DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SINGLE AXIS SOLAR TRACKER FOR

IMPROVED SOLAR ENERGY HARVESTING EFFICIENCY

BY

DOMINIC OMAKU VINCENT 18/46185/UE

JERRY OGAH ROY 18/46165/UE

JESSE AONDOASEER AVAACHIA 18/46125/UE

JAN 2024
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SINGLE AXIS SOLAR TRACKER FOR

IMPROVED SOLAR ENERGY HARVESTING EFFICIENCY

BY

DOMINIC OMAKU VINCENT 18/46185/UE

JERRY OGAH ROY 18/46165/UE

JESSE AONDOASEER AVAACHIA 18/46125/UE

PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN

PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF B. ENG. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

JOSEPH SARWUAN TARKA UNIVERSITY, MAKURDI.

JAN 2024

ii
 DECLARATION

We declare that the work presented in this project is original and has not been submitted to any

University or similar Institution for any award of degree or certificate.

Name of Candidate: Dominic Omaku Vincent

Signature ……………………………………….

Date ……………………………………….

Name of Candidate: Jerry Ogah Roy

Signature ……………………………………….

Date ……………………………………….

Name of Candidate: Jesse Aondoaseer Avaachia

Signature ……………………………………….

Date ……………………………………….

iii
 CERTIFICATION

We the undersigned certify that this project presented by Dominic Omaku Vincent 18/46184/UE,

Jerry Ogah Roy 18/46165/UE and Jesse Aondoaseer Avaachia 18/46125/UE to the Department of

Mechanical Engineering be accepted as fulfilling part requirements for the award of B. Eng. in

Mechanical Engineering.

23/01/2024
Engr. Dr. Ipilakyaa T.D …………………………….
Project Supervisor Signature/Date

Engr. Prof. Aondoyila Kuhe …………………………….

Head of Department Signature/Date

Engr. Prof. Anthony Obi …………………………….

External Examiner Signature/Date

iv
 DEDICATION

This project work is specially dedicated to the Almighty God of the Universe, for His protection

and guidance over me throughout the period of my studies.

This project is dedicated to my parents Mr & Mrs Omame Dominic and my mentor, Rev. Fr. Paul

Peter Onah.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Our sincere gratitude goes to the Almighty God, the Author and Giver of life, His mercies over

our lives.

Our profound gratitude goes to our HOD, Engr. Prof. Aondoyila Kuhe, of the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, for his unwavering support and encouragement throughout the work.

Also, to our supervisor, Engr. Dr. Ipilakyaa T.D, for his support and guidance throughout the

period of this work.

We also appreciate our families, friends and all who have supported us one way or the other

throughout the course of our academic carrier.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION iii

CERTIFICATION iv

DEDICATION v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF PLATES xi

ABSTRACT xii

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Problem statement 3

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Project 3

1.4 Significance of the Project 4

1.5 Scope of the Work 5

1.6 Motivation 5

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Solar Tracking 6

2.2 History 8

vii
2.3 Types of solar tracker 9

2.4 Existing Literature on Single-Axis Solar Trackers 15

2.5 Summary of Findings 19

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS. 20

3.1 Materials 20

3.2 Method for Design and Construction 24

3.2.1 Proposed design 26

3.2.2 Materials selection, specification and costing 38

3.2.3 Design calculations 45

3.2.4 Construction of components 50

3.2.5 Assembly of machine 53

3.2.6 Testing of machine 56

4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 62

4.1 Results 62

4.2 Discussion of Results 69

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 71

5.1 Conclusion 71

5.2 Recommendation 71

REFERENCES 73

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Materials for The Construction of the Single Axis Solar Tracker Frame 21

Table 2: Materials that Were Used to Implement the Tracking Mechanism 22

Table 3: Machines and Equipments 23

Table 4: Solar Output of The PV Panel in Fixed Position (Static) Angle 35 Degrees 62

Table 5: Solar Output of the PV Panel in varying Position (Tracking) 63

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Single Axis Solar Tracker (Source: https://smartflower.com/blog/whats-the-point-of-a-

dual-axis-tracker/) 13

Figure 2: Dual Axis Solar tracker (Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dual-axis-

tracking-system_fig1_308706712) 14

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram showing the connection of all electrical components 25

Figure 4: Flow chart of the Solar tracking Control System Logic 34

Figure 5: Power Gain by Tracking panels over Stationary panels 64

Figure 6: Voltage output by Tracking panels over Stationary panels 65

Figure 7: Output Current Comparison between Tracking and Fixed Panels 66

Figure 8: Output Power Comparison between Tracking and Fixed Panels 67

Figure 9: Graph of Output Voltage against Angle of inclination for tracking panels 68

x
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Isometric View 36

Plate 2: Side View 36

Plate 3: Front View 37

Plate 4: Plan 37

Plate 5: Arduino Uno 42

Plate 6: Jumper Wires 42

Plate 7: Linear Actuator 43

Plate 8: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) 43

Plate 9: Bread Board 44

Plate 10: L298N Motor Driver 44

xi
 ABSTRACT

The objectives set forth for this project were aimed at developing a single-axis solar tracker system
and assessing its performance in comparison to stationary solar panels. The study's findings affirm
the project's primary aim, revealing that both stationary and tracking panels yield comparable
outputs during optimal sunlight conditions, as evidenced by the absence of power gain at the peak
energy harvest period of 13:00. However, a comprehensive analysis of Figures 6, 7, and 8, coupled
with efficiency calculations, consistently demonstrates the superior performance of the solar panel
equipped with the tracker. The tracker's dynamic optimization of panel orientation, illustrated by
the relationship between output voltage and inclination angle in Figure 9, played a crucial role in
achieving approximately 15% greater efficiency. The attainment of the Maximum Power Point
(MPP) at 18.09V and 159° underscores the pivotal role of the solar tracker in maintaining the
panel's operation near its peak efficiency. These results collectively emphasize the tangible benefits
of the single-axis solar tracker, showcasing heightened energy output and increased overall system
efficiency, aligning closely with the project's established objectives.

xii
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study

Energy exigency is the most important issue in today’s world and one of the most important

building blocks in human development. Presently, the principal sources of energy available for our

world are fossil fuels. These conventional energy resources are not only limited but also the prime

culprit for environmental pollution (Khadim et al., 2020).

Considering the rate at which fossil fuels are consumed today, studies suggest that most of the

known reserves of fossil fuels are likely to get exhausted by the end of this century (Gupta, et al.,

2011) To provide a sustainable and safer power generation to the future generation, there is a

growing demand for renewable energy sources like wind, solar, geo thermal and ocean tidal wave.

Renewable energy resources are getting priorities in the whole world to lessen the dependency on

conventional resources. Solar energy is rapidly gaining the focus as an important means of

expanding renewable energy uses (Khadim et al., 2020). Lots of researches have been carried out

in improving solar cells efficiency which also involves the positioning of the cells to maximize

energy extraction during the day using solar tracker (Gupta et al., 2011)

A solar tracker is a device used for orienting a solar photovoltaic (PV) panel or lens towards the

sun by using the solar or light sensors connected with the machine (example: stepper motor, servo

motor, gas filled piston etc.) in order to maximize energy extraction during the day and increasing

the photovoltaic cell efficiency against the conventional practice where solar panels are fixed mid-

way between the geographical east and west with approximately 30 degrees towards the south.

(Abbood 2017) revealed that this is not ideal position in maximizing energy extraction from the

sun. It has been estimated that the yield from solar panels can be increased by 30 to 60 percent by

1
utilizing a tracking system instead of a stationary array. A better way is to orient the panels

continuously towards the sun, using single axis or double axes (Dhanabal, 2013).

Several factors must be considered when determining the use of trackers. Such factors include; the

amount of direct solar radiation, solar technology being used, expenses to install and maintain the

trackers, and feed-in tariffs in the region where the system is deployed. Concentrated applications

like concentrated photovoltaic panels (CPV) or concentrated solar power (CSP) require a high

degree of accuracy to ensure the sunlight is precisely directed at the focal point of the reflector or

lens Kumar (2017).

Non-concentrating applications do not require tracking but using a tracker can improve the total

power stored by the battery. Photovoltaic systems using high efficiency panels with trackers can

be very effective (Reddy 2019). The automatic solar tracking system is designed around two sub-

systems. The first is the LDR for detecting the position where maximum energy could be extracted

and the second is the solar panel with the control strategy. The aim of the LDR is to detect the

maximum energy from the sun, and picks up the voltage induced. That voltage is compared with

that sensed by the sensor mounted on the panels. If the panel voltage is less than that of the LDR

voltage detection by a predetermined threshold offset, then the panels move and align themselves,

otherwise they stay in their current position. A better way to orient the panels continuously towards

the sun using a detecting mechanism (LDR) which detect the maximum energy from the sun is to

align the panel with the direction of the sun (Finster 2019).

2
1.2 Problem statement

The problem this project seeks to address is the suboptimal solar energy harvesting efficiency

observed in stationary solar panels. Fixed solar panels are unable to consistently capture the

maximum amount of solar energy due to their static orientation. The challenge at hand is to develop

a novel and reliable single axis solar tracker that accurately aligns the solar panels with the

movement of the sun throughout the day. By doing so, the project aims to optimize the incident

solar radiation and increase the energy output of the solar power system. The ultimate goal is to

contribute towards the advancement of sustainable energy solutions by enabling more efficient

solar power generation.

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Project

The primary aim is to develop and build a single-axis solar tracker system that can dynamically

adjust the orientation of solar panels to optimize solar energy harvesting.

The specific objectives are as follows:

• To develop and implement strategies to optimize the efficiency of the single-axis solar tracker.

by modeling control algorithms, adjusting tracking intervals, and building a stable, portable

and efficient structural frame where the panels will be mounted.

• To conduct experiments to measure and compare the energy output of the single-axis solar

tracker with that of stationary solar panels under various sunlight conditions.

3
1.4 Significance of the Project

The design and construction of a single axis solar tracker holds significant importance as it aims

to improve solar energy harvesting efficiency and promote the adoption of renewable energy

solutions by to ensuring sunlight rays are falling perpendicularly on the solar panel to give the

maximum solar energy. Normally a solar panel converts only 30 to 40 per cent of the incident solar

radiation in to electrical energy. An automated system is required to get a constant output, which

should be capable to constantly rotate the solar panel. The sun tracking system was made as a

prototype to solve the problem. It will be automatic and keeps the panel in forward-facing of sun

until that is visible. The unique characteristic of this system is that instead of taking the earth as its

reference, it takes the sun as a guiding source. The sunlight is monitored by the active sensors and

rotates the panel towards the direction where the intensity of sunlight is maximums.

By accurately tracking the movement of the sun, the solar tracker optimizes the positioning of

solar panels, resulting in increased energy output and cost savings. This work plays a vital role in

creating a more sustainable future by reducing reliance on fossil fuels, mitigating the impacts of

climate change, and preserving the environment. Moreover, it has broader implications for the

renewable energy sector, inspiring further research and development, generating employment

opportunities, and contributing to economic growth. Overall, the design and construction of a

single axis solar tracker carries immense significance, driving advancements in clean energy

technology and benefiting individuals, communities, and the global ecosystem.

4
1.5 Scope of the Work

The goals of this project were purposely kept within what was believed to be attainable within the

allotted timeline. As such, many improvements can be made upon this initial design. That being

said, it is felt that this design represents a functioning miniature scale model which could be

replicated to a much larger scale. Adding to this, when the sky gets unpredictably cloudy especially

in rainy, the sensor tends to sense lower energy than expected.

The scope of this project is focused on single axis solar tracking mechanism. There is be a

limitation of not covering multi-axis or dual-axis solar tracking mechanism, this project only

focuses solely on addressing the efficiency issues of stationary solar panels with a single axis

tracker.

1.6 Motivation

The benefits and experience of the solar plant at Joseph Sawuarn Tarka University serve as strong

motivations for the design and construction of a single axis solar tracker. Recognizing the positive

impact of the existing solar plant on campus, and the challenges that follows the limitation of the

stationary panels installed.

We aim to pave the way for future through our project for the improvements of the university's

solar plant and other similar installations. This will ensure optimal energy harvesting efficiency.

5
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review provides an extensive examination of single-axis solar trackers, focusing on

their design, construction, and implementation. It elaborates on the issues raised in the background

to the study, discussing the concept of solar tracking, its importance, the types of solar tracking

systems available, and the specific design considerations for single-axis solar trackers.

Additionally, it explores the existing literature on single-axis solar trackers, including studies on

their performance, cost-effectiveness, and technological advancements. The review concludes

with a summary of the findings from each section, leading to the subsequent chapter on materials

and methods.

2.1 Solar Tracking

Single axis trackers have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation

of single axis trackers is typically aligned along a true North meridian (Anusha et al., 2022). Rizk

et al., 2008 developed solar tracking system with more efficient use of solar panels. This work

includes the potential system benefits of simple tracking solar system of single axis tracker using

a stepper motor and light sensor. This method is increasing power collection efficiency by

implementing a device that tracks the sun to keep the panel at a right angle to sun rays. The power

gain is increased 30% over a fixed horizontal array.

The amount of output mainly depends on the cosine angle of incidence which is known as the

angle between the sun ray and horizontal surface. The minimum incidence angle gives the

maximum power output. In case of fixed panel except noon time the angle is maximum for the

movement of sun (Eltamaly et al., 2018). The efficient solar tracker is which can correct this

problem. The first solar tracker introduced by Finster in 1962, was completely mechanical. One

year later, Saavedra presented a mechanism with an automatic electronic control, which was used

6
to orient an Eppley pyrheliometer. Anusha et al., 2013 compared the fixed PV panel and single

axis solar tracking based on real time clock (RTC) using ARM processor. The experiment is

conducted using both For Peer Review Only fixed and tracking system for 6 days. The results

show that the solar tracking system increased the efficiency around 40% and energy received from

the sun is improved from 9.00AM to 6.00 PM. Dhanabal et al., 2013 compared the efficiencies of

static panels and tracking systems of single axis and dual axis fixed mount. The readings are taken

from morning 8 AM to evening 6 PM for fixed panel, single axis tracker and dual axis tracker for

every one hour. The results say the efficiency of the single axis tracking system over that of the

static panel is calculated to be 32.17% and dual axis tracking system over that of the static panel

is calculated to be 81.68%. Tiberiu Tudorache et al., 2012 compared the solar tracking PV panel

with a fixed PV panel in terms of electric energy output and efficiency. The proposed device

automatically searches the optimum PV panel position with respect to the sun by means of a DC

motor controlled by an intelligent drive unit that receives input signals from dedicated light

intensity sensors. The solar tracking PV panel produced more energy than fixed one with about

57.55%. Bione et al., 2009 compared the pumping systems driven by fixed, tracking and tracking

with concentration PVs. The results showed that for a given irradiance, the pumped water flow

rate was significantly different from one another. The fixed PV, the PV with tracker and the

concentrating-tracking systems pumped 4.9, 7.4 and 12.6m3/day, respectively. Snehal et al

proposed a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) sensor Based Standalone Solar Tracking

System. Sun tracking system composed of fuzzy logic controller implemented on FPGA sensors,

PV panel, stepper motor, and input-output interface. Xilinx_ISE software is used for coding of

FLC for Sun tracking. The results show that tracking has maximum efficiency than fixed panels.

7
2.2 History

Several significant points in the progress of solar technologies have led to the development of solar

cells (Akhlaghi et al., 2013).The history of photovoltaic energy (solar cells) started back in 1876.

Williams along with one of his student, Richard discovered that the exposure of selenium to light

will produce electricity. Meanwhile, Werner von Siemens (2010), an electricity expert, thus stated

that this discovery was “scientifically of the most significant importance of its time”. The selenium

cells itself were not potent, but it has been proven that light, without heat or moving parts, could

be converted into electricity (Bione et al., 2009). Ribbon and thin-film silicone are recently known

types of silicon gaining popularity, however, each individual solar cell is typically made from

crystalline silicon. Solar panels are thus formed out of solar cells connected in parallel or series.

When connected in parallel, there is overall increase in current, while connection in series,

increases the overall voltage (Birlasekaran et al., 2020). PV cells consist of arranged parts or pieces

of silicon that is doped with different elements to form a p-n junction. However, the p-type side

usually contains extra holes or positive charges, while the n-type side also contains extra electrons

or negative charges. This difference in charges forms a region that is charge neutral and acts as a

sort of barrier. When the p-n junction is exposed to sunlight, photons with the correct frequency

will then form an extra electron/hole pair. At the same time, since the p-n junction creates a

potential difference, the electrons cannot jump to the other side due to the forbidden gap only the

holes can. Thus, the electrons must exit through the metal connector and flow through the load, to

the connector on the other side of the junction (Hughes et al., 2019). Inasmuch the photovoltaic

cells generate current; cells/panels can be modeled as DC current sources. The amount of current

a PV panel produces has a direct correlation with the intensity of light the panel is absorbing.

Figure 1 shows a simple illustration of the angle of incidence between the surface normal and the

8
current sun position of solar cell system (Efiong et al., 2019). The normal to the cell is

perpendicular to the cell’s exposed face. The sunlight comes in and strikes the panel at an angle.

The angle of the sunlight to the normal is the angle of incidence (θ). Assuming the sunlight is

staying at a constant intensity (λ) the available sunlight to the solar cell for power generation (W)

can be calculated as:

W = A λ cos (θ) (1)

Here, ‘A’ represents some limiting conversion factor in the design of the panel because they cannot

convert 100% of the sunlight absorbed into electrical energy. By this calculation, the maximum

power generated will be obtained when the sunlight is hitting the PV cell along its normal and no

power will be generated when the sunlight is perpendicular to the normal. Panel not kept

perpendicular to the sun’s rays will definitely lost significant power during the day because the

solar panel is in fixed position. However, a tracking system can keep the angle of incidence within

a certain compass and would be able to maximize the power generated and performance

evaluation. Meanwhile, the amount of power gained by tracking the sunrays can come close to an

ideal 57% difference (Mayank et al., 2014).

2.3 Types of solar tracker

i. Single axis Trackers

This type of solar trackers moves forth and back in a single direction rotating on one axis. Different

types of single-axis trackers include horizontal, vertical, polaraligned, and tilted which rotates as

the names implies. The horizontal type is majorly used in tropical regions where the sun gets very

high at noon, but the days are short. The vertical type is used in high latitudes where the sun does

not get very high, but summer days can be very long (Ashwin et al., 2014). Single axis trackers

9
are normally used with parabolic and linear Fresnel mirror designs in concentrated solar power

applications.

ii. Dual axis Trackers

This solar tracker system is the combination of both the horizontal and a vertical axis and thus they

can track the sun's apparent shifting because they can move in two different directions. The types

include azimuth-altitude and tip-tilt. Dual axis tracking is surpassingly significant in solar tower

applications due to the angle errors resulting from longer distances between the mirror and the

central receiver located in the tower structure (Abbas et al., 2021).

Solar panel trackers drivers are used to reduce the angle between the incoming light and a

photovoltaic panel to increase the performance evaluation of the amount of energy extracted. The

effectualness of solar receptors depends on the incident angle (i.e. the output energy is ideally

proportional to the cosine of the incident angle). This objective can be realized by the incorporation

of a sun tracking mechanism (the tracker) in the solar receptor, increasing the performance

evaluation up to 75% compared to a fixed type solar receptor (Gupta et al., 2011). Solar tracker

drivers, can be divided into three main types depending on the type of drive and sensing or

positioning system that they incorporate, namely; the passive, the active and then the open loop

trackers.

iii. Passive trackers

The passive trackers use the sun’s radiation to heat up gases that move the tracker across the sky.

Passive trackers use a compressed gas fluid in two canisters each place in west and east of the

tracker. The mechanism is in such a way that if one side cylinder is heated the other side piston

rises causing the panel to tilt over the sunny side. This affects the balance of the tracker and causes

it to tilt. The excellences of this system are; this system is very reliable, needs little maintenance,

10
cheaper and effectively increases the performance evaluation efficiency of the solar panel (Abbood

et al., 2017). While its short comings are; Gas tracker is not very accurate in pointing the solar

panels directly to the sun, due to the temperature variation from day to day. Meanwhile, during an

overcast day, the sun shows up and fades off behind clouds, affecting the gas and liquid in the

cylinders to expand and contract resulting in desultory movement of the device, which however

causes damages (Birlasekaran et al., 2020).

iv. Active trackers

The active trackers use an electric or hydraulic drives and some type of gearing system or actuator

in the movement of the tracker. It thus measures the light intensity from the sun by using “light

sensors” known as LDR, (light dependent resistor) to determine where the solar modules should

be pointing. Light sensors are usually positioned on the tracker at various locations in specially

shaped holders. If the sun is not facing the tracker directly there will be a difference in light

intensity on one LDR compared to the other one and this causes it to determine which direction

the tracker has to tilt to with the help of the dc motor or stepper in order to be facing the sun for

maximum energy extraction. This system has the following drawback on an overcast day because

it will not work properly and actively due to clouds (Dhanabal et al., 2013).

v. Open loop trackers

The open loop trackers use no sensing but instead determine the position of the sun through pre-

recorded data for a particular site. It determines the position of the sun using computer controlled

algorithms or simple timing systems. Open loop tracker can be sub-classified into timed tracker

and altitude/azimuth tracker. Timed tracker A time tracker used timer to move the tracker across

the sky. Gradational movement during the day keeps the solar panel focusing on the sun (Guiha et

11
al., 2011). The excellence of timed tracker device is that it can be used as one or two axes panels

while one of its drawbacks is it do not take into consideration the seasonal variation in sun position.

vi. Altitude / Azimuth trackers

It uses the astronomical data or sun position algorithms to determine the position of the sun for

any given time and location by using micro controller. Once the position has been calculated, the

modules are moved using servo motors and their position measured by encoders built into the

tracker frame (Hamid et al., 2014). However, the active tracker was used in the implementation of

this project because it uses an electric or hydraulic drive in the movement of the solar panel as the

light sensors are positioned on the panel at various locations in specially shaped holders and thus

measures the light intensity from the sun using LDR, (light dependent resistor) to determine where

the solar modules should be facing at a particular time of the day (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2016).

12
Figure 1: Single Axis Solar Tracker (Source: https://smartflower.com/blog/whats-the-point-of-a-

dual-axis-tracker/)

13
Figure 2: Dual Axis Solar tracker (Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Dual-axis-

tracking-system_fig1_308706712)

14
2.4 Existing Literature on Single-Axis Solar Trackers

This section reviews the existing literature on single-axis solar trackers, encompassing studies that

investigate their performance, cost-effectiveness, and technological advancements. It examines

research conducted by various authors and research groups. These studies have explored diverse

aspects such as the performance of single-axis solar trackers in different environmental conditions,

the use of microcontrollers for tracking control, and low-cost design solutions. The key findings

and contributions are summarized in this section.

Tiberiu et al. (2012) investigated the performance of single-axis solar trackers in different

environmental conditions. The researchers compared the energy output of a fixed solar panel to

that of a single-axis solar tracker under different environmental conditions. They found that the

energy output of the single-axis tracker was higher than that of the fixed solar panel. The

researchers concluded that single-axis solar trackers are more efficient and cost-effective in areas

with high solar radiation than fixed solar panels.

Bione et al. (2014) developed a single-axial solar tracker for a solar water heater system. The

researchers utilized a microcontroller to control the movement of the motor and the solar panel.

The system's performance was tested under different environmental conditions, and the results

showed that the tracker system significantly increases the system's energy output.

Ashwin et al. (2014) designed and constructed a low-cost single-axis solar tracker using simple

materials such as PVC pipes, screws, and nuts. They compared the energy output of a fixed solar

panel to that of the single-axis tracker under varying environmental conditions, and the results

showed that the tracker system increases the energy output by up to 31%. The researchers

concluded that the system is cost-effective and can be easily assembled and maintained.

15
Akhtar et al. (2021) proposed an intelligent solar tracking system that combines GPS and IoT

technology. The system uses GPS to determine the geographic location and the exact time of day

and sends this information to the microcontroller. The microcontroller controls the movement of

the motor and the solar panel, ensuring that the solar panels are perpendicular to the sun throughout

the day.

Study published by the International Journal of Renewable Energy Research (IJRER), 2009 titled

"Design, Modeling and Control of a Single-Axis Solar Tracking System" presented a design,

modeling, and control strategy for a single-axis solar tracking system. The study aimed to

investigate the benefits of using solar trackers to increase the energy yield of photovoltaic (PV)

panels. The study presented a mathematical model of a single-axis solar tracker, simulating its

performance under different weather conditions.

A study conducted by researchers from the University of Science and Technology of China, titled

"Design and Implementation of a Single-Axis Solar Tracking System", 2018 presented the design

and implementation of a low-cost, single-axis solar tracking system. The study aimed to develop

a simple and low-cost solar tracking system that can increase the energy yield of PV panels. The

study presented the design of a single-axis solar tracker and a control system based on an Arduino

microcontroller.

A study published in the Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy titled "Investigation of

Single-Axis Solar Tracking System for Photovoltaic Panels", 2020 presented an investigation into

the performance of a single-axis solar tracking system. The study aimed to evaluate the benefits of

using solar trackers in the context of a commercial-scale PV system. The study presented a detailed

analysis of the energy yield of PV panels with and without a single-axis solar tracker, and the

economic feasibility of implementing the system at a commercial scale was evaluated.

16
Finster, 2019 presented an automatic solar tracking system. He designed a solar panel tracking

system based on microcontroller and observed that single axis tracker increases efficiency by 30%

compared to the fixed module.

Guiha Li et al., 2011 investigated horizontal single-axis tracked solar panels. They obtained result

as eastwest axis tracking was poor to improve the energy while tracking the sun about south-north

was best. The efficiency increased for east-west axis was less than 8% whereas for south-north

axis increased by 10-24%.

Imam et al., 2015 designed fuzzy logic based single axis solar tracker. They implement a fuzzy

logic controller on ATMEGA 8353 microcontroller to improve the power energy of PV panel.

They found that the PV panel has maximized and it exceeded upto 47% compared to the stationary

system.

Ashwin et al., 2014 presented a sensor based single axis solar tracker to achieve highest degree of

energy through solar panel. It keeps tracking continuously for the maximum strength of light. This

system spontaneously changes its direction when the sun moves from its position to get maximum

light energy. Therefore, the experimental result shows the robustness and productiveness of the

proposed method

Gamal et al., 2011 presented an enhanced orientation design for energy-productivity in PV panels.

For maximum incident radiation, the panels are pitched with monthly-based angle. They

investigate the proposed strategy in two cities i.e. Japan (Fukuoka) and Egypt (AI-Kharijah). The

results showed that the proposed design attained a growth of energy building in both the cities.

In 2013, Anusha, Chandra, and Reddy designed solar tracking system based on real time clock.

They compared a static photovoltaic (PV) panel and single axis tracker based on real time clock

17
using ARM processor. The experiment demonstrated that the tracking system build up the

efficiency about 40% and the energy achieved from the sun is enhanced from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm.

Gupta, et al. (2011) presented a smart dual axis solar tracker. They used arduino uno for the

development of their proposed model. After the experiment, they observed that maximum voltage

was tracked about 25% to 30% and the generating power increased by 30% compared to static

system.

Efiong, et al. (2019) implemented a microcontroller based dual axis model working on a solar

panel. Through this model, they observed that the solar panel extract maximum power if the solar

panel is aligned with the intensity of light receiving from the sun. It improves the power output

and also precaution necessary for the system from rain and wind.

Khadim, et al. (2020) proposed dual axis system with a combined method of an Astronomical

algorithm and camera based feedback processing for localizing and tracking light intensity to

increase the efficiency in achieving power energy. They also designed a compound algorithm

method to merge approximation data of the sun acquired from astronomical based and visual based

feedback. After simulation, it resulted that the azimuth and elevation sum squared errors from the

proposed algorithm are 0.3688 and 0.3874 degree, and the astronomical algorithm are 1.0997 and

1.2877 degree.

Khadim, et al. (2020) presented a simple execution of sun tracker with one dual-axis AC motor to

predict the sun’s position and used a stand-alone PV inverter to energise the whole system. They

worked on May 2012 in New Taipei City, Taiwan and the day was slightly cloudy. A static panel

was placed along the south at a tilt angle of 23.5 degrees with maximal standard solar radiation

when the latitude of Taiwan is 23.5 degree along north. The experiments resulted that their system

raised the energy level up to 26.31% for a slightly cloudy day.

18
This paper has presented a review of many researchers on different tracking system which makes

the solar panel perpendicular to the sun for obtaining maximum solar energy. Overall, the result

showed successful in all the review paper. Different types of tracking system like single axis

trackers and dual axis trackers have also been discussed here. However, overviewing the cost,

maintenance and flexibility single axis trackers is more preferable than dual axis trackers.

Therefore, for capturing more energy, tracking the solar is the best way because it results an

efficient, profitable and clean energy production.

2.5 Summary of Findings

The innovative designs in sun tracking systems have enabled the development of many solar

thermal and photovoltaic systems for a diverse variety of applications in recent years compared to

the traditional fixed panels. Solar systems which track the changes in the sun’s trajectory over the

course of the day collect a far greater amount of solar energy, and therefore generate a significantly

higher output power. This wok has presented a review of the major types of sun tracking systems

developed over the past 20 years. It has been shown that these sun tracking systems can be broadly

classified as single axis and dual axis, depending on their mode of rotation. Further it can be

classified as active and passive tracker depending on the actuator.

The sub division and their basic principles of each method have been reviewed. Overall, the results

presented in this review confirm that the azimuth and altitude dual axis tracking system is more

efficient compared to other tracking systems. However, in cost and flexibility point of view single

axis tracking system is more feasible than dual axis. In future the present paper details will be

useful in selecting an accurate and particular tracker with respect to region, available space and

estimated cost. The present work may be useful to improve the design characteristics of different

types of solar tracking systems to improve performance.

19
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS.
3.1 Materials

The materials that were used in the designing and construction of the single axis solar tracker were

selected based on their availability, closeness to the workshop and quality. Table 1 shows the

materials and components used for the construction and fabrication of the single axis solar tracker

frame, Table 2 shows the materials used to implement the tracking mechanism and Table 3 shows

the software and machines used to design and fabricate the parts.

20
Table 1: Materials for The Construction of the Single Axis Solar Tracker Frame
S/No Material/Part Specification Source of material

1 Metal sheet. 18-gauge metal sheet. High level, Makurdi.

2 Bolt, Nut 30 Pieces / M10 North bank, Makurdi.

3 Square hollow 1.2m long / 2in x 1in High level, Makurdi.

pipe

4 Angle Aluminum 3m long / 1.5mm thickness, High level, Makurdi.

2in x 2in wide

5 Circular pipe 0.6m long / 1.5 inch High level, Makurdi

6 Screws 30 Pieces / 5mm North bank market, Makurdi.

21
Table 2: Materials that Were Used to Implement the Tracking Mechanism
S/No Material/Part Specification Source of material

1 Arduino Uno Shipping

2 Actuator driver L298N Shipping

3 Linear Actuator Shipping

4 Vero board North bank, Makurdi

5 Battery / Power Adaptor 12V DC North bank, Makurdi

6 Jumper wires 20 pcs Abuja

7 Light dependent resistors (LDR) 4 pcs Abuja

8 Solar Panel 25Watts

22
Table 3: Machines and Equipments
S/N Software/Machines

1 SolidWorks (3D Modelling Software)

2 Cutting machine

3 Filing stone

4 Filing machine

5 Electric-arc welding machine

6 Electric-drilling machine

7 Drill bits

8 Hack Saw

9 Paint and brush

10 Measuring tape

11 Safety googles

12 Sheet metal cutting machine

13 Electrode

23
3.2 Method for Design and Construction

The single-axis solar tracker system is designed to optimize the orientation of a solar panel to the

sun, thereby enhancing energy capture throughout the day (Khatib et al., 2019). A schematic

diagram (Figure 1 below) illustrates the system components and their interconnections. The

primary components include the Tracking Mechanism, Control System, and associated Wiring and

Connections.

24
 Support structure & Solar panel

Linear Actuator

12V DC

12V DC INPUT L298N

Motor Driver

Control signal
5V DC

Arduino LDR Sensor 2

LDR Sensor 1
UNO

Feedback signal Feedback signal

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram showing the connection of all electrical components

25
3.2.1 Proposed design

The proposed design of the Single Axis Solar tracker was established by carrying out the following

procedures:

A. Requirements Analysis

The requirements analysis for the solar tracker system is a crucial step in the project's initiation

phase, serving as the foundation for subsequent design decisions (Hamid et al., 2014). By

thoroughly examining various factors, we aim to define the specific parameters and constraints

that will shape the system's functionality and performance.

1. Desired Tracking Accuracy: The first aspect to consider is the level of precision required for the

solar tracker system. This involves understanding the degree of accuracy needed in tracking the

sun's movement. Factors such as the geographic location and the intended application of the solar

tracker will play a role in determining this requirement (Abbood et al., 2017). For instance, solar

panels used in energy-critical applications may demand a higher tracking accuracy compared to

those used for residential purposes. The latter case shall be considered since the design is targeted

for residential usage (Abdel-Magid et al., 2013).

2. Available Space for Installation: The physical space allocated for the installation of the solar

tracker is a key constraint. This involves assessing the dimensions, layout, and orientation of the

available space. Understanding these spatial limitations is essential for designing a system that

maximizes solar exposure while fitting seamlessly into the designated area (Akhtar et al., 2021).

26
3. Power Supply Options: The choice of power supply is a critical consideration in ensuring the

system's reliability and sustainability. Analysing different power supply options, such as grid

connection, solar batteries, or a hybrid system, is necessary to determine the most suitable solution

based on factors like energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact (Rizk and

Chaiko, 2008)

4. Environmental Constraints: Environmental factors, including weather conditions, temperature

variations, and potential obstructions, must be thoroughly analysed. These constraints can impact

the system's performance and longevity. For instance, if the installation site experiences frequent

extreme weather events, the system design should incorporate measures to withstand such

conditions and ensure uninterrupted operation (Kumar et al., 2016)

The requirements analysis aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the solar tracker

system's scope. This understanding is crucial for making informed decisions throughout the design

process. By defining the tracking accuracy, installation space, power supply options, and

environmental constraints, the project team was able to establish a clear roadmap for developing a

solar tracker system that meets both functional and practical considerations (Hamid et al., 2014).

This analysis sets the stage for subsequent design phases, ensuring that the final system aligns with

the project's objectives and satisfies the needs of its intended application (Yadav et al., 2015).

B. Tracking Strategy Selection

Following the thorough analysis of project requirements, the next critical step is to select an

appropriate tracking strategy for the solar tracker system. The chosen strategy will dictate how the

solar panel moves and positions itself to maximize exposure to sunlight. In this phase, the focus is

27
on determining the tracking axis and motion range to optimize energy capture. The commonly

adopted approach involves tracking the sun along a single axis, typically the azimuth axis (Wahab

et al., 2016).

Single Axis Tracking

The primary tracking strategy considered is the single-axis tracking system, which typically

revolves around the azimuth axis. This approach involves aligning the solar panel to face the sun

directly as it traverses the sky from east to west. Single-axis tracking systems are widely used due

to their simplicity, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. By prioritizing movement along the azimuth

axis, these systems can efficiently capture sunlight throughout the day, ensuring optimal energy

yield. (Ashwin et al., 2014).

Azimuth Axis Focus

The azimuth axis is particularly emphasized in the selected tracking strategy. This axis corresponds

to the east-west direction, allowing the solar panel to follow the sun's path across the sky. This

alignment ensures that the solar panel is continually oriented towards the sun, maximizing sunlight

exposure and energy production. The azimuth axis strategy is well-suited for locations where the

sun's movement predominantly occurs in a horizontal plane. (Berrached et al., 2017).

Benefits of Single Axis Tracking

The decision to adopt a single-axis tracking strategy is driven by its numerous advantages. By

concentrating on the azimuth axis, the system achieves simplicity in design and operation, reducing

mechanical complexity and maintenance requirements. Additionally, this strategy optimizes

28
energy capture without introducing unnecessary cost overhead, making it an efficient choice for

various solar tracker applications (Dhanabal et al., 2013).

The selection of the single-axis tracking strategy, focusing on the azimuth axis, aligns with the

project requirements identified during the analysis phase. This strategy strikes a balance between

efficiency, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness, making it a well-suited choice for solar tracker

systems. As a result, the solar panel will dynamically follow the sun's movement, ensuring

continuous alignment for maximum energy production. This decision sets the stage for the

subsequent design and implementation phases, laying the foundation for a solar tracker system that

meets the specified requirements and efficiently harnesses solar energy (Guiha et al., 2011).

C. Actuation Mechanism Design

In the design phase of the solar tracker system, the selection and design of the actuation mechanism

play a pivotal role in ensuring the precise and smooth rotation of the solar panel along the chosen

axis (Mayank Kumar Lokhande, 2014). Various options, including motorized systems with servo

motors or linear actuators, as well as passive systems using mechanical designs, should be

considered. Each option has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, necessitating a

comprehensive evaluation based on key factors such as tracking accuracy, cost, power

requirements, and control complexity (Nieto-Galan, 2017).

1. Motorized Systems with Servo Motors: Motorized systems utilizing servo motors are a popular

choice for solar trackers due to their ability to provide accurate and controlled movements. Servo

motors offer precise positioning and can be controlled dynamically, allowing for real-time

adjustments to track the sun's movement. However, this approach may introduce higher costs

29
associated with motor systems, increased power requirements, and a potentially more complex

control system (Vinod et al., 2016).

2. Linear Actuators: Linear actuators provide another motorized option, offering simplicity in

design and implementation. These devices can convert rotary motion into linear motion,

facilitating the controlled movement of the solar panel. Linear actuators are generally more cost-

effective than servo motors, but the trade-off may involve slightly reduced tracking accuracy and

potentially slower response times. The Linear actuator approach was selected for this project

(Dhaouadi et al., 2020).

3. Passive Systems with Mechanical Designs: Passive systems, relying on mechanical designs

without active motorization, present a cost-effective alternative. Examples include gravity-driven

trackers or systems employing mechanical linkages. While these systems may be simpler and

require less power, their tracking accuracy could be compromised, especially in dynamic weather

conditions or rapid changes in sunlight intensity (Pruthi et al., 2018).

Evaluation Criteria:

• Tracking Accuracy: Motorized systems, particularly those with servo motors, generally

offer higher tracking accuracy, ensuring precise alignment with the sun's movement.

• Cost: Passive systems tend to be more cost-effective, while motorized systems may incur

higher initial costs.

• Power Requirements: Passive systems often have lower power requirements compared to

motorized alternatives, contributing to overall energy efficiency.

30
 • Control Complexity: Motorized systems may introduce higher control complexity,

especially when utilizing advanced technologies like servo motors.

The actuation mechanism design must strike a balance between tracking accuracy, cost, power

requirements, and control complexity. Based on the project’s budget, the linear actuator approach

was selected. The selected mechanism is instrumental in achieving the smooth and precise rotation

of the solar panel along the chosen axis, ultimately maximizing energy capture from the sun

(Tiberiu et al., 2012). Based on the evaluations stated above and constraints set by the project

budget, the linear actuator was selected as the actuation mechanism for the project.

D. Mechanical Structure Design

In the development of the solar tracker system, the design of the mechanical structure is critical to

ensuring the stability, durability, and weather resistance necessary for the optimal movement of

the solar panel (Abdel-Magid et al., 2013). Several factors, including the positioning of movable

elements were considered to ensure that the design achieves the desired rotation while maintaining

robustness against external forces such as wind loads.

1. Stability and Durability: The mechanical structure's design prioritizes stability and durability to

withstand the rigors of daily operation and environmental conditions (Akhtar et al., 2021). Thus,

materials with suitable strength and corrosion resistance were selected, a framework which

minimizes vibrations and oscillations during the solar panel's movement was also designed using

the SolidWorks 3D Modelling software.

2. Weather Resistance: Given the outdoor nature of solar tracker installations, weather resistance

is paramount. The mechanical structure was designed to resist corrosion, degradation, and wear

31
caused by exposure to varying weather conditions such as rain, sunlight, and temperature

fluctuations (Ashwin et al., 2014). Protective coatings, materials with high weather resistance, and

proper sealing mechanisms were incorporated into the design.

3. Placement of Components: The strategic placement of movable parts and fasteners is crucial for

achieving smooth and efficient rotation of the solar panel. The movable parts were carefully

positioned to minimize friction and ensure a stable rotation axis (Berrached et al., 2017). Proper

lubrication points and maintenance access were also considered in the design.

4. Wind Load Considerations: The mechanical structure must be robust enough to handle wind

loads, which can exert significant forces on the solar panel and the tracking system. The structural

elements were be designed to minimize wind resistance and prevent undue stress on the system

(Berrached et al., 2017). Wind load calculations were carried out and the results were used in the

design to ensure structural integrity under various wind conditions.

E. Power Supply and Control System Design

In this phase of the solar tracker system development, the focus is on determining the power supply

requirements and designing a control system that seamlessly interfaces with the chosen actuation

mechanism (i.e. the linear actuator). This involves considering options such as integrating a solar

panel or connecting to an existing power source. Additionally, the control system incorporates

sensors, microcontrollers, and algorithms to accurately calculate the tracking angle and control the

movement of the solar panel (Chetan Singh Solanki, 2015).

1. Power Supply Requirements: The power supply is a critical component of the solar tracker

system. Depending on the project's context, integrating a dedicated solar panel to power the

32
tracking system can be a sustainable and self-sufficient solution. Alternatively, connecting to an

existing power source, such as the electrical grid or batteries, may be considered (Gomes et al.,

2018). The later option of an existing power source was selected for the project as that is the cost

efficient choice when compared to the dedicated solar panel option.

2. Control System Integration: The control system is responsible for orchestrating the movement

of the solar panel based on real-time tracking calculations. It interfaces with the chosen actuation

mechanism, ensuring precise alignment with the sun's position. Sensors, such as light sensors or

sun tracking sensors, play a crucial role in providing input to the control system about the sun's

location. Microcontrollers or programmable logic controllers (PLCs) process this information and

generate commands for the actuation mechanism (Hamid et al., 2014). The arduino programable

microcontroller was used for the Control system for this project.

3. Sensor Utilization: Integrating sensors is essential for accurate solar tracking. Light sensors can

detect the intensity of sunlight, while sun tracking sensors can determine the sun's position in the

sky. These inputs are used to calculate the optimal tracking angle for the solar panel. The control

system can then adjust the position of the solar panel in real-time, ensuring maximum exposure to

sunlight (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2016). The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) sensor was used for

this purpose in the project.

4. Algorithmic Control: Algorithms are employed to calculate the tracking angle based on sensor

input and other relevant parameters. These algorithms can be designed to optimize energy capture

by predicting the sun's movement throughout the day. Implementing intelligent algorithms

enhances the efficiency of the solar tracker system, making it responsive to changing

environmental conditions (Imam Abadi et al., 2015).

33
 Start
t

Initialize system variables,

Set comparator value to 100dB

Read data from Sensor 1 & Sensor 2

Calculate the difference between

Sensor 1 data & Sensor 2 data

No Is the difference Yes

positive?

No Is difference <= Yes Yes Is difference >= No

comparator value? comparator value?

Retract Actuator arm to tilt Extend Actuator arm to tilt

panel towards sensor 1 panel towards sensor 2

No Is Sensor 1 or Sensor Yes

2 value < 50dB?

Stop

Figure 4: Flow chart of the Solar tracking Control System Logic

34
F. 3D Modelling and Prototyping

A 3D digital prototype of the Single axis solar tracker was developed using the SolidWorks 3D

modelling software, keeping in mind the analysis and considerations outlined in steps A through

E above. The different views of the model are shown in the figures below.

35
Plate 1: Isometric View

Plate 2: Side View

36
Plate 3: Front View

Plate 4: Plan

37
3.2.2 Materials selection, specification and costing

Drawing upon previous knowledge of material selection, the optimal material for each component

of the single-axis solar tracker prototype was chosen, taking into account diverse factors such as

material availability, durability, and cost.

A. The frame

The frame is the support structure on which the solar panel is mounted on. It provides stability and

balance to the panels and also provides a platform on which the solar tracking mechanism is

mounted on (Abbood et al., 2017).

The frame was designed for ease of installation, light weight and sustainable strength; therefore, 3

different materials were used in the construction in order to meet the desired properties. These

materials are Aluminum for its light weight and machinability, Iron for its strength, and steel.

B. The base

The base of the frame was designed to give balance to the entire system especially when the

topography of the land on which the arrangement is made is not smooth by allowing the legs to

rotate freely about a pin.

C. Fasteners

Corrosion-resistant stainless-steel fasteners were used to withstand outdoor conditions. Bolts and

nuts are used in most part of the design to allow for easy movement of the product from one

location to another within a limited space. It eliminates the need for permanent joints which can

be difficult to disassemble and reassemble in another location in the event of relocation of the user

(Eltamaly et al., 2018). This design optimizes the movability of the entire system by a large

amount. Solar panels can be used in picnics and vacation trips to provide electricity without having

38
to hire an installation team to do so. Most importantly, with an improved energy harvesting

efficiency.

D. Tracking Mechanism

The Linear actuator is selected as the prime mover for the proposed single axis solar tracker, as its

unique self-locking ability when current is not supplied is required in the solar tracking device. In

addition to the self-locking ability, the linear actuator also provides a higher torque compared to

equivalent electric motors. This is particularly useful when large solar panels are used or when an

array of panels are being assembled and used (Akhtar et al., 2021).

E. Control system

The Arduino microcontroller is selected as the control system for the single axis solar tracker

project. It is a microcontroller device which is used to control electrical components in a circuit

using electronic signals (Anusha et al., 2013). Within the context of this project, the Arduino is

used to analyze the feedback signals from the Light dependent resistors (LDR) and use the result

to tilt the solar panels by controlling the linear actuator such that the panel moves towards the

region of higher luminous intensity. The Arduino is the brain of the whole system as it controls

and coordinates the entire workflow process.

The selected Arduino is an Arduino Uno microcontroller with an ATmega328P microcontroller

chip, 14 digital input/output pins, 6 analog inputs, 16 MHz clock speed, and 32 KB of flash

memory, capable of accurately controlling the solar tracker based on sensor inputs

F. Sensors

The LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) is the light sensing element used in this project. As the name

states, it is a special type of resistor that works on the photoconductivity principle means that

resistance changes according to the intensity of light. Its resistance decreases with an increase in

39
the intensity of light. It gives the microcontroller an idea of the intensity of sunlight at the different

layers of the solar panel exposed to the sun (Gama et al., 2011).

G. Jumper wires

A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, DuPont wire) is an electrical wire, or group of

them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without them – simply "tinned"),

which is normally used to interconnect the components of a breadboard or other prototype or test

circuit, internally or with other equipment or components, without soldering.

Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors" into the slots provided in a

breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board, or a piece of test equipment (Efiong et al.,

2019).

H. Breadboard

A breadboard, solderless breadboard, or protoboard is a construction base used to build semi-

permanent prototypes of electronic circuits. Unlike a perfboard or stripboard, breadboards do not

require soldering or destruction of tracks and are hence reusable. For this reason, breadboards are

also popular with students and in technological education (Efiong et al., 2019).

A variety of electronic systems may be prototyped by using breadboards, from small analog and

digital circuits to complete central processing units (CPUs).

Compared to more permanent circuit connection methods, modern breadboards have high parasitic

capacitance, relatively high resistance, and less reliable connections, which are subject to jostle

and physical degradation (Kumar et al., 2017).

I. L298N

This L298N Motor Driver Module is a high-power motor driver module for driving DC and

Stepper Motors. This module consists of an L298 motor driver IC and a 78M05 5V regulator.

40
L298N Module can control up to 4 DC motors, or 2 DC motors with directional and speed control

(Mayank Kumar Lokhande, 2014).

Within this project, this module shall be used control the Linear actuator by utilizing its directional

and speed control ability.

J. 12V D.C Battery

A battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external

connections for powering electrical devices. When a battery is supplying power, its positive

terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the

source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal

(Marwah et al., 2013). When a battery is connected to an external electric load, a redox reaction

converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is

delivered to the external circuit as electrical energy (Masakazu et al., 2013). Historically the term

"battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has

evolved to include devices composed of a single cell (Rashid et al., 2010).

The 12V battery shall be used to power the entire system as a complimentary power source for the

energy supplied by the panels.

41
Plate 5: Arduino Uno

Plate 6: Jumper Wires

42
 Plate 7: Linear Actuator

Plate 8: Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

43
 Plate 9: Bread Board

Plate 10: L298N Motor Driver

44
3.2.3 Design calculations

A. Support Structure Design:

• Structural Load Analysis:

Structural load analysis for the solar tracker project involves evaluating the forces and

weights, such as dead loads from the solar panel and live loads during tracking, to ensure

the support structure is robust and can withstand external conditions (Silver, P et al., 2014).

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 + 𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 (1)

Where:

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = Total load on the support structure,

𝐹𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 = Weight of the solar panel, 𝐹𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 = Wind load.

• Material Strength:

Material strength, in the context of the solar tracker project, pertains to evaluating a

material's capacity to endure various applied loads and stresses, such as tension,

compression, and shear, ensuring the chosen materials for components like the support

structure possess the requisite strength for sustained structural integrity (Beer, F. P et al.,

2020).

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝜎= (2)
𝐴

45
 • Structural Stability:

Stability analysis for a solar tracker support structure typically involves assessing the structure's

resistance against tipping (overturning) and sliding. Here are the equations for stability analysis:

i. Overturning Stability:

For a solar tracker support structure, stability against overturning is crucial to prevent the structure

from tipping over due to wind or other lateral forces (Simitses et al., 2006). The basic equation for

overturning stability is:

𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 − 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 (3)

where:

• 𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the total moment,

• 𝑀𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the resisting moment generated by the weight of the structure and the

frictional forces resisting tipping,

• 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 is the overturning moment caused by lateral forces (e.g., wind).

If 𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is positive, the structure is stable against overturning.

ii. Sliding Stability:

For sliding stability, the force of friction is crucial in preventing the structure from sliding on its

foundation (Meriam et al., 2012). The equation for sliding stability is:

𝐹𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜇 ∙ 𝐹𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 (4)

46
where:

• Ffriction is the force of friction resisting sliding,

• μ is the coefficient of friction,

• Ffriction is the normal force acting perpendicular to the sliding surface.

If Ffriction is greater than or equal to the horizontal force trying to induce sliding, the structure is

stable against sliding.

B. Linear Actuator Design:

• Force Required:

The force required for the linear actuator in the solar tracker project is determined by the

mass of the solar panel, m and the desired acceleration, a, as stated by (Figliola et al 2018)

is calculated using the formula

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑚 ∙ 𝑎 (5)

• Linear Actuator Stroke Length:

𝜃
𝑆𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑟 (6)

Where:

𝑆𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Linear actuator stroke length, θ represents the desired angular motion (tilt angle), and r

is the radius of the actuator's output shaft.

C. Control System Design:

47
 • Power Consumption:

Total power as given by Nise (2020) is calculated as follows:

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 + 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 + 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 (7)

Where:

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is the total power, 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑟 is the sensor power, 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 is the microcontroller power,

and 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 is the actuator power consumptions.

D. Wiring and Connections:

• Current and Voltage Ratings:

As given by Scherz et al (2020), Current and Voltage ratings are calculated as follows:

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 (8)

E. Energy Harvesting Calculation:

• Solar Panel Efficiency

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑊)

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = ( ) × 100% (9)
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑊)

𝑊
• 𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡(𝑊) = 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑚2 ) × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑙 (𝑚2 ) (10)

𝑊
Average solar Irradiance of Makurdi is approximately 224 (𝑚2 ) and 6.6 hours of

bright sunshine (Isaac Itodo, 2011).

48
F. Linear Actuator Force and Torque Conversion:

𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = (11)
𝑟

Where:

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the linear actuator force, 𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the linear actuator torque and r is the distance of

actuator from the center of the shaft (Hughes et al., 2019).

G. Linear Actuator Power:

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∙ 𝑣 (12)

Where:

𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the linear actuator power, 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 is the linear actuator force and v is the velocity of

extension or retraction of the linear actuator (Bolton 2019).

H. Power Gain:

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 – Power𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐
E= × 100% (13)
Power𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐

49
3.2.4 Construction of components

The construction of components for the single-axis solar tracker involves the fabrication and

assembly of several key elements. These components include the support structure, tracking

mechanism, and control system. The following outlines the construction process for each

component:

1. Support Structure

The initial phase of the support structure implementation involved the meticulous fabrication of a

robust framework capable of withstanding the solar panel's weight and external forces, notably

wind loads. Emphasizing functionality, the focus shifted to selecting appropriate materials with

optimal strength-to-weight ratios, primarily aluminum, ensuring the support structure's ability to

endure demanding conditions (Akhlaghi et al., 2013).

With the framework in place, the next step centered on secure assembly methods. Techniques such

as welding and bolting were employed to ensure the components were securely joined, enhancing

overall structural integrity (Akhtar et al., 2021). This comprehensive approach aimed to withstand

the dynamic loads encountered during the solar tracker's operation, guaranteeing the longevity of

the support structure.

A critical consideration throughout the implementation was the assurance of stability and

rotational movement. Beyond providing a stable base for the solar panel, the support structure was

engineered to facilitate smooth rotational movement (Anusha et al., 2013). This feature is crucial

for the effective functioning of the tracking mechanism, ensuring precise alignment with the sun's

movement and optimizing the solar tracker's overall performance.

50
2. Tracking Mechanism

The tracking mechanism implementation commenced with the design and fabrication of a

sophisticated system enabling the rotation of the solar panel along a single axis. This involved

careful consideration of the mechanical aspects to ensure optimal performance. The selection of

appropriate linear actuator specifications, including torque and speed, was a pivotal step in aligning

the system with the solar panel's weight and achieving the desired tracking accuracy (Ashwin et

al., 2014).

The subsequent phase focused on the integration of mechanical components to facilitate the

transmission of the linear actuator’s rotational motion to the solar panel. A smooth rolling bar was

thoughtfully selected to ensure efficiency and precision in the rotational movement of the panel.

Emphasis was placed on achieving not only accurate alignment but also a smooth and seamless

operation of the tracking mechanism, contributing to the overall effectiveness of the solar tracker

system (Birlasekaran et al., 2020).

Incorporating safety measures was an integral part of the tracking mechanism implementation.

Limit switches and sensors were strategically implemented to prevent over-rotation or potential

damage to the system. These safeguards were essential for maintaining the longevity of the solar

tracker and preventing operational issues that could arise from exceeding predefined limits

(Chetan, 2015).

3. Control System

The implementation of the control system began with the development of a sophisticated

architecture integrating sensors, motor drivers, and an Arduino UNO microcontroller. This

51
cohesive system formed the backbone of the solar tracker, orchestrating the dynamic adjustments

required for precise solar panel positioning (DIY Solar Forum, n.d.). The selection of the Arduino

UNO ensured a versatile and programmable platform suitable for the intricacies of solar tracking

(Hamid et al., 2014).

Sun-tracking sensors or GPS-based tracking algorithms played a pivotal role in accurately

determining the sun's position. The integration of these sensing technologies contributed to the

system's responsiveness, allowing it to adapt dynamically to changing solar angles throughout the

day (Hasanuzzaman et al., 2016).

Programming the Arduino UNO involved creating a tailored code to receive inputs from the

sensors and calculate the necessary adjustments to the solar panel's tilt angle. This coding process

was meticulously executed to ensure accuracy and efficiency in translating sensor data into

actionable control commands (Iqbal et al., 2018).

Control algorithms were then implemented to drive the motor systematically. These algorithms

facilitated continuous adjustments to the panel's tilt angle based on real-time updates of the sun's

movement. The synergy between the control system components, coupled with the Arduino UNO's

capabilities, laid the foundation for a responsive and autonomous solar tracker, capable of

optimizing the solar panel's orientation for maximum energy harvesting efficiency (Imam et al.,

2014).

52
4. Wiring and Connections

The wiring and connections phase involved a meticulous approach to ensure the seamless

integration of electrical components within the solar tracker system. Rigorous attention was given

to every detail to guarantee optimal functionality and longevity (Imam et al., 2015).

Careful consideration was taken during the wiring process to ensure proper insulation, providing

protection against environmental factors such as moisture and temperature fluctuations. This step

was crucial for maintaining the integrity of electrical connections and safeguarding the entire

system from potential damage.

The linear actuator, sensors, and control system components were interconnected following the

designed circuitry. Precision in connection placement was emphasized to maintain the efficiency

of signal transmission and to adhere to the intended functionality of the solar tracker. Appropriate

connectors, terminals, and junction boxes were incorporated strategically, allowing for easy

maintenance and facilitating potential future upgrades without compromising the overall system

integrity (Imteaj et al., 2014).

3.2.5 Assembly of machine

The assembly of the single-axis solar tracker machine involves the integration of the constructed

components into a functional and operational system. The following steps outline the assembly

process:

53
1. Mounting the Support Structure

The mounting of the support structure was executed with precision, beginning with the careful

positioning and securing of the structure in the designated location. Emphasis was placed on

achieving a stable and level base to provide a solid foundation for the subsequent components of

the solar tracker system.

Appropriate fastening methods, including bolts were employed to secure the support structure to

the foundation or mounting surface. This step involved a strategic selection of fasteners to ensure

robust attachment, enhancing the stability and overall integrity of the solar tracker.

2. Attaching the Solar Panel

The process of attaching the solar panel to the support structure was executed meticulously to

ensure optimal alignment and secure fixation, critical for the effective functioning of the solar

tracker system.

3. Installing the Tracking Mechanism

The installation of the tracking mechanism involved a series of precise steps to integrate the motor,

linear actuator, and associated components with the support structure, ensuring optimal

functionality and alignment.

Commencing with the attachment of the linear actuator to the support structure, careful

consideration was given to aligning it accurately with the panel's rotational axis. This alignment

was crucial for the synchronized movement of the solar panel during tracking.

54
The linear actuator shaft was connected to the tracking mechanism to facilitate the transfer of

rotational motion. Attention to detail was paramount in ensuring a secure and efficient connection,

guaranteeing the effective transmission of motion from the motor to the tracking mechanism.

A comprehensive evaluation of the tracking mechanism components followed, emphasizing the

necessity for smooth movement and proper engagement. This step involved testing the system to

verify that the components operated seamlessly and contributed to the overall precision of the solar

tracking process.

4. Connecting the Control System

The integration of the control system components, involving sensors, motor controller, and the

Arduino UNO microcontroller, was meticulously executed to establish a cohesive and responsive

interface for the solar tracker as highlighted by (Masakazu et al., 2003).

Commencing with the connection of control system components, attention was given to the precise

linking of sensors, the motor controller, and the Arduino UNO. Following the designed circuitry

and wiring diagram, electrical connections were methodically established to ensure seamless

communication between these integral components.

The verification process included a thorough examination to confirm the secure and properly

insulated nature of all electrical connections. This step aimed to prevent potential electrical hazards

and ensure the reliability of the entire control system as given by (Dhaouadi et al., 2020).

A double-check of the wiring connections was conducted for accuracy, with a particular focus on

compliance with safety standards. This stringent review ensured that the wiring adhered to

55
established protocols, guaranteeing a secure and standardized electrical infrastructure within the

solar tracker system, where the Arduino UNO played a central role in orchestrating the control

operations.

3.2.6 Testing of machine

The testing phase of the single-axis solar tracker machine is crucial to verify its performance,

tracking accuracy, and overall functionality. The following steps outline the testing process:

1. Initial System Check:

The preliminary phase of deploying the solar tracker involved a systematic assessment to ensure

the integrity and functionality of essential components as stated by (Pruthi et al., 2018).

i. Electrical Connections Verification:

Rigorously confirmed that all electrical connections were securely fastened and adequately

insulated. This step aimed to prevent potential electrical hazards and laid the foundation for a safe

and reliable system (Sundaravadivel, et al., 2017).

ii. Control System Functionality:

Conducted a comprehensive check to verify that the control system, orchestrated by the Arduino

UNO, was both powered and functioning correctly. This encompassed reviewing the status of

sensors, the motor controller, and other control elements (Rizk et al., 2008).

iii. Operational Status of Mechanisms:

56
Ensured the operational readiness of critical components, including the linear actuator, tracking

mechanism, and sensors. This involved confirming that each element was responsive and prepared

for subsequent testing phases (Reddy et al., 2019).

This meticulous initial system check provided a baseline assessment of the solar tracker's

readiness, ensuring that electrical connections were secure, the control system was operational,

and key mechanisms were prepared for further evaluation and testing (Renewable Energy, 2023).

2. Tracking Accuracy Test:

The tracking accuracy test was designed to evaluate the solar tracker's precision in adjusting the

panel's tilt angle to align with the sun's position.

i. Setup in Open Area:

Positioned the solar tracker in an open and unobstructed area, maximizing sunlight exposure. This

ensured optimal testing conditions for the tracking system (Snehal et al., 2013).

ii. Performance Monitoring:

Systematically monitored the solar tracker's performance as it dynamically adjusted the solar

panel's tilt angle to accurately track the sun's movement throughout the day.

iii. Tilt Angle Measurement:

Employed measurement tools to record the actual tilt angle of the solar panel at various times,

capturing data representative of the system's response to changing sunlight angles.

57
iv. Calibration Adjustments:

Analyzed the test results and made adjustments to calibration parameters or control algorithms.

This iterative process aimed to enhance tracking accuracy by fine-tuning the system's response to

the sun's movement (Tiberiu et al., 2012).

By executing the tracking accuracy test under real environmental conditions, the solar tracker's

ability to precisely follow the sun's path was thoroughly assessed. All necessary refinements to

calibration parameters or control algorithms were implemented, aiming to achieve optimal

tracking performance.

3. Functional Test:

The functional test was conducted to validate the operational integrity and adaptability of the solar

tracker system under various conditions.

i. Linear Actuator and Tracking Mechanism Operation:

Confirmed the proper operation of the linear actuator and tracking mechanism by testing through

different tracking modes. This included assessing the system's ability to accurately follow the sun's

movement in both manual and automatic modes.

ii. Control System Responsiveness:

Tested the response of the control system to changes in sunlight intensity and sensor inputs. This

evaluation ensured that the system could dynamically adjust to variations in environmental

conditions.

58
iii. Simulation of Environmental Conditions:

Simulated diverse environmental conditions, such as cloudy skies or partial shading, to assess the

system's resilience. This involved challenging the solar tracker with scenarios that replicate real-

world conditions.

iv. Monitoring and Recording:

Actively monitored the system during the functional test, recording any irregularities,

malfunctions, or unexpected behavior. This step facilitated the identification of potential issues

and formed the basis for subsequent troubleshooting or refinement (Vinod et al., 2016).

The comprehensive functional test served as a crucial validation step for the entire solar tracker

system. By examining its performance under different modes and environmental scenarios, the test

provided insights into the system's reliability, responsiveness, and ability to adapt to dynamic

conditions. Any recorded irregularities were carefully analyzed, allowing for prompt corrective

actions and refinements to enhance overall functionality as stated by (Yadav et al., 2015).

4. Safety and Emergency Stop Test:

The safety and emergency stop test were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of safety features

and the system's responsiveness in emergency scenarios.

i. Emergency Stop Activation:

Activated the emergency stop mechanism to verify its immediate effect on halting the entire

system. This step aimed to ensure a rapid and efficient response in case of an emergency.

59
ii. Safety Feature Functionality:

Tested the functionality of safety features, including limit switches or motion sensors. This

involved simulating scenarios where safety mechanisms should intervene to prevent over-rotation

or mitigate potential risks (Yousef et al., 2019).

iii. Control System Response Assessment:

Assessed the response of the control system to emergency stop signals or fault conditions. This

evaluation gauged the system's ability to detect and appropriately respond to unexpected events.

iv. Deactivation and Reset:

Verified that the system could be safely deactivated following an emergency stop event.

Additionally, tested the reset functionality to ensure a seamless return to normal operation after

addressing the emergency situation.

The safety and emergency stop test were integral components of the overall testing process,

prioritizing the protection of the system, users, and surrounding environment. This thorough

evaluation helped confirm that the solar tracker system could promptly and safely respond to

emergency situations, preventing potential risks and minimizing the impact of fault conditions on

the overall functionality (Reddy et al., 2019).

5. Performance Evaluation:

The performance evaluation focused on analyzing the energy output of the solar panel under varied

tracking scenarios and comparing it with fixed-tilt counterparts.

i. Energy Output Analysis:

60
Conducted a detailed analysis of the solar panel's energy output under different tracking scenarios.

This involved assessing the efficiency of the tracking mechanism in optimizing the panel's

orientation relative to the sun.

ii. Comparison with Fixed-Tilt System:

Compared the energy generation of the solar tracker-enabled system with a fixed-tilt solar panel.

This comparative analysis provided insights into the effectiveness of the tracking mechanism in

harnessing solar energy across changing sun angles.

iii. Overall Performance Assessment:

Assessed the overall performance of the single-axis solar tracker in terms of energy efficiency.

This involved considering factors such as tracking accuracy, responsiveness to environmental

conditions, and the system's adaptability.

iv. Energy Gains Calculation:

Calculated and recorded any energy gains achieved through the tracking mechanism. This

quantitative analysis highlighted the additional energy harvested by the solar tracker-enabled

system compared to a fixed-tilt configuration.

The performance evaluation served as a critical measure of the solar tracker's effectiveness in

maximizing energy output. By comparing its performance with a fixed-tilt system and quantifying

energy gains, this assessment provided valuable data to gauge the economic and environmental

benefits of implementing the single-axis solar tracker (Eltamaly et al., 2018).

61
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results

The Results of the work carried out are presented in the following tables and charts.

Table 4: Solar Output of The PV Panel in Fixed Position (Static) Angle 35 Degrees

Time of the Day Voltage (V) Current(A) Power (W)

9:00 13.87 0.88 12.21

10.00 15.29 0.97 14.83

11:00 15.09 0.95 14.34

12:00 16.17 1.07 16.33

13:00 18.08 1.17 21.15

14:00 16.25 1.06 17.23

15:00 15.88 0.99 15.72

62
Table 5: Solar Output of the PV Panel in varying Position (Tracking)
Time of the Day Voltage (V) Current(A) Power (W) Angle (°East)

9:00 16.04 0.95 15.24 36

10.00 16.48 1.02 16.81 51

11:00 16.40 0.98 16.07 87

12:00 16.75 1.09 18.26 123

13:00 18.09 1.17 21.16 159 (Peak)

14:00 17.30 1.13 19.55 195

15:00 16.83 1.11 18.68 231

63
 30

25

20
Power Gain (%)

15

10

0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time

Figure 5: Power Gain by Tracking panels over Stationary panels

64
 20

18

16

14

12
Voltage (V)

10

0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time

Voltage (V) (Fixed) Voltage (V) (Tracking)

Figure 6: Voltage output by Tracking panels over Stationary panels

65
 1.4

1.2

0.8
Current (A)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time

Current(A) (Fixed) Current(A) (Tracking)

Figure 7: Output Current Comparison between Tracking and Fixed Panels

66
 25

20

15
Power

10

0
9:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00
Time

Power (P) (Fixed) Power(P) (Tracking)

Figure 8: Output Power Comparison between Tracking and Fixed Panels

67
 18.5

18

17.5
Voltage (V)

17

16.5

16

15.5
0 50 100 150 200 250
Angle (°)

Figure 9: Graph of Output Voltage against Angle of inclination for tracking panels

68
4.2 Discussion of Results

The data presented in Table 4 gives the output of a fixed solar panel including power, voltage and

current outputs. Table 5 shows the output of a solar panel installed on a tracker.

Figure 5 presents a chart showing the power gain acquired by a tracking panel over a stationary

solar panel. The values plotted on the chart were obtained using equation 13. From the chart,

there is no power gain at 13:00 (01:00pm). This is period of peak energy harvest because the

sun’s luminous intensity is averagely at its peak at that period and stationary panels are

positioned based on such parameter hence the energy output between stationary and tracking

panel at that moment would be approximately the same.

Figures 6, 7 & 8 shows a comparison of Voltage, Current and Power Output between Stationary

and Fixed solar panels. From the data provided by the charts, it is evident that the energy

harvested by tracking solar panel is higher than that harvested by the stationary one. By using

equations 9 and 10, taking the average power output by the respective panels as the power

outputs, the efficiency of the solar panel installed on the solar tracker was found to be greater

than that of the fixed panel by approximately 15%. This is evident as shown by the shape of the

curves in the charts shown in figures 6,7 and 8.

This value is below the values investigated by Anusha et al., 2013 which reveals that solar

tracking increases the efficiency of solar panels by over 40% because in the case of Anusha et

al., 2013, the dual axis tracking was used as opposed to the single axis tracking carried out in this

project.

69
Figure 9 shows the relationship between output voltage and angle of inclination for panels

mounted on solar trackers. From the chart, a 18.09V was obtained at an angle of 159°. This

represents the maximum power point (MPP) at which the panel operates most efficiently. The

solar tracker uses this information to keep the panel operating close to its peak power point,

optimizing power output and increasing energy efficiency.

70
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion

In conclusion, the objectives set forth for this project were aimed at developing a single-axis

solar tracker system and assessing its performance in comparison to stationary solar panels. The

study's findings affirm the project's primary aim, revealing that both stationary and tracking

panels yield comparable outputs during optimal sunlight conditions, as evidenced by the absence

of power gain at the peak energy harvest period of 13:00. However, a comprehensive analysis of

Figures 6, 7, and 8, coupled with efficiency calculations, consistently demonstrates the superior

performance of the solar panel equipped with the tracker. The tracker's dynamic optimization of

panel orientation, illustrated by the relationship between output voltage and inclination angle in

Figure 9, played a crucial role in achieving approximately 15% greater efficiency. The attainment

of the Maximum Power Point (MPP) at 18.09V and 159° underscores the pivotal role of the solar

tracker in maintaining the panel's operation near its peak efficiency. These results collectively

emphasize the tangible benefits of the single-axis solar tracker, showcasing heightened energy

output and increased overall system efficiency, aligning closely with the project's established

objectives.

5.2 Recommendation

Based on the successful outcome and implementation of our project in improving solar energy

harvesting efficiency. We offer the following recommendation as ideas for future expansion of

the project:

1. Enhance tracker sensitivity on cloudy days by implementing open-loop tracking with time,

altitude, and azimuth tracking. This approach, unlike relying solely on light sensitivity,

71
 ensures precise sun positioning even in overcast conditions, improving overall solar panel

efficiency.

2. Prioritize stability for large-scale solar tracking by adopting a robust support system. Our

project, constrained by time and resources, suggests that a properly engineered and stable

framework is crucial for optimizing solar tracking benefits on a larger scale.

3. Advocate for ongoing research in solar energy, emphasizing collaboration across

engineering disciplines. Encourage innovative solutions and design enhancements through

collaborative efforts with Electrical Engineering and Mechatronics Engineering to address

aspects not covered within the mechanical discipline, fostering continuous improvement in

solar energy harvesting technologies.

72
 REFERENCES

A. A. A. Wahab, et al., (2016) "Solar Tracking System: Design, Implementation, and Testing."
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
A. A. Khatib, et al., (2021) "Solar Tracking Systems: A Comprehensive Review." International
Journal of Photoenergy.
Abbas, A., Merzouki, R., & Mansouri, K. (2021). A Novel Dual-Axis Solar Tracker System with
Improved Efficiency. Energies.
Abbood, A. H., Abed, S. A., & Abid, M. R. (2017). Optimal Tilt Angle and Orientation for Solar
Tracking System in Iraq. AIP Conference Proceedings.
Abdel-Magid, A. M., Ahmed, H. M., & Eltawil, A. B. (2013). Analysis and Design of a Solar
Tracking System for Power Optimization. Engineering, Technology & Applied Science
Research.
A. Gupta, et al., (2011) "Smart Solar Tracking System for Maximum Utilization of Solar Energy."
2016 International Conference on Energy Efficient Technologies for Sustainability
(ICEETS).
A. K. Khadim, et al., (2020) "Dual-Axis Solar Tracker: A Review." Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews.
A. M. Eltamaly, et al., (2018) "Performance Enhancement of Photovoltaic Panels Using Solar
Tracking System." Journal of Power and Energy Engineering.
Anusha, et al., (2022). Comparative analysis of fixed and single-axis solar tracking using real-time
clock (RTC) on ARM processor. Solar Energy Research Journal, 30(4), 210-225.
Akhlaghi, M. K., & Rinaldi, F. (2013). Solar Tracking System: A Comprehensive Review.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
Akhtar, U., Iqbal, M., & Ali, H. M. (2021). Smart Solar Tracking System for Efficient Power
Generation. Energy Reports.
Anusha.K., Chandra.S., and Mohan Reddy. (2013). “Design and development of real time clock
based efficient solar tracking system.” International journal of Engineering Research and
Applications (IJERA) 3:1219-1223.
Alistair,B.sproul. (2007). “Derivation of solar geometric relationships using vector analysis.”
Renewable energy 32: 1187-1205
Ashwin R, JoshuaraI Immanuel K , Lalith Sharavn C, Ravi Prasad P.S, Varun A.K (2014).
“Design and Fabrication of Single Axis Solar Tracking System” Journal of Mechanical and
Production Engineering.
Bione.J., Vilela.OC., and Fraidenraich.N. (2014). “Comparison of the performance of PV water
pumping systems driven by fixed, tracking and V-trough generators.” Solar energy 76:703-
11.
Bione, et al., (2009). Comparative study of pumping systems using fixed, tracking, and
concentrating-tracking PVs. Solar Energy Systems Journal, 12(3), 145-162
Berrached, M., Benmansour, A., & Abdeddaim, R. (2017). Optimization of a Single-Axis Sun

73
 Tracking System for Maximum Energy Harvesting. Energy Conversion and Management.
Baranidharan, S., Alamelu, P., & Arun, S. (2020). Smart Solar Tracking System for Efficient
Power Generation. Energy Reports.
Beer, F. P., Johnston, E. R., DeWolf, J. T., & Mazurek, D. F. (2020). Mechanics of Materials (8th
ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Birlasekaran, N. K., Subramanian, S., & Saravanan, K. (2020). Solar Tracking Systems:
Technologies and Advances. Journal of Green Engineering.
Bolton, W. (2019). Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering (6th ed.). Pearson.
Chetan Singh Solanki (2015). “Solar Photovoltaics- Fundamentals, Technologies and
Applications”. Department of Energy Science and Engineering, IIT,Bombay.
C. G. Gomes, et al., "Solar Tracker Control Algorithms: A Comparative Study." (2018) IEEE
International Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering and 2018 IEEE
Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Europe (EEEIC / I&CPS Europe).
Dhanabal.R., Bharathi.V., Ranjitha.R., Ponni.A., Deepthi.S., and Mageshkannan.P. (2013).
“Comparison of efficiencies of solar tracker systems with static panel single axis tracking
system and dual axis tracking system with fixed mount.” International Journal of
Engineering and Technology (IJET) 5:1925-1933.
DIY Solar Forum. (n.d.). DIY single-axis solar panel tracker. Retrieved from
https://diysolarforum.com/threads/diy-single-axis-solar-panel-tracker.21417/
Figliola, R. S., & Beasley, D. E. (2018). Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements (6th
ed.). Wiley.
Finster, A., (2019). The evolution of solar trackers: From mechanical to automatic electronic
control. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, 15(2), 67-89
Guiha Li, Runsheng Tanf, Hao Zhong (2011). “Optical Performance of Horizontal Single-Axis
Tracked Solar Panels”, Solar Energy Research Institute Yunnan Normal University,China.
Gama M Dousoky, Abou-Hashema, M ELSAYED, Masahito Shoyama (2011).“Maximizing
Energy Efficiency In Single Axis Solar Tracker Photovoltaic Panels”. 8th International
Conference on Power Electronic-ECCE Asia.
Hamid, A. M. H., Mohamed, A., & Radzi, M. A. M. (2014). Design and Construction of a Solar
Tracking System Using Arduino. Journal of Physics: Conference Series.
Hasanuzzaman, M., Islam, M. T., Rahim, N. A., & Malek, A. (2016). Solar Tracking System
Using Arduino UNO Microcontroller. Procedia Computer Science.
Hughes, A., & Drury, B. (2019). Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types and
Applications (5th ed.). Newnes.
Instructables. (n.d.). Portable DIY solar tracker. Retrieved from
https://www.instructables.com/Portable-DIY-Solar-Tracker/
Iqbal, M., Khan, S. U., & Ali, H. M. (2018). Evaluation of Solar Tracking Technologies for
Renewable Energy Production. Energies.
Imam Abadi, Adi Soeprijanto, Ali Musyafa (2015). “Design of Single Axis Tracking System at

74
 Photovoltaic Panel Using Fuzzy Logic Controller”, Department of Engineering Physics
and Electrical Engineering, Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, Surabaya.
Imteaj, A., & Chowdhury, M. H. (2014). Construction of single axis automatic solar tracking
system. ResearchGate. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287358564_Construction_of_Single_Axis_Aut
omatic_Solar_Tracking_System
J. D. Efiong, et al., (2019) "Development and Performance Evaluation of a Microcontroller-Based
Solar Tracking System." Journal of Power and Energy Engineering.
Jones, R. H. (2009). Efficient Electric Motor Systems Handbook. CRC Press.
Kumar, G. S. V., Suresh, M. S., & Poornima, M. (2017). Solar Tracking System: A Review.
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET).
Mayank Kumar Lokhande (2014). “Automatic Solar Tracking System”. Journal of Core
Engineering & Management, Volume 1.
Masakazu Ito., Kazuhiko Kato., Keiichi Komoto., Tetsuo Kichimi., Hiroyuki Sugihara., and
Kosuke Kurokawa. (2003). “Comparative study of fixed and tracking system of very large-
scale PV (VLS-PV) systems in the world deserts.” Proceedings of 3rd WCPEC 3O:A2-01.
Marwah, T., Oustaloup, A., Labiod, S., & Aillerie, M. (2013). Development of a Sun Tracking
System for Maximum Energy Production. Procedia Engineering.
M. A. Dhaouadi, et al., (2020) "Solar Tracking System: A Comprehensive Review." Energy
Procedia.
Mayfield, R. (2019). Photovoltaic Design and Installation For Dummies (2nd ed.). For Dummies.
Meriam, J. L., & Kraige, L. G. (2012). Engineering Mechanics: Statics (7th ed.). Wiley.
M. H. Rashid, et al., (2010) "Review of Solar Tracking Technologies." Energy Reports.
Muhammad, B. (2019). Solar tracking and control systems. CRC Press.
Muhammad, B. (2019). Design and construction of a single axis solar tracker. Global Scientific
Journal, 7(5), 454-465. Retrieved from
https://www.globalscientificjournal.com/researchpaper/Design_and_Construction_of_a_
Single_Axis_Solar_Tracker.pdf:
Nieto-Galan, E. (2017). Solar Tracking Technologies.
Nise, N. S. (2020). Control Systems Engineering (8th ed.). Wiley.
OpenSolar. n.d (2021) Using tracking in a solar design. Retrieved from
https://support.opensolar.com/hc/en-us/articles/4406931198361-Using-Tracking-in-a-
Solar-Design
Pruthi, H. R., & Solanki, S. C. (2018). A Review of Solar Tracking Technologies. Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
P. Sundaravadivel, et al., (2017) "Solar Tracker: Technologies, Applications, and Future Trends."
International Journal of Photoenergy.
Rizk J. and Chaiko Y (2008). “Solar Tracking System: More Efficient Use of Solar Panels”, World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology.
Roth,p.georgiev., Boudinov.A., and Cheap.H. 2005. “Two axis sun following device.” Energy

75
 conservation and management 46:1179-92.
Reddy, K. S., Ganesan, T., & Rao, C. K. (2019). Solar Tracker: A Review. Journal of Solar
Energy Engineering.
Renewable Energy. (2023). A review of single-axis solar tracker mechanisms and
control systems. SolarSquare. Retrieved from https://www.solarsquare.in/blog/single-
axis-solar-tracker/
Rizk, A., et al., (2015). Development of a solar tracking system with improved solar panel
efficiency. Renewable Energy Journal, 25(3), 123-145.
Snehal Hon.P., Kolte.M.T. (2013) “FPGA Based Standalone Solar Tracking System.”
Silver, P., McLean, W., & Evans, P. (2014). Structural Engineering for Architects: Handbook.
Laurence King Publishing.
Simitses, G. J., & Hodges, D. H. (2006). Fundamentals of Structural Stability. Elsevier Science.
Slocum, A. (2019). Precision Machine Design. Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Scherz, P., & Monk, S. (2020). Practical Electronics for Inventors (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill
Education.
Tiberiu Tudorache, Constantin daniel oancea., and Lliviu kreindler. (2012). “Performance
evaluation of a solar tracking PV panel.” U.P.B. Sci. Bull series C 74:3-10.
Twidell, J., & Weir, T. (2015). Renewable Energy Resources (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Tudorache, T., et al., (2021). Intelligent solar tracking PV panel for enhanced electric energy
output. Sustainable Energy Journal, 22(2), 78-95
Vinod Kumar, G. S., & Ramesh Babu, D. R. (2016). Solar Tracker System: A Comprehensive
Review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
Yadav, R. S., Pal, A. K., & Pandey, A. K. (2015). Solar Tracker: A Comprehensive Review.
International Journal of Renewable Energy Research.
Yousef, N. F. (2019). Photovoltaic engineering and applications. Springer.

76