar activity so that the eye icon appears open.

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Seminar Default Settings
To minimize any additional configurations of Seminars and Events for course creators
and facilitators, a site administrator can create default settings for these based on the
typical workflow or parameters set out by your organization.

There are essentially 7 types of settings you'll need to consider:

1. General Settings
These include things like email notification settings, cancellation functionality, and
event display settings for course pages.
2. Sign-Up Workflow
The Sign-up Workflow settings manage how attendees sign-up for seminars. This
includes rules for how many times a user can sign-up, waitlists, and approval
requirements.

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An Example of a sign-up workflow from Lambda Learn.
3. Seminar Activity Completion
If enabled, activity completion is tracked, either manually or automatically, based on
certain conditions.

For the Seminar activity, it is recommended to use the Require status activity
completion condition if the intention is to track completion based on attendance.

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 An example of Seminar
Activity Completion settings from Lambda Learn

4. Add A Seminar Event

After adding a seminar activity to a course page, events should be created that contain
the specific date, time, and location (sessions) for the instructor-led/classroom-based
training (when known).

Any number of events may be added to a seminar activity with all activity settings
applicable to each Event. And an event can be made up of any number of sessions.

An example of how to add Seminar Events with Lambda Learn:

 Log in as a Site Administrator or Editing Trainer and navigate to (or create) the
required course.
 Click on the name of the Seminar event or View all events from the course
homepage.
 Click the Add a new event link.
 Enter the relevant details for the Event as per the below, including
any Custom fields.
 Click Save changes to add the Event or Cancel to discard your changes

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5. Add an Event Session
An Event can have many Sessions. The Date and Time setting of an Event is effectively
its session. This includes time zone, start time, and finish time information. The more
dates and times you add, the more sessions your event has.

This is also where you can Add/Assign the trainer or instructor for the Event and
Sessions.

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6. Event Attendance
Once Attendees are booked and confirmed for a Seminar Event and the start time of the
training has passed, an Administrator, Trainer, or Instructor can take attendance.

In Lambda Learn there are two ways to do this:

Individual Attendance
You can mark attendance for each individual by using the corresponding Current
status dropdown to select 'No Show', 'Partially Attended', or 'Fully Attended' as
required. A learner's status can be updated at any point once an Event has started.
Click Save attendance to save any changes or Cancel to clear all changes and return to
the Attendees tab.

Bulk Attendance
Alternatively, you can mark attendance in bulk. Using the Select dropdown
choose All, Set, or Not Set then set the Mark all selected as dropdown to No
Show, Partially Attended, or Fully Attended as required.

In Lambda Learn you can Export all users and their saved Attendance status to Excel,
OSD or CSV. Choose the required format from the dropdown menu and choose either
the Open or Save File option when prompted.
7. Manage Seminar Notifications
Being able to effectively communicate with your learners is key to any learning
environment, so being able to quickly and easily keep attendees informed with
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notifications for various actions, updates and milestones related to a seminar activity
and the associated events is essential.

In Lambda Learn you can easily automate all of the following notification types to save
your Admins and Instructors extra effort while keeping all your learners on the same
page:

 Seminar booking cancellation

A message is sent as confirmation when a participant cancels their own booking.

 Seminar booking confirmation

A message is sent as confirmation when a participant makes a booking.

 Seminar booking date/time changed

A message is sent if the date or time of the seminar is adjusted.

 Seminar booking reminder

A reminder email is sent to all participants before the event.

 Seminar event registration closure

When the sign-up period for an event closes a message is sent to all participants who
have requested booking approval but had not yet received a response. Any pending
requests are automatically declined at this time.

And that's it for the Blended Learning Setup essentials!

If you haven't switched to a blended learning environment, now is the time. In a Post-
COVID-19 world, many professions have switched to remote training as a safer way to
work during these trying times.

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 Lecture 24
Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments

Key words: interactive technology, interactive method, communication, dialogue,

discussion, brainstorming, case, project, role play, presentation.

INTRODUCTION Nowadays, the importance of teaching a foreign language effectively has grown
significantly in the world, especially in developing countries, such as Ukraine. According to the new
decree, the year of 2016 in Ukraine has been declared “The Year of English” by our president Petro
Poroshenko. "Considering the role of English as a language of international communication, to
promote its study to expand public access to the world's economic, social, educational and cultural
opportunities offered by the knowledge and use of English, ensuring the integration of Ukraine into
the European political, economic, scientific and educational space for the support of the program “Go
Global”, which defines learning English a priority development strategy". A complex of measures is
being taken to intensify English learning in Ukraine. Among them is raising teaching standards at all
stages of education, which means improving both teachers’ proficiency and methods of teaching. As
it is known, today there is an important shift from passive to active learning. Therefore, special
attention is paid to strengthening the technological aspects of specialist training and implementation
centered approach to the learning process where the student takes an active part in cognitive
activity. Foreign language teachers must find ways to increase the level of students’ involvement in
the process of studying, to raise their motivation for learning languages. One way to reach these
goals is using interactive technologies at classes. It helps to develop students’ creativity, imagination,
increase their cognitive interest in studying foreign languages and improve their communicative skills.
The term “interactive learning technology” is usually connected with computer or multimedia
learning, as it implies interactive dialogue with real partners and direct exchange of messages. But
this notion is wider and means collective cognitive activity where all participants interact, exchange
information, solve problems in atmosphere of real collaboration, estimate their own actions. The
problem of using the interactive methods of teaching foreign languages at the higher educational
establishments was also studied by R. Blair, S. Martinelli, L. Konoplianyk, H. Stern, E. Polat, M. Tailor
and others. Interactive learning technologies include clearly planned learning results, interactive
methods, tools, and forms stimulating the learning process, cognitive and mental conditions and
procedures for achieving planned results. Thus, interactive technology comprises a scope of
interactive methods that a teacher uses in his work.

Practices in language education vary significantly by region. Firstly, the languages being learned differ; in
the United States, Spanish is the most popular language to be learned, whereas the most popular
languages to be learned in Australia are German, French, Italian and Mandarin Chinese. Also, teaching
methods tend to differ by region. Language immersion is popular in some European countries, and not
used very much in the United States.

Europe
Foreign language education
1995 European Commission’s White Paper "Teaching and learning – Towards the learning society", stated
that "upon completing initial training, everyone should be proficient in two Community foreign languages".
The Lisbon Summit of 2000 defined languages as one of the five key skills.

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In fact, even in 1974, at least one foreign language was compulsory in all but two European member
states: Ireland and the United Kingdom (apart from Scotland). By 1998 nearly all pupils in Europe studied
at least one foreign language as part of their compulsory education, the only[citation needed] exception being the
Republic of Ireland, where primary and secondary schoolchildren learn both Irish and English, but neither
is considered a foreign language although a third European language is also taught. Pupils in upper
secondary education learn at least two foreign languages
in Belgium, France, Denmark, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Switzerland, Greece,
Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovenia and Slovakia.

On average in Europe, at the start of foreign language teaching, pupils have lessons for three to four hours
a week. Compulsory lessons in a foreign language normally start at the end of primary school or the start
of secondary school. In Luxembourg, Norway, Italy, Malta and Spain, however, the first foreign language
starts at age six, in Denmark at age seven and in Belgium at age 10. About half of the EU's primary school
pupils learn a foreign language.

English is the language taught most often at the lower secondary level in the EU. There, 93% of children
learn English. At upper secondary level, English is even more widely taught. French is taught at lower
secondary level in all EU countries except Slovenia. A total of 33% of European Union pupils learn French
at this level. At upper secondary level the figure drops slightly to 28%. German is taught in nearly all EU
countries. A total of 13% of pupils in the European Union learn German in lower secondary education, and
20% learn it at an upper secondary level.

Despite the high rate of foreign language teaching in schools, the number of adults claiming to speak a
foreign language is generally lower than might be expected. This is particularly true of native English
speakers: in 2004 a British survey[which?] showed that only one in 10 UK workers could speak a foreign
language. Less than 5% could count to 20 in a second language, for example. 80% said they could work
abroad anyway, because "everyone speaks English." In 2001, a European Commission survey[which?] found
that 65.9% of people in the UK spoke only their native tongue.

Since the 1990s, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages has tried to standardize
the learning of languages across Europe (one of the first results being UNIcert).

Bilingual education
In some countries, learners have lessons taken entirely in a foreign language: for example, more than half
of European countries with a minority or regional language community use partial immersion to teach both
the minority and the state language.

In the 1960s and 1970s, some central and eastern European countries created a system of bilingual
schools for well-performing pupils. Subjects other than languages were taught in a foreign language. In the
1990s this system was opened to all pupils in general education, although some countries still make
candidates sit an entrance exam. At the same time, Belgium, France,
the Netherlands, Austria and Finland also started bilingual schooling schemes. Germany meanwhile had
established some bilingual schools in the late 1960s.

United Kingdom
French, German, and Spanish are taught in most schools, but the UK Government does not mandate the
teaching of particular languages.[1]

In England, all local authority-run schools must teach at least one foreign language to pupils between the
ages of 7 and 14. At Key Stage 2 (ages 7 to 11), such schools must teach a modern or ancient language,
while at Key Stage 3 (ages 11 to 14) they must teach a modern language.[2] However, academies and free
schools are exempt from this requirement. Furthermore, languages have not been compulsory beyond the
age of 14 since 2004.[3]

In Scotland, the Scottish Government is implementing a "1+2" policy, giving pupils an "entitlement to learn
a language" from the age of 4 or 5 until the age of 14 or 15. As of 2021, the policy intends for all schools to
offer one additional language from Primary 1 (ages 4-6) and a second additional language from Primary 5
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(ages 8-10). Both are expected to be taught until the end of Secondary 3 (ages 13-15). The government
will not mandate specific languages, but rather these will be decided by schools and local authorities.[4]

Language-learning uptake has been declining among UK students for decades, with French and German
falling the most in the period 2013-2019.[5][6] In 2020 it was reported that 30% of secondary schools in
Scotland were failing to offer even one additional language, even though they are required by government
to offer two.[7]

United States
In most school systems, foreign language is taken in high school, with many schools requiring one to three
years of foreign language in order to graduate. In some school systems, foreign language is also taught
during middle school, and more recently, many elementary schools have been teaching foreign languages
as well. However, foreign language immersion programs are growing in popularity, making it possible for
elementary school children to begin serious development of a second language.

In 2008 the Center for Applied Linguistics conducted an extensive survey documenting foreign language
study in the United States.[8] The most popular language is Spanish, due to the large number of recent
Spanish-speaking immigrants to the United States (see Spanish in the United States). According to this
survey, in 2008 88% of language programs in elementary schools taught Spanish, compared to 93% in
secondary schools. Other languages taught in U.S. high schools in 2008, in descending order of
frequency, were French, German, Latin, Mandarin Chinese, American Sign Language, Italian,
and Japanese. During the Cold War, the United States government pushed for Russian education, and
some schools still maintain their Russian programs.[9] Other languages recently gaining popularity
include Arabic. The Center for Applied Linguistics also conducted a study that concluded that while the
number of schools from the elementary to secondary level offering foreign language instruction are on the
rise, a pitfall of the curriculum is that students are not becoming proficient in the target
languages. Researchers also note that American students of foreign languages significantly underperform
in comparison to their European and Asian counterparts. It has been suggested that a system where
foreign language instruction is required from PK-12 should be implemented in order to fix this problem.

Lecture 25
Stages of teaching foreign languages

Presentation Objective

By the end of this presentation, you will be able to name and define the different stages of a
communicative lesson explain how the stages build on one another in a sequence explain
connections between a communicative lesson objective and the stages of the lesson

Orientation
“Staging a lesson” means creating a structured sequence
of activities that lead to the lesson objective.

1. Prior knowledge elicited (recall)

2. Presentation and highly structured practice (learning and processing)
4. Use in real-life situations (application and synthesis)
3. Practice with less guidance (analysis and evaluation)
Consider: Can you think of an example of lesson staging from your own experience as a learner?

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 Elements of a Well-Staged Lesson
A well staged lesson
 Elicits and builds on learners’ prior knowledge Uses structured (risk-free)
practice to build learner knowledge and understanding
 Provides opportunities to use new language with less guidance to build
confidence, control, and ownership
 Encourages and enables learners to try out the new language, risks and all, in
real-life situations
Analysis of an Example

Think about what you saw and heard in the New American Horizons video Teaching Grammar
in Real-life Contexts (http://www.newamericanhorizons.org/training-videos).
What stages did you see?
How did the stage(s) build toward the lesson objective?

Lesson objective:
Learners will be able to use the present perfect and the past tense accurately to describe their life
and work experiences (in order to answer experience questions in job interviews later).

To begin, the teacher used a warmup and an introduction:

Introduction
Teacher presented goal of talking about life events.

Warm up /review
Teacher showed pictures from her past and put various events on her timeline.

Then she presented the grammar in the context she had established in the warmup. This was
followed by practice.

Interactive presentation
Teacher talked about the timeline, elicited learners’ prior knowledge, helped learners use
grammar in context.
Practice
Teacher and learners talked about two famous people using the grammar that had been
presented.

Examples from the Practice Stage

Guided activities
Students make sentences using “for” and “since”
“Ball toss” drill with question “How long have you lived in Minnesota?”
Interview grid

Examples from the Practice Stage

Communicative activities
Guessing about Barack Obama’s and Marc Anthony’s lives
Information gap activity about Obama and Anthony
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Potential Evaluation Tasks

The video does not show the lesson evaluation. How would you have evaluated learners’
achievement of the objective?

Learners complete a paper and pencil test with fill-in-the-blank of teacher’s life story; students
use "for" and "since" clues to guide choice of verb forms.
Learners ask and answer questions about their life events. Two questions require use of the
simple past, two require use of the present perfect.
Learners correct a paragraph that has errors in simple past and present perfect usage.
Learners listen to an interview with Obama where he talks about his past. Learners mark
whether he answers a question in the past or present perfect.

Ways of Staging a Lesson

The next four slides describe different ways of staging a lesson. As you review them, think about
these questions:

What do the different staging models have in common?

Which type(s) of staging have you experienced as a language learner?
Which type(s) of staging, if any, would you consider most effective in your teaching context?
Why?

EL lesson planning
The important condition of effectiveness of ELT is planning of teachers and
students activity for a lesson and a system of lessons. The aim of EL lesson planning
is to define the content of the lesson and algorithm of operations and actions of the
teacher and learners.
Thematic plan is enveloped as a serial number of lessons. As a rule, it is one o f
the themes of communication, which includes itself also vocabulary, grammar and
country-study material.
Perspective planning defines the system of a teacher and students activity for the
whole stage of ELT.
There are different principles of lesson planning. The most important among them
are variety, flexibility, examining the subject matter from the learners’ point of view,
considering individual differences, language backgrounds and past experience.

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 The structure of the lesson
There is no general scheme of the lesson structure which can be obligatory for all
lessons. Some of the stages o f a lesson are involving into language atmosphere. This
stage includes various tasks or activities. One of them is a phonetic drill. The
atmosphere communication created at the beginning of the lesson can last during the
whole lesson. The dominant place is given to the teacher’s communicative action
related to motivation, instructions, control and evaluation.
These stages are considered as reasonable from methodical point of view:
1. Involving into the language atmosphere;
2. Explanation of the new material and algorithm of operations and actions with it;
3. Doing exercises as practicing and activating the new material;
4. Writing down and explanation of the homework, summarizing the lesson’s results
and marking.
In the domestic methodology the following types of the lesson are
distinguished’"’:
1)The lessons are directed to acquire a) language elements on lexical, phonetic
and grammatical levels and language use as a result of this type of a lesson is obtaining
the linguistic competence.
2) The lessons are directed to acquire communicative activity. The aim of this
type of a lesson is developing listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.
3) The lessons which combine previous types of lessons are directed to acquire
knowledge, language sub-skills and communicative skills. In the practice of teaching
the preference is given more to this type of a lesson.
Besides in methodology of FLT the different lesson organization approaches as
teaching models are used:
1) Presentation -> Practice -> Production (PPP);
192
2) Engage -> Study -> Activate (ESA);
3) Test -> Teach -> Test (TTT);
4) Task-based approach (TBA).

Questions:
1. What is the aim of teaching according to the text?
2. What qualities are required from teachers in order to develop the full potential of each
child?
3. How should the teaching process be organized for today's children, and why?
4. What does it mean to create an ideal learning environment, and why is it important?
5. What are some examples of general habits and words that a teacher should avoid
when trying to engage students with a topic?
6. Why are animated videos and presentations important parts of effective teaching?
7. How can a teacher use real examples in their speech to engage students with a topic?
8. What are some modern requirements for foreign language lessons, and how can
lesson plans be produced based on these requirements?

Correct answers:
1. The aim of teaching is to develop the full potential of each child.
2. Teachers need to be responsible, creative, and energetic in order to notice the pupils'
interest and desire immediately.
3. Teaching process should be organized by providing an active atmosphere and
recognizing that each child is individual.
4. An ideal learning environment is one where the pupil sees, hears and feels the
material themselves and behaves freely, which helps them absorb the topic better.
5. General habits and words like "This year is going to be great", "You are going to
learn all about...", "What did we learn during last..." should be avoided because they do
not engage students with the topic.
6. Animated videos and presentations are important parts of effective teaching because
they help students visualize and understand complex concepts.
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7. A teacher can use real examples in their speech to engage students with a topic by
making it more relatable and interesting.
8. Modern requirements for foreign language lessons include creating an interactive and
communicative classroom environment, using technology effectively, and incorporating
cultural elements into lessons. Lesson plans can be produced based on these
requirements by focusing on student-centered activities, using authentic materials, and
incorporating real-life situations into lessons.
Questions:
1. What is the goal of each lesson, and why is it important?
2. How should a teacher define the goal of a lesson in relation to the whole system of
lessons?
3. What is the role of speech themes in organizing a cycle of lessons?
4. How can a teacher plan for developing communicative skills within a cycle of lessons?
5. How long can a cycle of lessons last, and what is the recommended distribution of
material across the cycle?
6. What are some possible activities that can be included in a successful lesson, and how do
they promote learning?
7. What are the four possible ways to arrange a class, and how do they differ in terms of
learning potentials?
8. When is whole-class teaching appropriate, and when should a teacher transition to other
types of learning?
9. Why does the goal of the lesson determine the character of homework?
10. What is the author's main argument about conducting a successful lesson?

Correct answers:
1. The goal of each lesson is an important part of the learning outcome, and understanding it
is crucial for effective teaching.
2. A teacher should not define the goal of a lesson irrelatively with the whole system of
lessons, as this can lead to confusion and lack of coherence.
3. Speech themes play a central role in defining the cycle of lessons, as they provide a
content-communicative principle for organizing the material.
4. A teacher can plan for developing communicative skills by selecting words and structures
to learn, situations and patterns to follow, and materials for practice and production.
5. A cycle of lessons can last 3-6 lessons, with the early stage lasting 2-3 lessons and 5-9
forms lasting 5-6 lessons. The work is distributed into the cycle according to the stages of
developing necessary skills.
6. Possible activities that can be included in a successful lesson include whole-class teaching,
individual work, group work, and pair work. These activities promote learning by creating
opportunities for interaction among the teacher and students.
7. The four possible ways to arrange a class are whole-class teaching, individual work, group
work, and pair work. They differ in terms of learning potentials, with each offering different
benefits and drawbacks.
8. Whole-class teaching is appropriate when introducing new material or concepts, while
other types of learning can be used to promote student-to-student interaction and allow
students to work at their own pace.
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9. The goal of the lesson determines the character of homework because it reflects what was
taught during the lesson and what skills need to be developed further.
10. The author's main argument is that conducting a successful lesson requires careful
planning based on speech themes, clear goals and objectives, and effective use of different
types of interactions between the teacher and students.

Questions:
1. What is the aim of EL lesson planning?
2. How is a thematic plan structured in ELT, and what does it typically include?
3. What is perspective planning in ELT, and what does it define?
4. What are some important principles of lesson planning in ELT?
5. Is there a general scheme for the structure of an ELT lesson?
6. What is the purpose of involving students into the language atmosphere at the beginning
of a lesson?
7. What are the four stages of a lesson that are considered reasonable from a methodical
point of view?
8. What are the three types of lessons distinguished in domestic methodology, and what are
their aims?
9. What are some different approaches to lesson organization used as teaching models in
FLT?

Correct answers:
1. The aim of EL lesson planning is to define the content of the lesson and algorithm of
operations and actions of the teacher and learners.
2. A thematic plan is structured as a serial number of lessons, usually focused on one theme
of communication that includes vocabulary, grammar, and country-study material.
3. Perspective planning defines the system of a teacher and students activity for the whole
stage of ELT.
4. Important principles of lesson planning in ELT include variety, flexibility, examining the
subject matter from the learners' point of view, considering individual differences, language
backgrounds, and past experience.
5. No, there is no general scheme for the structure of an ELT lesson.
6. Involving students into the language atmosphere at the beginning of a lesson helps create
a communicative environment that can last throughout the lesson.
7. The four stages of a lesson that are considered reasonable from a methodical point of
view are: involving into the language atmosphere; explanation of the new material and
algorithm of operations and actions with it; doing exercises as practicing and activating the
new material; writing down and explanation of the homework, summarizing the lesson's
results and marking.
8. The three types of lessons distinguished in domestic methodology are: language elements
on lexical, phonetic and grammatical levels; communicative activity; and a combination of
knowledge, language sub-skills, and communicative skills.
9. Different approaches to lesson organization used as teaching models in FLT include
Presentation -> Practice -> Production (PPP); Engage -> Study -> Activate (ESA); Test ->
Teach -> Test (TTT); and Task-based approach (TBA).

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 PPP Presentation, Practice, Production
Presentation of the target language and content
2. Practice of the target language and content in guided, accuracy-focused activities
3. Production of the target language and content in less controlled, fluency-focused activities

TBI - Task-based Instruction

This model is also called Task-based Learning

Teacher primes and prepares the learners

Learners complete the task
Learners develop reports on the results
Learners report back and get feedback
Teacher provides focus on form as needed

Lecture 26
Error correction and feedback

Correction
As mentioned previously, research has shown that correcting students’ grammar errors
when they speak does not often result in improvement in their grammatical accuracy.
Also, correction can disrupt communication and discourage learners. However, error
correction probably helps learners at least a little, not only because many learners want
and expect it but also because “negotiation for meaning, including the repair of
communication breakdown, plays a formative role in language acquisition. . . . To
achieve autonomy in a skill such as speaking, the learner first needs to experience the
mediation of a ‘better other,’ whether parent, peer, or teacher” (Thornbury, 2012, p.
202). The question thus becomes when and how to correct.
Correction is most called for when errors interfere with communication — when you
can’t understand what a student is trying to say. The disadvantages of interrupting here
are minimal because communication has already broken down, and the student needs to
know that the message is not getting through. Other kinds of errors that are good
candidates for correction include
1. Errors that are highly stigmatized and that might result in a student seeming rude,
offensive, or ignorant.
2. Frequent or patterned errors. For example, correcting occasional confusion between
countable and ncountable nouns is less important than correcting a consistent, patterned
failure to use plural forms.

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 3. Errors that reflect misunderstanding of a point that you have recently taught. For
example, the –s added to verbs used in conjunction with the third-person singular
pronoun (I go/you go/she goes) deserves more attention if you taught the point this
week than it might at other times.
FROM DON: I’m reminded of a young official at a bicycle registration station in
Guangzhou who led me into his office, filled out a form for me, then turned around and,
with a smile, said “Get out!” Sensing miscommunication, I suggested gently in Chinese
that get out was not entirely polite. He took this news in, pondered a minute, brightened
up, and said, “Get out, please!” ome students are put off less by correction and learn
more from it than other students, so part of the art of knowing when to correct is being
sensitive to how much intrusion the students can bear.
One form of correction you can use in class is the one used most often by native
speakers in natural conversation: a corrected repetition of the learner’s faulty utterance
(e.g., Student: “I like to listen radio.” Teacher: “Ah, you like to listen to the radio.”).
This kind of subtle correction disrupts communication less than directly pointing out
errors does, and students will eventually learn to listen for it; however, unless you
explicitly point out this habit to students as a form of correction, many may miss these
repetitions. A more direct approach to correction is to pinpoint the error by interrupting
and repeating the few words right before the mistake (e.g., Student: “And then I eated
the food.” eacher: “And then I . . .”), giving the student a chance to self-correct. This
approach is appropriate for errors that are asy to correct quickly.
For either of the approaches mentioned above to work, your feedback needs to come as
soon as possible after the erroneous statement. If you restate an utterance or call
attention to an error immediately after it has been made, students are more likely to be
able to find the problem.
Delayed correction is often more obtrusive because when you remind students of what
they said wrong, they may mistake your reminder for the correction itself, thus creating
confusion and necessitating further explanation. Here’s an example:
Teacher: A minute ago you said “I like to listen radio.”
Student: I like to listen radio.
Teacher: No, no, you said “I like to listen radio,” but you should say “I like to listen to
the radio.”
Student: Pardon?
All too often in such cases, you can begin correcting the error only after the student has
been publicly convicted of making it, so it is usually better to let the error go or make a
note of it for later.
A final note on error correction: Many students have the mistaken impression that all
native speakers of English should and will correct mistakes; in fact, we have heard

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students complain quite bitterly about native speakers who fail to live up to this
assumed obligation. You should let students know that this is an unreasonable
expectation for native speakers of any language. Most people are not language teachers
and do not engage in conversation for the purpose of teaching language. Additionally, in
many cultures, correcting other people’s mistakes is considered rude. As noted, native
speakers sometimes repeat corrected versions of flawed utterances, but they generally
correct or teach overtly only when asked or when communication breaks down
completely.
Students need to understand this because many believe that being surrounded by native
speakers who will vertly correct mistakes is the only way they can achieve English-
speaking success. Of course, being immersed in an English language environment is
very helpful to a learner, but not because of correction. The main advantage of having
such an environment is that it provides more opportunities for practice and extensive
English language input.
However, whether students are in an English-speaking environment or not, they will
only benefit from English input if they learn to attend to it and then correct their
own mistakes.
Evaluation
When considering evaluation of spoken skills, you should keep two goals in mind.
Obviously, one goal is to find out how well the students can speak. The second, and
perhaps more important goal, is the backwash that oral testing creates: Students are
most likely to practice speaking if you test oral skills. With speaking skills, backwash is
especially important to consider; because speaking skills are more difficult to test than
other language skills, many teachers neglect them.
Interviewing is generally the best way to evaluate spoken skills, so we focus on
interviews here. However, complete reliance on interviewing may be impractical in
many situations, so we also briefly discuss other approaches to evaluation.
Interviews
Interviewing is the form of evaluation closest to actual conversation and has excellent
backwash on students. It also allows you a rare opportunity to focus on individual
students’ speaking skills in a situation where you can determine their level of speaking
skill relatively accurately. The main drawback of interviewing is that it is very time-
consuming, sometimes prohibitively so for large classes. Interviews are often used as a
pretest (and a chance to get to know the students at the beginning of a course) and as a
final examination.

Preparing for the Interview

The first step in preparation is deciding what exactly you are looking for. Grammatical
accuracy? Use of material taught in your course? Pronunciation? Overall
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communicative skill? Your choices should flow naturally from the goals you set for
your course and the kinds of practice activities you have given your students. The
backwash will be stronger if you let students know well before the final exam how they
will be evaluated and how they should prepare.
Secondly, draw up a list of topics or questions, giving yourself an adequate supply so
that you need not use exactly the same ones with each student. Questions should reflect
a range of difficulty so that you have easier questions for students at lower levels and
more challenging ones for those with more advanced skills. Open-ended questions are
best (e.g., “What do you think about. . . ?” “Tell me about. . . ?”) because they don’t
result in dead-end, yes/no answers; they also allow you to see how much students can
elaborate on a point, which is one indication of their level of speaking ability. Natural
questions for a pretest interview with students you don’t know would be questions about
their backgrounds, families, interests, and professions. For a final interview, you might
discuss issues raised during the course, other courses the student is taking, or future
plans.
Many teachers draw up a marking chart to help them grade during the interview. A
simple chart consists of a list of the items you are looking for with a point scale for
each.
Consider the following simple example below for a course in which communicative
effectiveness was stressed:

Sample Scoring Chart

Ability to express ideas 1 2 3 4 5
Range of topics 1 2 3 4 5
Listening comprehension 1 2 3 4 5
Intelligibility 1 2 3 4 5

In designing such a scale, make sure it clearly reflects the goals of the course so that
students are rewarded for doing what you have asked them to do. Though this point may
seem obvious, it is worth emphasizing because sometimes the skills you have
emphasized in your course are difficult to assess — and you may be tempted to place
more emphasis.

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 Lecture 27
Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes

1. What is heterogeneous class of learners?

2. How do you deal with heterogeneous classes?
3. Why is heterogeneous classroom a challenge to teachers?
4. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous teaching?

Keywords: Classroom, teacher, homogeneous, heterogeneous, ability, activity, level.

In fact there is no the same people in the world. Humans are different from other
due to their sense, character, wish, interest, habits and in the community they show this
diversity. In particular, when setting up a classroom exercise or activity arranging the
class into groups is really challenging according to their level in the curriculum. Is it
better to put them into heterogeneous groups, which comprise students of differing
ability, or homogeneous groups, which contain students of similar ability? This article
purposes to explore a brief introduction to the importance of them and focus more
attention on some strategies to teach in heterogeneous classroom.

Obviously, the main purpose of teaching is sharing and gaining knowledge. AS

every educator has own teaching methods and pupils has learning style. It has already
admitted group learning is the most effective way to learn and teach by sharing ideas,
comparing thoughts and discussion by analysing data or solve problems in challenging
tasks. Also, according to scholars Marzano, Pickering and Pollock, effective learning in
groups must have at least the following elements:
- The work must involve every member of the group.
- Each person has a valid job to perform with a known standard of completion.
- Each member is invested in completing the task or learning goal.
- Each member is accountable individually and collectively

What is heterogeneous class of learners?

Heterogeneous grouping is a distribution tactic in the classroom, whereby diverse
students (for example, students that have learning disabilities and students who are
gifted) are placed in different classrooms so that they can apply their skills and abilities
more evenly through their cohort.

As well as for conducting the lesson, it is important to arrange learners. However

it is difficult to select learners according to their knowledge and abilities to learn.
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Therefore, modern teachers should clarify their way to select learners. Actually there
types of learner classes: homogeneous and heterogeneous. Both of them are really
important and have benefits. Prior to discuss, both term should be defined. A
heterogeneous class could be defined as “one that has different kinds of learners in it”.
Since students of EFL classrooms more than often have various levels of language
proficiency, every class can be considered multilevel to some degree. By contrast,
“Homogeneous grouping is the placement of students of similar abilities into one
classroom. All gifted children within the same grade level will be in the same
classroom. The term more often refers to students with disabilities rather than students
who are gifted or advanced. “In reality, in any class all learners are unique since
language learners move at different rates, some of them are at ease with receptive skills,
such as, listening and understanding written material, the others are good at productive
skills, interpersonal communication or so on.
According to P. Ur, several aspects contribute to the formation of a heterogeneous
class, namely, “language knowledge, cultural background, attitude to the language,
mother tongue, intelligence, world knowledge, learning experiences, knowledge of
other languages…”.The other name of heterogeneous is mixed –ability class. In a group
that has a mixed ability, these students have the opportunity to follow the lead of their
more capable peers, picking up things that they may not study from teachers. They
could also feel more confident speaking up about their confusion with a smaller group
of their peers than they would in teachers’ presence in front of the whole class.
According to M. Rogers, there are three categories of learners: high-level, at-
level, and low-level learners. Above-level students attempt to explain the instructions or
the grammar rule to a below-level student. Two at-level students can mutually help each
other to work out a solution posed by the instructor.
Finally, from the position of a teacher, large, heterogeneous classes are
demanding to train, require extra time and preparation; however, they foster teacher's
creativity, flexibility, tolerance and resistance to stress. At-grade students also benefit
from being grouped with their more capable peers. Working closely with others can
help land small kernels of knowledge that may further their understanding and progress.

Since, in heterogeneous class is full of various abilities to learn, teachers should

accommodate them. The most essential thing is to find out who high level is or who can
learn slowly. By the help of questionnaires and observation it will be apparent in
preliminary lessons. The trainers should prepare some sheets of questionnaires in
advance with some questions their habits, interests and wishes. After the results,
teachers can know how to teach and give materials to them. After clarifying abilities of
learners the next alternative is to form students from heterogeneous classes into small
temporary groups within the classroom. Here, the educator present the lesson, then split
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the class into prearranged groups based on ability, prior knowledge, and interests
(Renzulli, 1994, as cited in Tieso, 2003). The teacher would have to differentiate the
lessons and activities for the various groups to optimize the lesson. This would require
the teachers to learn and master a new teaching technique, and to concentrate on lessons
that stress higher order cognitive learning rather than drill and practice (Tieso, 2003).
For these techniques to be effective, the instruction must be varied in content, speed,
presentation method and style (Tieso, 2005).
The curriculum revision must involve “the critical analysis and remodelling of
existing curriculum in order to improve the quality or rigour of the content, the
assessment, the teaching and learning activities, the resources, the assignments, or the
overall alignment among these components” (Tieso, 2005). In theoretical pedagogy it is
easy to give some solutions for managing mixed-ability classes or for teaching them
,nevertheless teaching heterogeneous pupils is really difficult because of many reasons.
Firstly, there are some pupils that have unreasonable intelligence and more
energetic than other. They can do the tasks earlier than teachers expect and as a result
they may feel bored or begin to interrupt the lesson. In this time teachers should be
ready for this kind of situation that is preparing extra –materials based on the subject or
non-based such as puzzles or riddles which to make the energetic student busy until
other pupils finish their task. Of course, the given further task should be checked during
the lesson or after the lesson lest the pupil will not even pay attention to the extra
material and feel disappointed that effects disliking the subject and the teacher as well.
On the other hand ,there are some students are really slow to learn or do the exercise
due to his/her ability to learn.
The main action of teachers is encouragement. Motivating and praise low- level
learners helps to move ahead and feel themselves they are not just bad learner, their
habit is just low speed to learn. For these kind of learners also can be given extra-
materials by consideration their level of knowledge and interest. It might be colouring
or painting, singing songs or making something by hand related to the subject or the
theme.
Among the different pedagogies I actually use in my lectures are the Socratic
questioning or the generative questioning out of which you can get different questions
from different students each according to his ability. Another approach is map concepts
via which each one can participate according to her/his ability; open- ended questions
encourage no fixed answers can be functioning in the nonhomogeneous classes. Adding
to the above-mentioned teaching strategies that I personally apply in my lectures, I
continually provide students with warmth and friendship that can give self-reliance and
willingness to work regardless of the level each student represents”.
Socratic questioning is a form of disciplined questioning that can be used to
pursue thought in many directions and for many purposes, including: to explore
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complex ideas, to get to the truth of things, to open up issues and problems, to uncover
assumptions, to analyse concepts, to distinguish what we know from what we do not
know, to follow out logical consequences of thought or to control discussions.

How do you deal with heterogeneous classes?

How do you deal with heterogeneity due to differences in prior knowledge?
1. Formulate clear expectations to the students. ...
2. Provide self-study material. ...
3. Let students identify their own prior knowledge. ...
4. Provide opportunities for revision during a contact moment.

5. Why is heterogeneous classroom a challenge to teachers?

6. Classrooms in educational institutions consist of students with varying learning
abilities. Faculty delivering a lecture in a uniform pitch in such classrooms will fail to
teach and reach the learning levels of heterogeneous student groups.
7. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous teaching?
8. Students can work together in two different types of pairs or groups, heterogeneous or
homogeneous. In heterogeneous groups students work with other students who are at
different reading levels than them. In a homogeneous group student's work with
students who are at the same reading level that they are.

How do you teach a heterogeneous class?

Strategies for Inclusive Teaching
1. Examine your content for diverse perspectives.
2. Be transparent about expectations.
3. Design inclusive assessments.
4. Provide multiple means of representation.
5. Create accessible content.
6. Illustrate concepts with multiple and diverse examples.
7. Give students choice, where appropriate.

8. What are the benefits of heterogeneous classes?

9. Heterogeneous teams maximize the opportunity to learn different thinking skills. The
more there is diversity, the more we can learn from each other. By explaining to a
student who is thinking differently about a problem or issue, a student is challenged to
stretch or cement his/her own learning.

Is teaching large heterogeneous classes a problem?

The first Difficulties a large class encounters is that because there are so many
students, the teacher cannot give attention equally to all of them. Therefore, when
questions are asked, only more able and less shy students are eager to answer. Too
often, interaction is restricted to students in the front rows.

CONCLUSION
Socratic questioning is based on the foundation that thinking has structured logic,
and allows underlying thoughts to be questioned. This style assists to be independent
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learner and thinker for students and allow them be out of the box. Also it can develop
their critical thinking and analysing data carefully.
Concept maps are visual representations of information. They can take the form
of charts, graphic organizers, tables, flowcharts, Venn Diagrams, timelines, or T-charts.
Concept maps are especially useful for students who learn better visually, although they
can benefit any type of learner. They are a powerful study strategy because they help
you see the big picture: by starting with higher-level concepts, concept maps help you
chunk information based on meaningful connections. In other words, knowing the big
picture makes details more significant and easier to remember.
Concept maps work very useful for classes or content that have visual elements or
in times when it is important to see and understand relationships between different
things. They can also be used to analyse information and compare and contrast.

Lecture 28
Teacher development: Competence in teaching foreign languages

1. What is the teacher competence in teaching foreign language?

2. What is the developmental goal of teaching a foreign language?
3. What is the role of the teacher in competency based language teaching?
4. What is competence based approach in foreign language education?

Introduction
Teachers are unequivocally the most important influencers of society since they shape
the lives of children, and thus our future. In addition to this, teacher training is also the
most important part of any education system. Teachers should be equipped with the
knowledge and skills to embrace new systems and methods according to the changing
circumstances and needs of society. In our era, with the advances of technology,
everything changes rapidly, and new methods or tools for education are invented.
Furthermore, every educational context is unique in its own way, and accordingly,
educational contexts need to be analyzed and evaluated in their own dynamics.

Teacher competencies
Giving a comprehensible definition of a good teacher is almost impossible; however, we
willtry to present it by basing on the relevant literature and discussions. Globally
speaking, we have been experiencing unnecessarily rapid changes in every aspect of our
lives. These changes are sometimes implemented instantly and can be observed in the

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immediate material world; our cell phones, cars, televisions, and houses are updated and
change before our eyes. The first industrial revolution was possible because of
machines; the second revolution was led by electricity; the third one was digitally
oriented because of the widespread use of the Internet; and Industry 4.0, as the name
suggests, is a software-driven paradigm (Lasi et al., 2014). However, when it comes to
matters that are directly related to individuals and society, it takes a while to realize
these changes. Naturally, education, which is one of these topics, cannot be isolated
from the changes in the immediate material world.

As Hussin (2018, p. 92) suggests, IR 4.0 affects not only the business, governance and
the people, it also affects education as well; thus the name Education 4.0 came to
Education 4.0 is obviously an analogy and a response to Industry 4.0, where an
alignment between humans and technology is sought to enable new possibilities
(Hussin, 2018). As the analogy goes, classrooms full of students with teachers as the
authoritative figures can becalled the first version of education. In these traditional
teacher-centered settings, interactions were generally one-way, and individual existence
was somehow ignored. Generations were educated this way, and it was the norm until
modern technology showed up. The basic use of technology in educational settings can
be regarded as the second version of education. Photocopy machines, televisions, and
videotapes can be regarded in this version of education. When the Internet appeared in
the 1980s, the world started to become a smaller place with people communicating with
each other 24/7. An information-technology-driven approach to education emerged, and
all around the world, people found personalized ways to socialize and learn; the
educational setting that appeared during this period can be regarded as the third version
of education. These days, a newer version, Education 4.0, is a topic of discussion. This
version of education is deeply interrelated with artificial intelligence and related
technologies, and as Peters (2017) suggests, to adjust to the Industrial Revolution
4.0,education must become an open ecosystem by utilizing new technology. Although
some people naively believe that technology will replace teachers soon, a more realistic
vision tells us that teachers who use technology will replace teachers who
cannot(Clifford, 1987). At this point, it is quite obvious that the biggest load of
Education 4.0 will be on shoulders. roles and their professional identity are very likely
to go through deep changes, and teacher education programs must be the first place to
start adopting these possible changes. Teacher education programs train teachers based
on target teacher competencies, and it would be safe to assume that teacher
competencies are an important part of all types of planning and adapting that are related
to education. However, as Kress (2000) suggests, previous era had required an
education for stability, the coming era requires an education for (p. 133). The term
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seems to be easy to explain and understand, but actually, it is quite a challenging task to
talk about it. First of all, teaching competence and teacher competencies should be
regarded as two related but different concepts. Teaching competence can be regarded as
the general skill that that one individual possesses, and competencies are sub-skills that
one needs to teach effectively. These competencies can be taught, and teacher
candidates can be trained to practice them. Teacher competencies as a term originated
from behavioral psychology and started to be regarded as a set of theory-free, practical
teaching skills after the late 1960s &Wubbels, 2010). From this perspective, teacher
trainees were supposed to watch the teacher and, in time, they would become masters
themselves. Of course, this type of teacher training is open to criticism, and its validity
to form a basis for higher education curriculum has been debated (Barnett, 1994;
Korthagen, 2004). Barnett (1994) suggested that higher education should not be
regarded as a matter of developing competencies for a specific occupation, and to him,
competencies are predictable behaviors that require predictable situations. However,
teaching in this age cannot be reduced to applying certain teaching techniques in certain
situations. Although there are elements of teacher knowledge that are shared by all
teachers or large groups of (Verloop et al., 2001, p. 441), teaching is highly context-
bound, and it requires an understanding of the dynamics of the specific educational
context. For quite a long time, a mechanistic view of teaching was the dominant
paradigm, and its complexity was ignored (Doyle, 1990; Shulman, 1987). However,
after criticisms coming from various circles, including teachers themselves, researchers
shifted their attention from observable teacher behaviors to the cognition and beliefs of
the teachers (Verloop et al., 2001). On the other hand, it is almost common sense to
believe that theoretical principles and teacher expertise should play equally important
roles in teacher education (see the first discussions in Shulman, 1987; Stones, 1994). In
discussions about teacher competencies, the distinctions between content and
pedagogical content knowledge frequently appear. Content knowledge is basically
knowledge of the subject matter that they are teaching. Obviously, content knowledge
plays an important role in effective teaching. For example, a language content
knowledge will help them understand problems about the target language better, and in
turn, leading to better decisions about constructing learning activities. Pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK),on the other hand, is based on the idea that teaching is much
more than just delivering the contents of the subject matter, and learning is much more
than just absorbing information coming from the teacher. As Loughran et al. (2012)
suggest, is the knowledge that teachers develop over time, and through experience,
about how to teach particular content in particular ways in order to lead to enhanced
student (p. 7). In other words, content knowledge is mostly related to the of teaching,
and pedagogical knowledge is related to the of teaching. However, these two categories
are only two of the teacher knowledge, and as the related literature suggests, there are
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other types of knowledge that teachers are supposed to possess. In his seminal work,
Shulman (1987, p. 8) summarized the categories of the knowledge base for teachers as
follows:
Content knowledge
General pedagogical knowledge, with special reference to those broad principles and
strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to transcend subject
matter;
Curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the materials and programs that serve
as tools of the for teachers;
Pedagogical content knowledge, that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is
uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional understanding;
Knowledge of learners and their characteristics;
Knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the workings of the group or
classroom, the governance and financing of school districts, to the character of
communities and cultures;
Knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical and
historical grounds.

Foreign Language Competencies

When it comes to specific competencies that a language teacher should possess, we can
say that content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical
knowledge would not be enough. Jack Richards, who is an outstanding figure in the
field of foreign language teaching, published an article titled competence and
Performance in Language in 2010. In this article, he first examines foreign language
teacher competencies under ten main categories and then analyzes them one by one.
Richards (2010), considering the relevant studies, specifies main foreign language
competencies as:
1) The language proficiency factor
2) The role of content knowledge
3) Teaching skills
4) Contextual knowledge
5) The language identity
6) Learner-focused teaching
7) Pedagogical reasoning skills
8) Theorizing from practice
9) Membership of a community of practice
10) Professionalism
The language proficiency factor:
Quoting Canagarajah (1999), Richards (2010) states that most of the language teachers
all around the world, especially teachers of English, are notnative speakers. Talking
about his own observations, he mentions that he has seen non-native teachers doing
wonders in the classroom and native speakers sometimes causing disasters in their
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language classrooms. According to him, this means that in order to teach English well,
teachers do not need to have a native-like command of English. Richards (2010, p. 103)
lists the language-specific competencies that a teacher should have as follows:
a) To understand the texts written in the target language.
b) To be a good model.
c) To be able to use the target language throughout the lesson.
d) To be able to use the target language fluently.
e) To be able to give instructions and explanations in the target language.
f) To be able to exemplify new vocabulary and grammar points and provide accurate
explanations.
g) To be able to use appropriate classroom language.
h) To be able to select appropriate resources and materials for language classrooms (for
instance, newspapers, magazines, websites).
i) To be able to monitor their accurate use of language.
j) To be able to give feedback at the right time according to the activity at hand.
k) To be able to provide input at level.
l) To be able to give students opportunities to experience and enrich their language.
The role of content knowledge: This aspect includes discussions about what and how
much language teachers should know about the target language. Pedagogical content
knowledge emerges from the study of language teaching and learning, and it includes
teaching language.

Teaching skills:
This dimension of teacher competencies is generally related to teaching competencies
and performance. It includes general teaching techniques and routines. Foreign language
teacher training involves uncovering a collection of teaching skills acquired through
practical teaching in a controlled environment and often using activities such as
microteaching or peer teaching or by observing experienced practices. In this dimension
of foreign language teacher training, the following skills should be considered:
a) Opening the lesson.
b) Introducing and explaining the tasks and activities.
c) Organizing learning.
d) Comprehension check.
e) Guiding students.
f) Checking language.
g) Transition between tasks.
h) Ending the lesson.

Any teacher preparation program should take many aspects of teaching and
learning process into consideration such as knowledge, skills, cognition, beliefs and
educational, social, cultural factors and even ideological movements. Kumaravadivelu
(2012) claims that these factors are not enough in our era; we need to add global
economic trends and global cultural flows as well, and he proposes a modular model
that tries to answer some questions for teachers to understand
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a) how to build a viable professional, personal, and procedural knowledge base;
b) how to explore needs, motivation, and autonomy;
c) how to recognize their own identities, beliefs and values;
d) how to do the right kind of teaching, theorizing, and dialogizing;
e) how to see their own teaching acts by taking into account learner, teacher, and
observer perspectives on classroom events and activities.

O‘ZBEKISTON RESPUBLIKASI

OLIY TA’LIM, FAN VA INNOVATSIYALAR VAZIRLIGI

FARGʻONA DAVLAT UNIVERSITETI

“TASDIQLAYMAN”
Fakultet dekani
_____________ N. I. Toirova
“___” ______________ 2023 yil

TILLAR O‘QITISH METODIKASI VA TA’LIM TEXNOLOGIYALARI FANIDAN

SILLABUS

Ta’lim yo‘nalishi: 60111800- Xorijiy til va adabiyoti (ingliz tili)

O‘qitish kursi: 3

(Sillabus Ingliz tili va adabiyoti fakultetining 2023 - yil “ ”-

-sonli majlisida muhokama qilingan va tasdiqlangan)

209
 Farg‘ona -2023
Fаnning sillabusi Farg‘ona davlat universiteti Kengashining 2023 yil _______________dagi
____ sonli bayoni bilan tasdiqlangan.

Fаnning sillabusi Farg‘ona davlat universiteti Ingliz tili va adabiyoti fakultetining 2023 yil
___________dagi _____ sonli yig‘ilishida tasdiqlangan.

Ushbu sillabus Ingliz tili va adabiyoti fakulteti Ingliz tilini o‘qitish metodikasi kafedrasining
2023 -yil _____________________ dagi ____ sonli majlisida muhokama qilingan va tasdiqlangan

Kafedra mudiri : N. Xoshimova

Tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va
Fanning nomi ta’lim texnologiyalari

Fan turi Majburiy

O‘qish davri 5/6-semestr
Fan kodi TO‘MeM309

Fan hajmi 4/4 kredit

Fanning umumiy soati 240 soat
Auditoriya soatlari 120 soat
Jumladan:
Ma’ruza 30/30 soat
Seminar mashg‘uloti 30/30 soat
Mustaqil ta’lim 60/60 soat
Nazorat shakli JN, ON, YaN
O ‘qitish shakli Ingliz tili

Axmedova Matlubaxon Ibragimdjonovna – “Ingliz tilini o‘qitish

Dastur mualliflari:
metodikasi” kafedrasi v.b. dotsenti, p.f.f.d.(PhD)
E-mail: [email protected]
Telefon raqami: +998936814114
Farg‘ona davlat universiteti “Ingliz tilini o‘qitish metodikasi”
kafedrasi.
Tashkilot:
Manzil: Farg‘ona sh. Murabbiylar ko‘chasi 19-uy

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 Kurs haqida qisqacha ma’lumot (QM)
Tillar o‘qitish metodikasi va ta’lim texnologiyalari ma’ruza va seminar mashg‘ulotlaridan
iborat bo‘lib, talabani chet tili o‘qituvchisi kasbiy faoliyatiga nazariy hamda amaliy jihatdan
tayyorlashdan iborat. Zamonaviy metodikaning asosiy muammolari bilan tanishtirish, ushbu
fan talabalarni o‘zlari ishlayotgan ta’lim muassasalarida olib boriladigan darslarda duch
kelishi mumkin bo‘lgan aniq vazifalarni mohirona hal etishga yo‘naltiradi. Bunda asosiy
QM1
e’tibor talabalarning amaliy ko‘nikmalarini ishlab chiqish, asosiy kasbiy malakasinining
shakllanishi; darsning ongli, tarbiyaviy va ta’limiy maqsadlarini shakllantirish; mavzu
asosida o‘quv materialini rejalashtirish ; darsning rejasi va konspektini tuzish; savol va
topshiriqlar tuzish, so‘rovlar o‘tkazish hamda bilimni daliliy baholash ; o‘quvchilarning
mustaqil ishini tashkil etish; hamkasblari va o‘z darslarini tahlil qilishga qaratiladi.

Kursga qo‘yiladigan boshlang‘ich talablar

Talabalar umume’tirof etilgan xalqaro me’yorlarga ko‘ra o‘rganilayotgan chet tilini B2 darajasida
1.
bilishlari kerak.

Ta’lim natijalari (TN)

Umume’tirof etilgan xalqaro me’yorlarga ko‘ra talabalarning o‘rganilayotgan chet tilini C1
TN1 darajada egallashlari uchun zaruriy bilimlarni integrallashgan tarzda o‘rgatadi va muloqot
malakalarini rivojlantiradi
TN2 Talabalar til o‘qitishning zamonaviy, ilg‘or va samarali metodlari bilan tanishtiriladi
TN3 Chet tili o‘qituvchisiga xos til ko‘nikmalari amaliy tarzda o‘rgatiladi

5-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulot shakli: Ma’ruza (M) Soat

M1 Introduction to the methodology of teaching foreign languages. 2
Chet til oʼqitish metodikasini fan sifatida oʼqitish. Metodikaning obʼekti va predmeti.
Chet til oʼqitish metodikasi kursi va uning chet til oʼqituvchisining kasbiy
tayyorgarligidagi oʼrni. Umumiy va xususiy metodika tushunchalari.
M2 Aims of teaching foreign languages. 2
Chet til oʼqitishning maqsadi. Til komponentlarini oʼrgatish uchun maqsadlarni qo’yish,
shuningdek, har bir chet til oʼqitishda maqsadlarni to’g’ri ta’riflab berish masalalari.
M3 Content of teaching foreign languages. 2
Chet til oʼqitishning mazmuni.

M4 Methods and principles of teaching foreign languages. 2

Bugungi kunda professional til oʼqituvchisi turli xil texnikalar va yangi yondashuvlarni
yaxshi biladi va ular oʼqitish metodikasining tarixi va evolyutsiyasini tushunadi.
Zamonaviy oʼqituvchi, aslida, har xil metodologiyalar va yondashuvlardan foydalanadi,
har bir usuldan samarali deb hisoblaydi va ularni oʼquv konteksti va maqsadlariga
muvofiq qoʼllaydi.
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M5 Relation of methodology of teaching foreign languages with other sciences. 2
Chet til oʼqitish metodikasining boshqa fanlar bilan aloqasi
Bu yerda chet tillarini oʼqitish metodikasi maktablarda va boshqa oʼquv yurtlarida chet
tillarini oʼqitishga oid, ilmiy sinovdan oʼtgan nazariya toʼplami sifatida tushuniladi. Chet
tillarini oʼqitish usullari boshqa fanlar bilan chambarchas bogʼliq, masalan, pedagogika,
psixologiya, fiziologiya, tilshunoslik va boshqalar.
M6 Aids of teaching foreign languages. 2
Til komponentlarini oʼrgatish uchun yordamchi vositalardan foydalanishning asosiy
bosqichlarini qisqacha taqdim etish, shuningdek, har bir til komponentasini oʼqitishni
qoʼllab-quvvatlash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin boʼlgan vositalarni tasvirlash kabi
masalalar.
M7 Teaching vocabulary. 2
Kuchli soʼz boyligi muloqotning barcha sohalarini yaxshilaydi - tinglash, gapirish,
oʼqish va yozish. Lugʼat quyidagi sabablarga koʼra bolaning muvaffaqiyati uchun hal
qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega. Lugʼat bolalarga dunyoni oʼylashga va oʼrganishga yordam
beradi. O’quvchilarning soʼzlar haqidagi bilimini kengaytirish yangi maʼlumotlarga
cheksiz kirishni taʼminlaydi
M8 Investigating the learning and teaching of grammar 2
Grammatikani oʼrganish va oʼqitish boʼyicha ikkinchi tilni oʼrganish va amaliy
tilshunoslik tadqiqot adabiyotlarini tanlab koʼrib chiqish uchta toifaga boʼlinadi: bu
yerda tadqiqot unchalik taʼsir qilmagan (interfeys boʼlmagan pozitsiya), oddiy taʼsir
(shaklga yoʼnaltirilgan koʼrsatma) va potentsial. katta taʼsir koʼrsatishi mumkin
(grammatikani qayta tiklash).
M9 Mastering the sounds of the language. 2
Fonetika orqali talaffuz asoslarini oʼrganib, oʼquvchilar nafaqat bemalol gapirishni
oʼrganadilar, balki tinglab tushunishni ham yaxshilaydilar.Shu bilan birga, Talaffuz
oʼqish qobiliyatini yaxshilash uchun muhim ahamiyatga ega.
M 10 Teaching listening. 2
Eshitish - bu boshqalarning nima deyayotganini aniqlash va tushunish qobiliyati. Bu
soʼzlovchining talaffuzini yoki talaffuzini, grammatikasini va soʼz boyligini tushunish va
uning maʼnosini tushunishni oʼz ichiga oladi.
M 11 Teaching speaking. 2
Gapirish - insonning boshqasidan ajralib turadigan xususiyati. Tirik ongli mavjudot,
chunki bu hamma odamlarning tilining tabiiy holati ona tilida gapirish uchun
tugʼilganlar. Ikkinchi yoki chet tilini oʼrganishda koʼpchilikTalabalar nutqni
muvaffaqiyatga erishish uchun eng qiyin koʼnikma deb bilishadi, chunki bunga ehtiyoj
bor ogʼzaki muloqot, ham gapirish, ham tinglashdan iborat.
M 12 Teaching reading. 2
Oʼqish paytida matn haqida savollar berish; asosiy fikrlarni aniqlash; bashorat qilish
uchun oldingi bilimlardan foydalanish. • Turli strategiyalarning kombinatsiyasini
oʼrgatish, bir narsaga eʼtibor qaratishdan koʼra yaxshiroqdir.
M 13 Teaching writing. 2
Yozishni oʼrgatishning baʼzi usullari mavjud, ular rasmlardan, oʼqishdan,
boshqariladigan yozuvdan va rolli oʼyinlardan foydalanadi. Texnikaning maqsadi -
oʼquvchilarni materiyani tushunishni ragʼbatlantirish va osonlashtirish strategiyasini
oʼrgatadi.
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 M 14 Teaching the text: the goals 2
Matnni o'qitishning asosiy maqsadlari, tarkibni tushunish.
Matnni til konida o'qitishning asosiy maqsadlari tarkibni tushunish, til o'rganish, nutqni
tahlil qilishdir. va keyin matnning turli jihatlari asosida keyingi vazifalar orqali boyitish.
M 15 Assessment of language skills 2
Ingliz tili koʼnikmalarini baholash IELTS - fanlarning ingliz tilini bilish darajasini
aniqlash uchun moʼljallangan testlar guruhi. Testlar ingliz tilini oʼrganayotganlar
orasidagi yutuqlarni kuzatish yoki ingliz tilini bilish talab qilinadigan ish yoki taʼlim
darajasini bilish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin.
Jami: 30

Ma’ruza mashg‘ulotlari multimedia qurilmalari bilan jihozlangan auditoriyada akadem guruhlar

oqimi uchun o‘tiladi.

5-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulot shakli: Seminar (S) Soat

S1 Introduction to methodology of teaching English 2

S2 Aims of teaching foreign languages 2

S3 Content of teaching foreign languages 2
S4 Methods and principles of teaching foreign languages 2
S5 Relation of methodology of teaching foreign languages with other sciences 2

S6 Aids of teaching foreign languages 2

S7 Teaching vocabulary 2
S8 Investigating the learning and teaching of grammar 2
S9 Mastering the sounds of the language 2
S 10 Teaching listening 2
S 11 Teaching speaking 2
S 12 Teaching reading 2
S 13 Teaching writing 2
S 14 Teaching the text: the goals 2
S 15 Assessment of language skills 2
Jami: 30

Seminar mashg‘ulotlar multimedia qurilmalari bilan jihozlangan auditoriyada har bir akadem
guruhga alohida o‘tiladi. Mashg‘ulotlar interfaol usullari yordamida o‘tiladi. Ko‘rgazmali qurollar
va multimediali vositalar qo‘llash orqali o‘tiladi.

6-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulotlar shakli: Ma’ruza (M) soat

M1 Language teaching policy in the world 2

213
 Jahon lingvo-didaktikasida olib borilayotgan so’ngi ilmiy tadqiqotlar.Jahonda chet
tillar ta’limini siyosatining olib borilishi

M2 The syllabus design 2

O'quv dasturining asosiy xususiyatlari va turlari: structural, grammatical
syllabus, functional-notional syllabus, standards-based syllabus.
M3 Materials development 2
Til oʼrganuvchilarning yehtiyojlari, qiziqishlari va motivatsiyalari tufayli ular til
oʼrganishda individual farqlarni koʼrsatishi mumkin. Til dasturlarida qoʼllaniladigan
materiallar oʼquvchilarga til haqida maʼlumot berish, qoʼllanilayotgan til tajribasini
taqdim yetish va oʼquvchilarga oʼzlari uchun til haqida kashfiyotlar qilishga yordam
berishlari uchun koʼrsatma, tajriba, tushuntirish yoki izlanish boʼlishi mumkin.
M4 Forms of organizing lessons 2
Dars maqsadini aniqlashni o’rganish,dars siklini o’rganish.
M5 Planning the lesson 2
Dars rejasi maʼlum bir oʼquvchilar guruhi uchun moʼljallangan. Sinf vaqti har xil
boʼlishi mumkin. Bir soatdan toʼrt soatgacha davom etadi va oʼquvchilarga
maqsadga erishish uchun zarur boʼlgan koʼnikmalar rivojlantiriladi. Dars rejasi
boʼlinma rejasini batafsil ajratadi va dars davrining yoʼnalishi hisoblanadi.
M6 Learning style and strategies 2
8 Ta'lim Uslublari: Visual (spatial) Learners, Aural (audio) Learners, Physical
(tactile) Learners, Verbal Learners (aka Linguistic Learners), Logical (analytical)
Learners, Social Learners (aka Linguistic Learners), Solo Learners, Natural/ Nature
Learners.
M7 Classroom management and teacher-learner interaction 2
Sinf boshqaruvi va oʼqituvchi bilan oʼquvchining oʼzaro taʼsiri
M8 The language learning task : TBL, CTB, PBL 2
Ingliz tilini oʼqitishning kommunikativ usullaridan biri. Ushbu usulning mohiyati
nimada, uning afzalliklari va kamchiliklari nimada - biz ushbu maqolada tahlil
qilamiz.
M9 Blended learning and flipped classroom 2
Blended learning classroom, bir talaba oʼqituvchi bilan yuzma-yuz taʼlim berish.
Flipped classroom aralashtirilgan taʼlim shaklidir. Oʼquvchi avval sinfdan tashqari
yangi materialga duch keladi. Oʼqituvchilar oʼz oʼquv maqsadlari bilan bogʼliq
onlayn mazmuniga qisqa video yoki link yaratishingiz mumkin.
M10 Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments 2
Chet tilni turli ta'lim muassasalarida o'qitish. O‘zlashtirilgan bilimlarni o‘rta
umumta’lim maktablari, akadеmik litsеy va kasb-hunar kollеjlarida pеdagogik
amaliyotda tatbiq etish.
M11 Stages of teaching foreign languages 2
Hozirgi madaniyatlararo jamiyatda hech kim ikkinchi tilni oʼrganish muhimligini
inkor eta olmaydi. Oliy taʼlimda biz barcha talabalarga dunyoning turli
burchaklaridan kelgan odamlar bilan muloqot qilish qobiliyatiga ega boʼlishlarini
kafolatlash uchun katta choralar koʼrishimiz kerak deb hisoblaymiz.
M12 Error correction and feedback 2
Xatolarni tuzatish - bu ikkinchi yoki chet tilini oʼrganuvchilarning malakasini

214
 oshirish usuli. Bu ikkinchi yoki chet tilini ongli ravishda bilish va til qoidalarini
oʼrganish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin.
M 13 Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes 2
Geterogen guruhlash - bu maktab oʼquvchilarini maʼlum sinfdagi turli sinflar
oʼrtasida taqsimlash turi. Bu usulda har xil qobiliyatli oʼquvchilarning nisbatan teng
taqsimlanishini, shuningdek, har xil taʼlimiy va yemotsional yehtiyojlarni yaratish
maqsadida taxminan bir xil yoshdagi bolalar turli sinflarga joylashtiriladi. Iqtidorli
bolalar bir sinfda emas, balki har xil darajadagi sinf xonalarida tarqatiladi.
M 14 Teacher development: Competence in teaching foreign languages 2
Oʼqituvchining rivojlanishi aynan nima? Oʼqituvchining kasbiy rivojlanishini
shaxsning oʼqituvchi sifatidagi bilim, koʼnikma va malakasini oshiruvchi va
kuchaytiradigan faoliyat deb taʼriflash mumkin. Oʼqituvchining rivojlanishi - bu
oʼqituvchi sifatida oʼqish, malaka oshirish va rivojlanishni oʼz ichiga oladigan butun
jarayon.
M 15 English teaching today: worldwide experience 2
Ovozli va toʼgʼridan-toʼgʼri usullar kabi anʼanaviy metodologiyalar hali ham foydali
elementlarni taklif qilsa-da, ular zamonaviy sinfda eskirgan. Oxirgi yillarda modaga
aylangan kommunikativ yondashuv hanuzgacha zamonaviy tilni oʼrgatishning
soʼnggi yutugʼi hisoblanadi.
Jami: 30

Ma’ruza mashg‘ulotlari multimedia qurilmalari bilan jihozlangan auditoriyada akadem guruhlar

oqimi uchun o‘tiladi.

6-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulotlar shakli:Seminar(S) soat

S1 Language teaching policy in the world 2
S2 The syllabus design 2
S3 Materials development 2
S4 Forms of organizing lesson
S5 Planning the lesson 2
S6 Learning style and strategies 2
S7 Classroom management and teacher-learner interaction 2
S8 The language learning task : TBL, CTB, PBL 2
S9 Blended learning and flipped classroom 2
S 10 Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments. 2
S 11 Stages of teaching foreign languages 2
S 12 Error correction and feedback 2
S 13 Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes 2
S 14 Teacher development 2
S 15 English teaching today: worldwide experience 2
Jami: 30

215
 Seminar mashg‘ulotlar multimedia qurilmalari bilan jihozlangan auditoriyada har bir akadem
guruhga alohida o‘tiladi. Mashg‘ulotlar interfaol usullari yordamida o‘tiladi. Ko‘rgazmali qurollar
va multimediali vositalar qo‘llash orqali o‘tiladi.

5-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulotlar shakli: Mustaqil ta’lim (MT) Soat

1 Competence in teaching foreign languages 4
2 Methods, ways and technologies of organizing modern foreign language learning. 4
Lesson planning in different stages of EFL education (primary education, secondary 4
3
education, lyceum, specialized schools)
4 The analysis of teaching/learning materials of EFL 4
Forming professional competence of foreign language teacher in the system of 4
5
continuous education.
The importance of textbooks, and resources in different stages of EFL education 4
6
(primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized schools)
7 Writing an article 4
8 The structure of teacher’s portfolio 4
9 Lesson observation 4
10 Using computer and online technologies in teaching English 4
11 Specific features of teaching foreign languages in compulsory educational system 4
12 Preparation of teacher’s professional portfolio 4
Applying modern educational technologies in different stages of EFL education 4
13
(primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized schools)
Applying interactive methods in different stages of EFL education (primary education, 4
14
secondary education, lyceum, specialized schools)
15 Different levels of professional competence of a foreign language teacher features 4
Jami: 60

6-semestr uchun

Mashg‘ulotlar shakli: Mustaqil ta’lim (MT) Soat

The system of exercises for developing communicative competence of EFL learners 4
1 (on the example of primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized
schools)
Implementation of innovative technologies and method in EFL classroom (primary 4
2
education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized schools)
Lesson planning on the basis of IT technologies in different stages of EFL education 4
3
(primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized schools)
4 Classroom Activities to enhance learners’ communicative competence 4
5 Types of testing in teaching foreign language 4
6 Extracurricular activities in teaching foreign language 4
7 Writing an article 4
8 Lesson observation 4
9 Creating teaching aids for teaching English 4
10 Organizing independent learning in teaching process 4
11 Applying project works in different stages EFL teaching 4
12 Lesson planning in different stages of EFL education (primary education, secondary 4
216
 education, lyceum, specialized schools)
The system of exercises for developing communicative competence of EFL learners 4
13 (on the example of primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized
schools)
Educational basis of developing linguistic and communication materials in different 4
14 stages of EFL education (primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized
schools)
15 The analysis of teaching/learning materials of EFL 4
Jami: 60

Mustaqil ta’lim mavzulari talabalar tomonidan o‘zlashtiriladi. Mavzular yuzasidan talabalar

mustaqil ish, taqdimotlar tayyorlash va himoya qilishi tavsiya etiladi.
Amaliy mashg‘ulotlarining barcha mavzularini to‘la o‘zlashtirgan hamda mustaqil ishni
bajargan talabalarga yakuniy nazoratda ishtirok etishga ruxsat etiladi. Talaba semestr oxirida
yakuniy nazorat topshiradi.

1. Kurs ishi mavzulari

1. Pedagogical testing (educational measurement).
2. Interlanguage/ Error analysis for teaching purposes
3. The role of teacher personality and methodology in ELT
4. Teaching speaking
5. Content of teaching English
6. Teaching vocabulary
7. Plan of the lesson
8. Methods of teaching foreign languages
9. Teaching grammar
10. Evaluating written and oral performance in the classroom
11. Teaching listening
12. Types of speech activity
13. The notion of “Reading technique”
14. Teaching reading
15. System of exercises
16. General methodology
17. Mixed methods
18. Selection of vocabulary
19. Teaching speaking
20. Special methodology
21. Teaching presentation skills or debating in ELT
22. Main aids of teaching
23. Teaching listening
24. Teaching pronunciation
25. Cultural aim of teaching
217
26. Types of reading
27. Analysing teaching materials
28. Teaching English for specific purposes
29. Teaching writing
30. Prezentation of pronunciation material
31. Out of class activities
32. Autonomous language learning
33. The role of reflection in teacher development
34. Alternative assessment: portfolio assessment
35. Exercises of listening
36. Using ICT tools in ELT
37. Assessment of speech habits and skills
38. Methods and principles of teaching
39. Difficulties in listening
40. Methodology of intercultural learning
41. The lexical view of language and its implications for classroom practice
42. Teaching writing
43. Distribution pronunciation
44. Teacher effectiveness, teacher professionalism, stages of teacher development
45. Teaching Vocabulary
46. Types of lesson
47. Teaching reading technique
48. Aims of the lesson
49. Motivation and confidence among language learners
50. Developing aim of the lesson
51. Developing language skills with the help of tasks for the interactive white board (IWB)
52. Didactic principles of teaching
53. Methods of teaching
54. Teaching speaking
55. Cultural aim of teaching foreign languages
56. Psychological principles of teaching foreign languages
57. Creativity in ELT
58. Principles of teaching grammar
59. Testing
60. The role of L1 in language teaching
2. Ta’lim texnologiyalari va metodlari:
Ma’ruzalar - interfaol keys-stadilar; seminarlar (mantiqiy fiklash, tezkor savol-javoblar);
guruhlarda ishlash; taqdimotlarni qilish; individual loyihalar; jamoa bo’lib ishlash va himoya qilish
uchun loyihalar.
Amaliy mashg‘ulotlarda - mavzularga oid masalalar yechish, amaliy kuzatish, o‘lchash,
astronomik jadvallar bilan ishlash amallari bajariladi.
Mustaqil ishlar quyidagi turlarda amalga oshirilishi tavsiya etiladi:
- esse – dolzarb mavzu bo‘yicha shaxsiy fikrini tanqid, publitsistik va boshqa janrlarda yozma
bayon qilish;
- dokladlar tayyorlash;
218
 - kurs ishi yozish;
- konspekt yozish;
- glossariy tuzish;
- individual va guruhiy o‘quv loyihasi;
- keys-topshiriqlarini bajarish;
- mavzuli portfoliolar tuzish;
- axborot-tahliliy materiallar bilan ishlash;
- manbaalar bilan ishlash;
- infografika tuzish;
- multimediali taqdimotlar yaratish;
- darslarning metodik ishlanmalarini tayyorlash;
- darsdan tashqari mashg‘ulotlar ishlanmalarini tayyorlash;
ta’lim yo‘nalishi(mutaxassislik)ning xususiyatidan kelib chiqqan holda mustaqil ishlarning
boshqa turlaridan foydalanish mumkin.
Kurs ishi mavzulari bevosita ishlab chiqarish ya’ni, umumiy o‘rta ta’lim maktablarida
pedagogik jarayonga bog‘liq holda ishlab chiqiladi va har bir talabaga alohida shaxsiy
topshiriq beriladi
Shuning uchun ham o‘qituvchi kurs ishini taqsimlash va tushuntirish uchun o‘quv
rejasida ajratilgan 4 soat ichida kurs ishining mohiyati, tadqiqot olib borish usullari va
adabiyotlar bilan ishlash, ya’ni ularda masalaning qo‘yilishi, nima ish qilinganligi, ularning
mavjud ishlardan farqi, taklif yoki tavsiya qilinayotgan usullarni ajrata olish haqida batafsil
tushuntirish nazarda tutiladi.
Kurs ishi:
 talabada tanlangan mavzu bo‘yicha o‘z nazariy bilimini chuqurlashtirishi:
 psixologik-pedagogik, metodik va o‘quv materiallarini tahlil qilish malakasini
o‘zlashtirshi;
 pedagogik eksperimentni rejalashtirishi, tayyorlashi va o‘tkazishi;
 eksperiment natijalariga ishlov berish malakasini egallashi;
 nazariy va eksperiment natijalarini umumlashtirish malakasini egalashga imkon
yaratadi.
Kurs ishi talaba tomonidan bajarilgan kichik ilmiy tadqiqot ishi hisoblanadi, shuning
uchun ham mavzuning dolzarbligi va bajarilgan ishning sifatiga qarab talabalarning ilmiy
anjumanlariga tavsiya etilishi yoki bo‘lg‘usi diplom ishiga asos qilib olishiga maslahat
qilinishi mumkin.
Kurs ishi mavzulari kafedra tomonidan ishlab chiqiladi va o‘quv yilining boshida shu
o‘quv yili uchun tasdiqlanadi. Talaba o‘zini qiziqtirgan mavzuni tanlab olgandan so‘ng, bu
mavzu bo‘yicha ish rejasini tuzadi va uni tasdiqlash uchun kafedraga taqdim etadi.
Talabaning tanlagan kurs ishi mavzusi tasdiqlangandan so‘ng kafedra unga ilmiy rahbar
tainlaydi. Talaba kurs ishini o‘z ilmiy rahbarining bevosita rahbarligida bajaradi.
8. Kreditlarni olish uchun talablar:
Fanga oid nazariy va uslubiy tushunchalarni to’la o’zlashtirish, tahlil natijalarini to’g’ri aks ettira
olish, o’rganilayotgan jarayonlar haqida mustaqil mushohada yuritish va joriy, oraliq nazorat
shakllarida berilgan vazifa va topshiriqlarni bajarish, yakuniy nazorat bo’yicha yozma ishni topshirish.
9. Fan bo‘yicha talabalar bilimini baholash va nazorat qilish mezonlari
Talabalarning ta’lim natijalari 100 ballik reyting tizimida baholanadi. Talabalar tomonidan
ta’lim natijalari buyicha ballarni konvertatsiya qilish YeCTS (European Credit Transfer System)
tizimi asosida amalga oshirilai.
Ta’lim natijalarini baholash uchun ballar quyidagi tartibda belgilanadi:

Joriy nazorat bali Oraliq nazorat bali Yakuniy

nazorat bali
219
Auditoriya mashg‘ulotida berilgan Oraliq nazorat vaqtida javob berganligi uchun
Yakuniy
topshiriqlarni bajarilganligi uchun – joriy – oraliq nazorat bali(ONB); nazorat
baholash(JB); Mustaqil ta`lim topshiriqlarini bajarganligivaqtida javob
Mustaqil ta`lim topshiriqlarini bajarganligi uchun – mustqil ishni baholash (MIB); berganligi
uchun – mustaqil ishni baholash (MIB); uchun –
yakuniy
nazorat bali
(YNB)
Joriy nazoratning maksimal bali 30 ball: Oraliq nazoratning maksimal bali Yakuniy
ΣJN = JB + MIB 20 ball: nazoratning
ΣON = ONB + MIB maksimal
bali(YNB)
50 ball.
ΣJN + ΣON > 30 ball bo‘lgan talaba yakuniy nazorat topshirishga ruxsat beriladi.
Modul(fan)dan o‘zlashtirish ko‘rsatkichi(O‘K):
ΣO‘K = ΣJN + ΣON + YNB
ΣO‘K ≥ 60 ball bo‘lganda modul(fan) o‘zlashtirilgan hisoblanadi.
Talabalarning ta’lim natijalarini baholash mezonlari:

Daraja 5 ballik tizim О‘zlashtirish An’anaviyda Baholash mezonlari

(baho) foizda
О‘quv boshqarma uchun Professor-о‘qituvchi uchun
A+ 4,51 – 5 91 - 100 Talaba materialni mustaqil
ravishda tez о‘zlashtiradi:
xatolarga yо‘l qо‘ymaydi;
A’lo
mashg‘ulotlarda faol ishtirok
etadi; savollarga tо‘liq va aniq
javob beradi.
A 4,26 – 4,5 86 – 90 talaba materiallarni mustaqil
ravishda о‘zlashtiradi: xatolarga
yо‘l qо‘ymaydi; savollarga tо‘liq
va aniq javob beradi.
B+ 4,01–4,25 81 – 85 talaba materiallarni yaxshi
о‘zlashtirgan, uni mantiqiy ifoda
eta oladi; mashg‘ulotlarda faol
Yaxshi ishtirok etadi; savollarga tо‘liq va
aniq javob beradi, biroq uncha
jiddiy bо‘lmagan xatolarga yо‘l
qо‘yadi.
B 3,51 – 4,0 71 – 80 talaba materiallarni yaxshi
о‘zlashtirgan, savollarga tо‘liq va
aniq javob beradi, biroq uncha
jiddiy bо‘lmagan xatolarga yо‘l
qо‘yadi.
C+ 3,26 – 3,5 66 – 70 asosiy materiallarni biladi, biroq
aniq ifoda etishga qiynaladi;
savollarga javob berishda aniqlik
va tо‘liqlik yetishmaydi;
Qoniqarli
materiallarni taqdim etishda
ayrim xatoliklarga yо‘l qо‘yadi;
kommunikatsiya jarayonida
qiyinchilik sezadi.

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 C 3,0 – 3,25 60 – 65 asosiy materiallarni biladi, biroq
aniq ifoda etishga qiynaladi;
savollarga javob berishda aniqlik
va tо‘liqlik yetishmaydi;
materiallarni taqdim etishda
ayrim xatoliklarga yо‘l qо‘yadi;
F 3,0 dan kam 59 dan past materiallarni о‘zlashtirmagan;
Qoniqarsiz savollarga javob bera olmaydi;
mashg‘ulotlarda ishtirok etmaydi

10. O’quv-uslubiy adabiyotlar va elektron ta’lim resurslari ro’yxati.

Asosiy darslik va o’quv qo’llanmalar
№ Mualliflar Adabiyot nomi Nashr yili Adabiyot Adabiyotning
ning ARMdagi
ARMdagi inventar
shifri raqami
1. Jalolov J. English language T.: Fan va 81.2уа73 У-5207
Mahkamova G. Teaching texnologiya, J-22
Ashurov Sh. Methodology (theory 2015 y.
and practice)
2. Hoshimov O’. Ingliz tili o’qitish T.: Sharq, 74.261.7 У-7159
Yoqubov I. metodikasi 2013 y. Ҳ71

Qo’shimcha adabiyotlar

1. Mirziyoyеv Shavkat Miromonovich. Tanqidiy tahlil, qat’iy tartib-intizom va shaxsiy

javobgarlik – har bir rahbar faoliyatining kundalik qoidasi bo‘lishi kеrak. Mamlakatimizni 2016 yilda
ijtimoiy-iqtisodiy rivojlantirishning asosiy yakunlari va 2017 yilga mo‘ljallangan iqtisodiy dasturning
eng muhim ustuvor yo‘nalishlariga bag‘ishlangan Vazirlar Mahkamasining kеngaytirilgan majlisidagi
ma’ruza, 2017 yil 14 yanvar / Sh.M. Mirziyoyеv. – Toshkеnt: O‘zbеkiston, 2017. – 104 b.
2. Mirziyoyеv Shavkat Miromonovich. Qonun ustuvorligi va inson manfaatlarini ta’minlash –
yurt taraqqiyoti va xalq farovonligining garovi. O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Konstitutsiyasi qabul
qilinganining 24 yilligiga bag‘ishlangan tantanali marosimdagi ma’ruza. 2016 yil 7 dеkabr
/Sh.M.Mirziyoyеv. – Toshkеnt: “O‘zbеkiston”, 2017. – 48 b.
3. Mirziyoyеv Shavkat Miromonovich. Buyuk kеlajagimizni mard va olijanob xalqimiz bilan
birga quramiz. Mazkur kitobdan O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Prеzidеnti Shavkat Mirziyoyеvning 2016
yil 1 noyabrdan 24 noyabrga qadar Qoraqalpog‘iston Rеspublikasi, viloyatlar va Toshkеnt shahri
saylovchilari vakillari bilan o‘tkazilgan saylovoldi uchrashuvlarida so‘zlagan nutqlari o‘rin olgan.
/Sh.M.Mirziyoyеv. – Toshkеnt: “O‘zbеkiston”, 2017. – 488 b.
4. Mirziyoyеv Shavkat Miromonovich. Yangi O‘zbеkiston stratеgiyasi.-Toshkеnt, 2021. -458 b.

O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Prеzidеntining Farmoni

1. O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasini yanada rivojlantirish bo‘yicha harakatlar stratеgiyasi to‘g‘risida.

(O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi qonun hujjatlari to‘plami, 2017 y., 6-son, 70-modda)
2. O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Prеzidеntining 2020 - yil 6 – noyabrdagi "O‘zbеkistonning yangi
taraqqiyot davrida ta’lim - tarbiya va ilm - fan sohalarini rivojlantirish chora tadbirlari
to‘g‘risida " gi PF - 6108 - son farmoni.

221
 Axborot manbalari

1. http://www.edu.uz–O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Oliy va o‘rta maxsus ta’lim vazirligi sayti.

2. http:www.uzedu.uz – O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi Xalq ta’limi vazirligi sayti.
3. http://www.gov.uz– O‘zbеkiston Rеspublikasi xukumati portali.
4. www.pedagog.uz
5. http://www.ziyonet.uz/

11. Oraliq nazorat savollari

1. Stages of TFL
2. Teaching Vocabulary
3. Out of class activities
4. Content of TFL
5. Teaching speaking
6. Communicative Method
7. Aids of teaching
8. Teaching listening
9. Oral and written correction
10. Cultural aim of teaching
11. Types of reading
12. English teaching today: worldwide experience
13. Aims of TFL
14. Teaching writing
15. Planning the lesson
16. Out of class activities
17. Aids of teaching foreign languages
18. Stages of teaching foreign languages
19. Problems of teaching English at primary education
20. Exercises of listening
21. Oral and written correction
22. Assessment of speaking skills
23. Methods and principles of teaching
24. Difficulties in listening
25. Selection of grammar
26. Teaching Vocabulary
27. Teaching writing
28. Teaching pronunciation
29. Direct method
30. Teaching Vocabulary
31. Out of class activities
32. Teaching reading
33. Aims of the lesson
34. Types of the text
35. Developing aim of the lesson
36. What is Syllabus?
37. Didactic principles of teaching
38. Methods of teaching
39. Teaching speaking
40. Cultural aim of teaching foreign languages
41. Psychological principles of teaching foreign languages

222
42. Types of controlling
43. Principles of teaching grammar
44. What types of Testing do you know?
45. What do you know about Communicative approach?
46. Practical aim of teaching foreign languages
47. Writing exercises
48. Teaching Vocabulary
49. Plan of the lesson
50. Types of Assessment
51. Assessing speaking skills
52. Linguistic and psychological problems of writing
53. History of teaching foreign languages
54. Educational aim of teaching foreign languages
55. Teaching writing
56. Teaching pronunciation material
57. Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-traditional methods
58. Advantages and Disadvantages of traditional methods
59. Teaching writing
60. Learner differences: heterogeneous classes
61. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
62. Oral and written correction
63. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
64. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
65. Types of assessment
66. Competence in teaching foreign languages
67. Teaching the text: the goals
68. Teaching writing
69. Assessment of vocabulary
70. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
71. Classroom interaction
72. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
73. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
74. Relation of methodology of TFL with other sciences
75. Competence in teaching foreign languages
76. Aims of teaching English.
77. Teaching pronunciation.
78. English teaching today: worldwide experience
79. Teaching speaking
80. Content of teaching English
81. Teaching vocabulary
82. Plan of the lesson
83. Methods of teaching foreign languages
84. Teaching grammar
85. Aids of TFL
86. Teaching listening
87. Types of speech activity
88. Assessment of grammar
89. Teaching reading
90. Planning the lesson
91. Methodology as theory of teaching foreign languages
92. Relation of methodology of teaching foreign languages with other sciences
93. Aims of teaching foreign languages
223
94. Content of teaching foreign languages
95. Methods and principles of teaching foreign languages
96. Aids of teaching foreign languages
97. History of methodology of teaching foreign languages
98. Teaching vocabulary
99. Teaching grammar
100. Teaching pronunciation
101. Assessment of vocabulary and grammar
102. Assessment and testing
103. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments.
104. Problems of teaching English at primary education
105. Competence in teaching foreign languages
106. Teaching the text: the goals
107. The language learning task
108. Oral and written correction
109. Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes
110. Teacher development
111. English teaching today: worldwide experience
112. Controlling speech habits and skills
113. Planning the lesson
114. Stages of teaching foreign languages
115. Out of class activities
116. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
117. Problems of teaching english at primary education
118. Competence in teaching foreign languages
119. Teaching the text: the goals
120. The language learning task
121. Oral and written correction
122. Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes
123. Teacher development
124. English teaching today: worldwide experience
125. Mixed methods
126. Selection of vocabulary
127. Teaching speaking
128. Special methodology
129. Comparative cognitive method
130. Main aids of teaching
131. Teaching listening
132. Types of speech activity
133. The notion of “Reading technique”
134. Teaching reading
135. System of exercises
136. General methodology
137. Mixed methods
138. Selection of vocabulary
139. Teaching speaking
140. Special methodology
141. Teaching presentation skills or debating in ELT
142. Main aids of teaching
143. Teaching listening
144. Teaching pronunciation
145. Cultural aim of teaching
224
146. Types of reading
147. Analysing teaching materials
148. Teaching English for specific purposes
149. Teaching writing

12. Yakuniy nazorat savollari

1. Stages of TFL
2. Teaching Vocabulary
3. Out of class activities
4. Content of TFL
5. Teaching speaking
6. Communicative Method
7. Aids of teaching
8. Teaching listening
9. Oral and written correction
10. Cultural aim of teaching
11. Types of reading
12. English teaching today: worldwide experience
13. Aims of TFL
14. Teaching writing
15. Planning the lesson
16. Out of class activities
17. Aids of teaching foreign languages
18. Stages of teaching foreign languages
19. Problems of teaching English at primary education
20. Exercises of listening
21. Oral and written correction
22. Assessment of speaking skills
23. Methods and principles of teaching
24. Difficulties in listening
25. Selection of grammar
26. Teaching Vocabulary
27. Teaching writing
28. Teaching pronunciation
29. Direct method
30. Teaching Vocabulary
31. Out of class activities
32. Teaching reading
33. Aims of the lesson
34. Types of the text
35. Developing aim of the lesson
36. What is Syllabus?
37. Didactic principles of teaching
38. Methods of teaching
39. Teaching speaking
40. Cultural aim of teaching foreign languages
41. Psychological principles of teaching foreign languages
42. Types of controlling
43. Principles of teaching grammar
44. What types of Testing do you know?
225
45. What do you know about Communicative approach?
46. Practical aim of teaching foreign languages
47. Writing exercises
48. Teaching Vocabulary
49. Plan of the lesson
50. Types of Assessment
51. Assessing speaking skills
52. Linguistic and psychological problems of writing
53. History of teaching foreign languages
54. Educational aim of teaching foreign languages
55. Teaching writing
56. Teaching pronunciation material
57. Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-traditional methods
58. Advantages and Disadvantages of traditional methods
59. Teaching writing
60. Learner differences: heterogeneous classes
61. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
62. Oral and written correction
63. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
64. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
65. Types of assessment
66. Competence in teaching foreign languages
67. Teaching the text: the goals
68. Teaching writing
69. Assessment of vocabulary
70. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
71. Classroom interaction
72. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
73. Problems of teaching foreign languages in primary education
74. Relation of methodology of TFL with other sciences
75. Competence in teaching foreign languages
76. Aims of teaching English.
77. Teaching pronunciation.
78. English teaching today: worldwide experience
79. Teaching speaking
80. Content of teaching English
81. Teaching vocabulary
82. Plan of the lesson
83. Methods of teaching foreign languages
84. Teaching grammar
85. Aids of TFL
86. Teaching listening
87. Types of speech activity
88. Assessment of grammar
89. Teaching reading
90. Planning the lesson
91. Methodology as theory of teaching foreign languages
92. Relation of methodology of teaching foreign languages with other sciences
93. Aims of teaching foreign languages
94. Content of teaching foreign languages
95. Methods and principles of teaching foreign languages
96. Aids of teaching foreign languages
226
97. History of methodology of teaching foreign languages
98. Teaching vocabulary
99. Teaching grammar
100. Teaching pronunciation
101. Assessment of vocabulary and grammar
102. Assessment and testing
103. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments.
104. Problems of teaching English at primary education
105. Competence in teaching foreign languages
106. Teaching the text: the goals
107. The language learning task
108. Oral and written correction
109. Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes
110. Teacher development
111. English teaching today: worldwide experience
112. Controlling speech habits and skills
113. Planning the lesson
114. Stages of teaching foreign languages
115. Out of class activities
116. Teaching foreign languages in different educational establishments
117. Problems of teaching english at primary education
118. Competence in teaching foreign languages
119. Teaching the text: the goals
120. The language learning task
121. Oral and written correction
122. Learner differences: teaching heterogeneous classes
123. Teacher development
124. English teaching today: worldwide experience
125. Mixed methods
126. Selection of vocabulary
127. Teaching speaking
128. Special methodology
129. Comparative cognitive method
130. Main aids of teaching
131. Teaching listening
132. Types of speech activity
133. The notion of “Reading technique”
134. Teaching reading
135. System of exercises
136. General methodology
137. Mixed methods
138. Selection of vocabulary
139. Teaching speaking
140. Special methodology
141. Teaching presentation skills or debating in ELT
142. Main aids of teaching
143. Teaching listening
144. Teaching pronunciation
145. Cultural aim of teaching
146. Types of reading
147. Analysing teaching materials
148. Teaching English for specific purposes
227
 149. Teaching writing

O’zimizniki

Talabalarni baholash
Talabalar bilimini baholash semestr va yakuniy nazorat davomida o‘qitish materiallarini
o‘zlashtirish ko‘rsatkichi (topshiriqlar, mustaqil ish, test va yozma ish natijasi)ga asoslangan.
O‘quv mashg‘uloti davomida talabalar 100 ballik tizimda baholanadi. Shundan joriy va oraliq
natijasiga 50 ball, yakuniy nazorat natijasiga 50 ball ajratiladi. Joriy va oraliq ballarning umumiy
natijasi 30 balldan past bo‘lgan talabalar yakuniy nazoratga kiritilmaydi. Yakuniy nazoratda 30 va
undan ko‘p ball to‘plagan talaba fanni o‘zlashtirgan hisoblanadi.

Nazorat turlari bo‘yicha ballar quyidagicha taqsimlanadi:

5-semestr uchun

Topshiriq Maksimal
ball
1*. Writing an article about technologies of teaching foreign 3
languages
2*. Writing a thesis about the structure of foreign language 3
lesson and its organizing. Amaliy
3*. Write a library research paper about providing successful 3 mashg‘ulotlar
oral fluency practice bo‘yicha
4*. Making a ppt on the topic improving students’ reading 3 15 ball
comprehension
5*. Writing an article on the system of exercises for developing 3
communicative competence of EFL learners (on the example of
primary education, secondary education, lyceum, specialized
schools)
Mustaqil ish. 15 Mustaqil ta’lim
bo‘yicha
15 ball
Oraliq nazorat bo‘yicha maksimal ball 20
Yakuniy nazorat bo‘yicha maksimal ball 50
Jami: 100 100 ball

6-semestr uchun
Topshiriq Maksimal
ball
1*. Creating a lesson plan 3
2*. Writing a thesis on teaching reading for B1(10-11 forms, 3 Amaliy
students of lyceum and colleges) learners mashg‘ulotlar
3*. Writing an article on teaching English speaking for B1(10- 3 bo‘yicha
11 forms, students of lyceum and colleges) learners. 15 ball
4*. Writing a thesis on teaching writing for B1(10-11 forms, 3

228
students of lyceum and colleges)
5*. Making a ppt on the types of testing in teaching foreign 3
language
Mustaqil ish. 15 Mustaqil ta’lim
bo‘yicha
15 ball
Oraliq nazorat bo‘yicha maksimal ball 20
Yakuniy nazorat bo‘yicha maksimal ball 50
Jami: 100 100 ball

* Izoh: 1. Amaliy mashg‘ulotlar bo‘yicha ajratilgan 15 ball mavzulardan kelib chiqqan holda
taqsimlanib, aniq topshiriqlar beriladi.
2. Fan bo‘yicha yuqorida keltirilgan nazoratlarda to‘plangan reyting ballari umumlashtiriladi
yakunda ballar 5 baholik tizimga konvertatsiya qilinadi.

Mustaqil ishni baholash. Berilgan mavzular bo‘yicha mustaqil ishini baholash

- Mavzular bo‘yicha taqdimot va rasmiylashtirish - 3 ball;
- tanlangan mavzular bo‘yicha leksik va grammatik xatoliklarga yo‘l qo‘ymaslik- 3 ball;
- mavzu va ma’lumotning o‘zaro bir-biriga bog‘liqligi – 3 ball;
- tadqiq qilinadigan mavzu yuzasidan taqdimot matnining yetarli hajmda tayyorlanganligi (kamida
10ta slayddan tashkil topganligi) - 3 ball;
- taqdimot vaqtida og‘zaki nutq normalariga rioya qilish- 3 ball.

Talabalarni baholashda quyidagilar hisobga olinadi:

- mashg‘ulotlardagi faollik va ijodkorlik;
- asosiy va qo‘shimcha o‘quv materiallarini o‘zlashtirish;
- mustaqil ta’lim bo‘yicha topshiriqlarni o‘z vaqtida bajarish;
- nazoratning barcha turlarini o‘z vaqtida bajarish.

AKADEMIK VA ETIK TALABLAR

Nazorat topshiriqlarini bajarishda ko‘chirmakashlikka (plagiat) yo‘l qo‘yilmaydi.
Test, o‘quv loyihalari, mustaqil ishlar, joriy, oraliq, yakuniy nazorat topshiriqlarini boshqa shaxslardan
ko‘chirib olinishiga yo‘l qo‘yilmaydi, boshqa talabaning o‘rniga imtihon topshirish ta’qiqlanadi.
Kurs bo‘yicha har qanday nazorat topshirig‘ini soxtalashtirgan talaba “fanni o‘zlashtirmagan”
hisoblanadi.
Mashg‘ulotlar paytida mobil aloqa va boshqa elektron qurilmalardan foydalanishga yo‘l qo‘yilmaydi.
Mashg‘ulotlar paytida auditoriyada (virtual auditoriyada) belgilangan talablarga zid harakatlar qilish
mumkin еmas.
Boshqalar va turli fikrlarga tolerant munosabatda bo‘lish talab еtiladi.

Foydalaniladigan adabiyotlar ro‘yxati

Asosiy adabiyotlar
1. Jalolov J.J., and others. English Language Teaching methodology – Tashkent.: 2015.
2. Jalolov J.J. Chet til o‘qitish metodikasi. – Tashkent.: 2012.
3. Axmedova L.T., Normuratova V.I. Teaching English Practivum / Практикум по методике
преподавания английского языка – Т.: 2011.

229
 Qo‘shimcha adabiyotlar
1. Mirziyoyev Sh.M. Erkin va farovon demokratik O‘zbekiston davlatini birgalikda barpo etamiz.
Toshkent "O‘zbekiston NMIU 2017-13 b
2. Mirziyoyev Sh.M. Qonun ustuvorligi va inson manfaatlarini ta'minlash yurt taraqqiyoti va xalq
farovonligining garovi. "O‘zbekiston" 22-bet
3. Mirziyoev SH.M. Buyuk kelajagimizni mard va olijanob xalqimiz bilan birga quramiz.
“O‘zbekiston” NMIU, 2017. – 470 b.
4. O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentining 2017 yil 7 fevraldagi “O‘zbekiston Respublikasini yanada
rivojlantirish bo‘yicha harakatlar strategiyasi to‘g‘risida” gi PF-4947-sonli Farmoni. O‘zbekiston
Respublikasi qonun hujjatlari to‘plami, 2017 y., 6-son, 70-modda
5. Mirziyov SH.M. Tanqidiy tahlil, qat’iy tartib-intizom va shaxsiy javobgarlik – har bir rahbar
faoliyatining kundalik qoidasi bo‘lishi kerak. O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasining 2016
yil yakunlari va 2017 yil istiqbollariga bag‘ishlangan majlisidagi O‘zbekiston Respublikasi
Prezidentining nutqi. // Xalq so‘zi gazetasi. 2017 yil 16 yanvar, №11.
6. Setiyadi, A. G. (2020). Teaching English as a foreign language.
7. M. Firiady: Communicative language teaching through speaking activities (2018)
8. Terry Phillips& Anna Phillips: Progressive skills in English (2017)
9. Mahkamova G. T. Innovative Pedagogical Technologies in the English Language Teaching.
Tashkent, 2017
10. Nunan, D. (2009). Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, J., & Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and Methods in ELT (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
11. Khoshimov U., I. Yokubov,(2003) Ingliz tili o‘qitish metodikasi. Tashkent, Sharq.
12.Ur, P.A (2010) Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory.Cambridge: CUPUK.
13.Thornbury, S. (2002) How to teach vocabulary. Longman Pearson.
14. Ахмедова Л.Т Роль и место педагогических технологий в профессиональной подготовке
студентов-Т.:2009
15. Мильурд Р.П. Методика преподавания английского языка.English language methodology:
Учебное пособие для вузов. 2-изд.-Москва. Дрофа.2007
16. Common European Framework of References for languages: Learning,Teaching, Assessment. The
Council of Europe-Strasbourg, 2005
17. Rogers and Richards. Approaches and methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University
Press.
18. Harmer Jeremy. The Practice of English language Teaching. Cambridge, 2007.

Elektron ta’lim resurslari:

1. www.txt.uz
2. www.twirpx.net.
3. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/media/podcasting.
4. www.teachingenglish.org.uk
5. www.onestopenglish.com
6. www.tesol.org
7. www.tefl.com
8. www.teachertrainingvideos.com
8. www.learnenglish.org.uk
9. www.macmillanenglish.com/readers

230
231
GLOSSARY

232
233
234
235
Ilovalar:

236
237
 TESTLAR
№1
What does the lexical approach include?
Multi-word prefabricated chunks
Only grammar rules
Vocabulary and listening
№2
What does the basic principles of lexical approach
lexis
grammar
Subservient managerial role
№3
In which activity students are encouraged to act out roles of people in different spheres of society?
Role play
Information gap
Jig saw activities
Fish bowl
№4
In which method students may create their own story and draw
several sequential pictures that describe story?
Story narrating through the pictures
Interviews

238
Story forming
Brain storming
№5
In which method well known for its common use of small colored rods of varying length and color coded
word charts depicting pronunciation values, vocabulary and grammatical paradigms( Fidel Chart, Word
Chart, Sound Color Charts) and concentrates on cognitive principles in language learning?
The Silent way
Suggestopedia
Grammar Translation Method
Audio-lingual Method
№6
What is the aim of pedagogical technology?
To achieve high result in short time and with less effort
To increase efficiency of learning process
To project learning process
To have innovative approach to education
№7
The meaning of “Technology” is …….
Art, competence efficiency
Project
techniques
Process
№8
What type of pedagogical technology is rating technology?
general
private
local
productive
№9
What kind of organizer is “T” scheme?
analyzing
problematic
notion
Directed to think
№ 10
Art, competence, efficiency is …….
Technology
Project
techniques
Process
№ 11
Rating technology is…..?
general
private
local
productive
№ 12
What kind of organizer is “SWOT” table?
analyzing
problematic
notion
Directed to think
№ 13
What kind of organizer is “BBB” technology?
working with the text
analyzing
problematic
comparative
№ 14
The meaning of “Sinkwein”
239
5th
link
scheme
table
№ 15
“BBB” technology is …?
working with the text
analyzing
problematic
comparative
№ 16
“Sinkwein” is ….
5th
link
scheme
table
№ 17
What controlling types of pedagogical technologies do you know?
Controlling which requires short time
Oral
written
Independent work
№ 18
Controlling types of pedagogical technologies are…..?
Controlling which requires short time
Oral
written
Independent work
№ 19
In what innovation stage pedagogical technology is going in Uzbekistan?
2
8
5
7
№ 20
How many parts are in Technological map?
3
4
5
6
№ 21
What makes a good teacher?
all answers are true
marketing the subject, knowing the subject: teaching it with encouragement
using a variety of teaching styles, building on family and outside-of-school experiences
involving students as learning partners, collaborating with other adults, making sure students know they are cared
about
№ 22
What is method?
A series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan
one’s viewpoint toward teaching

№ 23
What is technique?
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson
240
№ 24
What is strategy?
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
№ 25
What is approach?
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
№ 26
Technological map consists of …. parts
3
4
5
6
№ 27
What makes a great teacher?
all answers are true
marketing the subject, knowing the subject: teaching it with encouragement
using a variety of teaching styles, building on family and outside-of-school experiences
involving students as learning partners, collaborating with other adults, making sure students know they are cared
about
№ 28
Method is …..?
series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
№ 29
Technique is ….?
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson
№ 30
Strategy is ….. ?
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
№ 31
Approach is …..?
one’s viewpoint toward teaching
a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the objective of the lesson.
the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedure of teaching.
set of decisions to achieve an objective that results in plan.
№ 32
How many distinct words the “Neurolinguistic programming” can be broken down?
3
5
6
9
№ 33
How many types of learning styles?
3
5
6
241
9
№ 34
What are visual learners based on?
It is based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based on the easiest style
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 35
What are auditory learners based on?
It is based on learners who do better by hearing and seeing new materials
It is based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 36
What are kinesthetic learners based on?
It is based upon the idea that motion is useful for learning
It is based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 37
Auditory learners are …… .
based on learners who do better by hearing and seeing new materials
It is based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 38
There are …. types of learning styles.
3
5
6
9
№ 39
Visual learners are …..
based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based on the easiest style
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 40
Kinesthetic learners are …..
based upon the idea that motion is useful for learning
It is based on the idea of the positioning of items and they are often seen as “daydreamers”.
It is based upon the idea
It is based on copying or re-copying
№ 41
What language is used in grammar translation method?
Native language
Target language
Both of them
A and B
№ 42
Where was grammar translation method founded?
Germany
France
Russia
Uzbekistan
№ 43
When was direct method appeared?
At the turn of 19th century and 20th
At the beginning of 19th century
100 years ago
242
20 years ago
№ 44
Who is actively involved in direct method?
Learner
Teacher
Both of them
None of them
№ 45
What skill is firstly taught in direct method?
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Listening
№ 46
When holistic philosophy of reading instruction was first introduced?
1970’s-80’s
Early 80’s
Early 60’s
Early 50’s
№ 47
What types of language acquisition do you know?
Oral and written
B and C
Natural and oral
Selective and Oral
№ 48
What is the objective of multiple intelligences?
to find more ways of helping all students in classes
to find more ways of helping all students in their classroom
to find more ways of creating abilities of students
correct answer is not given
№ 49
….. is actively involved in direct method
Learner
Teacher
Both of them
None of them
№ 50
…. is firstly taught in direct method
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Listening
№ 51
Peer correction is ….
encouraging students to help each other in a cooperative not competitive spirit
make students stay silent
student’s use of building words with correct pronunciation
all answers are correct
№ 52
What is Peer correction?
encouraging students to help each other in a cooperative not competitive spirit
make students stay silent
student’s use of building words with correct pronunciation
all answers are correct
№ 53
Rods ______
used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language
a part of the tool, which can be used for fishing
Invitation of students to make observation about the day’s lesson
243
all answers are correct
№ 54
This method provides opportunities for learners to improve imagination, speaking, and as well as
communication skills
story forming
Discussion
Onion
talk shows
№ 55
…… provides opportunities for learners to improve imagination, speaking, and as well as communication
skills
Story forming
Discussion
Onion
talk shows
№ 56
Which answer corresponds to aspect of lexis?
translation, chunks of language, synonymy
Tenses, synonymy
Visualization, chunks of language
Suggestopedia
№ 57
Brainstorming….
encourages learners to produce the idea of solving practical and scientific problems individually or in groups.
is a strategy that offers several advantages for both student and teacher
is one more effective strategy to improve communication skills
are based on the information – gap principles
№ 58
Aspect of lexis are?
translation, chunks of language, synonymy
Tenses, synonymy
Visualization, chunks of language
Suggestopedia
№ 59
What is Brainstorming?
encourages learners to produce the idea of solving practical and scientific problems individually or in groups.
is a strategy that offers several advantages for both student and teacher
is one more effective strategy to improve communication skills
are based on the information – gap principles
№ 60
Discussion is…..
an active method of sharing opinions on a specific problem individually and freely
based on the information – gap principles
It is based upon the idea that motion is useful for learning
It is based on re-reading and re-writing
№ 61
What is Discussion?
an active method of sharing opinions on a specific problem individually and freely
based on the information – gap principles
It is based upon the idea that motion is useful for learning
It is based on re-reading and re-writing
№ 62
The most prominent characteristic of the Silent method is …
The teacher stays silent and uses rods
the teacher actively manages the class
the teacher participates in all activities
the student works silently
№ 63
What is CLT?
Communicative Language Teaching
244
Communicative Language Learning
Common Language Teaching
Common Learning and Teaching
№ 64
What is CLL?
Community Language Learning
Communicative Language Learning
Common Language Teaching
Common Learning and Teaching

№ 65
CLL is ….?
Community Language Learning
Communicative Language Learning
Common Language Teaching
Common Learning and Teaching
№ 66
CLT is ….?
Communicative Language Teaching
Communicative Language Learning
Common Language Teaching
Common Learning and Teaching
№ 67
The CLL method Principles are:
all answers are true
To encourage the students to take increasingly more responsibility for their own learning, and to "learn about their
learning", so to speak.
Learning in a non-defensive manner is considered to be very important, with teacher and student regarding each
other as a "whole person" where intellect and ability are not separated from feelings.
The initial struggles with learning the new language are addressed by creating an environment of mutual support,
trust and understanding between both "learner-clients" and the "teacher-counselor.”
№ 68
What is TPR?
Total Physical Response
Testing Phonetics
Teaching Phonetic Rights
Teaching Phonological Reasons
№ 69
The principles of the communicative approach are:
All answers are true
The use of target language in a communicative way
Emphasis on meaning rather than form
more student-orientated
№ 70
What is ESP?
English for Specific Purposes
English for sons and Parents
English for Super Power
English for Society and Policy
№ 71
ESP is …..
English for Specific Purposes
English for sons and Parents
English for Super Power
English for Society and Policy

№ 72
What is scanning?
245
examples in support of an argument
sequencing relations between parts of the text
Psychological tests
testing vocabulary
№ 73
In which testing is essential to demonstrate linguistic skills?
testing vocabulary
reading tests
writing
grammar
№ 74
The levels in CEFR are described in the form of ........ statements
can do
can read
can write
can understand
№ 75
Levels for school-leaving
A1 and A2
C1 and C2
B1, B2
A2, C1
№ 76
The new curriculum has been prepared in the light of........
CEFR
CLL
EFL
CLT
№ 77
A1 and A2 levels are …..
for school-leaving
for college-leaving
for university-leaving
for kinder-garten-leaving
№ 78
Level for college-leaving
B1
C1
B2
A2
№ 79
What are traditional approaches?
Teacher-centeredness
learner-centered
Teaching technology and the internet
Promoting autonomy and awareness
№ 80
Antonyms to indicate words of the same category of parts of speech which have…
contrasting meanings
the same meanings
several meanings
two or more meanings
№ 81
Discussion is…..
an active method of sharing opinions on a specific problem individually and freely
based on the information – gap principles
It is based upon the idea that motion is useful for learning
It is based on re-reading and re-writing
№ 82
In traditional method teachers do not pay attention to…
246
speaking and pronunciation practice
grammar
tenses
translation and memorizing
№ 83
In which method students write and re-tell the stories?
Traditional
modern
structural
Semantic Base
№ 84
Method is…
just the mediator between theory and classroom practice
the same with technique
a classroom research
an analysis of students
№ 85
Story forming method provides opportunities for learners to improve ……
Imagination, speaking, and as well as communication skills
Listening-comprehension
Reading skill
Grammar
№ 86
Traditional Method is also known as…
Grammar-Translation Method
Communicative Method
Structural Method
Oral Method
№ 87
Unlike traditional methodology, …... is much more student-centred.
Modern Methodology
Traditional Methodology
Structural Approach
Semantic Base
№ 88
CEFR is not….
theoretical document
descriptive document
a document to reflex
a starting point to develop new tools
№ 89
The CEFR aims are …….
all answers are correct
Elaboration of language syllabuses and curriculum guidelines
Design teaching and learning materials
The assessment of language proficiency
№ 90
Find the Reasons to Use Games in the Classroom
all answers are true
Students learn through the process of playing the game.
Games provide a context for engaging practice
Through games, students can learn a variety of important skills.
№ 91
Stages of the lesson are such order:
pre, while, post
while, post, pre
post, pre while
pre, post, while
№ 92
Pre-, while-, post- , are …..
247
Stages of the lesson
Timing of the lesson
Games
Exercises
№ 93
Receptive Skills are:….
listening and reading
listening and speaking
writing and speaking
speaking
№ 94
Productive skills are: ………
writing and speaking
listening and speaking
listening and reading
listening

№ 95
Listening and reading are ……?
Receptive Skills
Productive skills
Speaking skills
None of them
№ 96
Writing and speaking are: ………
Productive skills
Receptive Skills
Speaking skills
None of them

№ 97
A cinquain was created by American poet …….
Adelaide Crapsey
B. Franklin
Writer
Ch.Bronte
№ 98
A cinquain is a form of …..?
poetry
essay
novel
works
№ 99
What is cinquain?
A cinquain is a five-line poem that has special syllable counts.
A cinquain is a three-line poem that has special syllable counts
A cinquain is a four-line poem that has special syllable counts
A cinquain is a six-line poem that has special syllable counts

№ 100
Venn diagram was introduced by …….?
John Venn
Veranda
J.Vern
J. William

Asosiy darsliklar va o‘quv qo‘llanmalar

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 Asosiy adabiyotlar:
1. Jalolov J.J., and others. English Language Teaching methodology – Tashkent.: 2015.
2. Jalolov J.J. Chet til o’qitish metodikasi. – Tashkent.: 2012.
3. Axmedova L.T., Normuratova V.I. Teaching English Practivum / Практикум по методике
преподавания английского языка – Т.: 2011.

Qo’shimcha adabiyotlar
1. Mirziyoyev Sh.M. Erkin va farovon demokratik O'zbekiston davlatini birgalikda barpo etamiz.
Toshkent "O'zbekiston NMIU 2017-13 b
2. Mirziyoyev Sh.M. Qonun ustuvorligi va inson manfaatlarini ta'minlash yurt taraqqiyoti va xalq
farovonligining garovi. "O'zbekiston" 22-bet
3. Mirziyoev SH.M. Buyuk kelajagimizni mard va olijanob xalqimiz bilan birga quramiz.
“O‘zbekiston” NMIU, 2017. – 470 b.
4. O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentining 2017 yil 7 fevraldagi “O‘zbekiston Respublikasini yanada
rivojlantirish bo‘yicha harakatlar strategiyasi to‘g‘risida” gi PF-4947-sonli Farmoni. O‘zbekiston
Respublikasi qonun hujjatlari to‘plami, 2017 y., 6-son, 70-modda
5. Mirziyov SH.M. Tanqidiy tahlil, qat’iy tartib-intizom va shaxsiy javobgarlik – har bir rahbar
faoliyatining kundalik qoidasi bo‘lishi kerak. O‘zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasining 2016
yil yakunlari va 2017 yil istiqbollariga bag‘ishlangan majlisidagi O‘zbekiston Respublikasi
Prezidentining nutqi. // Xalq so‘zi gazetasi. 2017 yil 16 yanvar, №11.
6. Nunan, D. (2009). Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McDonough, J., & Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and Methods in ELT (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell.
7. Khoshimov U., I. Yokubov,(2003) Ingliz tili o’qitish metodikasi. Tashkent, Sharq.
1.Ur, P.A (2010) Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory.Cambridge: CUPUK.
2.Thornbury, S. (2002) How to teach vocabulary. Longman Pearson.

Elektron ta’lim resurslari:

1. www.txt.uz
2. www.twirpx.net.
3. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/teachers/lessonplans/media/podcasting.
4. www.teachingenglish.org.uk
5. www.onestopenglish.com
6. www.tesol.org
7. www.tefl.com
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8. www.teachertrainingvideos.com
8. www.learnenglish.org.uk
9. www.macmillanenglish.com/readers

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