FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICALENGINEERING 2017/18

CHAPTER TWO
BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS
2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit
and to actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires some fundamental laws
that govern electric circuits. These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation
upon which electric circuit analysis is built. In this chapter we discuss some techniques commonly applied
in circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage
division, current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations.

2.2 Ohm’s Law

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the
symbol R. The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the
resistor. The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on its A
and length, as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). It was represented in mathematical form as,
………………………..………………………………… (2.1)

Where is ρ known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters. Good conductors, such as
copper and aluminum, have low resistivity, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high
resistivity.

(a) (b)

Figure 0.1: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

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The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 2.1(b), where R stands for the resistance of
the resistor. The resistor is the simplest passive element.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

o Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current
i flowing through the resistor.
V i …………………………………………………………. (2.2)
Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. The resistance
is a material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the element are
altered, e.g., if there are changes in the temperature. Thus, Eq. (2.2) becomes
V = iR………………………...………………………………. (2.3)
Which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R is measured in the unit of ohms, designated Ω.
o The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is
measured in ohms (Ω).
We may deduce from Eq. (2.3) that

……………………….…………………………….…. (2.4)

So that, 1 Ω = 1 V/A
To apply Ohm’s law as stated in Eq. (2.3), we must pay careful attention to the current direction
and voltage polarity. The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform to the
passive sign convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This implies that current flows from a higher
potential to a lower potential in order for v = i R. If current flows from a lower potential to a
higher potential, v = -i R. Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that
we consider the two extreme possible values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a short
circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). For a short circuit,
v = iR = 0 …………………………………………………….……… (2.5)
Showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything. In practice, a short circuit is
usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor. Thus,

 A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

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Figure: 0.2: (a) Short circuit, R = 0 (b) Open circuit, R = ∞

Similarly, an element with is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open
circuit, indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.

o An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance and denoted
by G: The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current. The unit of
conductance is the mho reciprocal ohm, with symbol ℧, the inverted omega.

…………………………………………….………. (2.7)

o Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos (℧)
or Siemens (S).
1 S = 1℧ = 1 A/ V
The same resistance can be expressed in ohms or Siemens. For example, 10 Ω is the same as 0.1 S.

Example: In the circuit shown in Figure below, calculate the current i, the conductance G, and
the power p.

Solution:
The voltage across the resistor is the same as the source voltage (30 V) because the resistor and
the voltage source are connected to the same pair of terminals. Hence, the current is

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2.3 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, such elements include
branches, nodes, and loops.

o A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has five
branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three resistors.

Figure: 0.3: Nodes, branches, and loops

A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (connecting wire) connects two
nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2.4 has three nodes a, b and c.

o A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and
returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than once.

o A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is said to be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a part of any other
independent loop.

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Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and
consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

Where, b –Branch, l –Loop and n – Node of the circuits.

2.4 Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–
1887). These laws are formally known as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law
(KVL). Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) is zero.
∑ ……………………………………………………………………………. (2.8)

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node. A
simple application of KCL is combining current sources in parallel. The combined current is the
algebraic sum of the current supplied by the individual sources. For example, the current sources
shown in Fig. 2.5(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.5(b). The combined or equivalent current
source can be found by applying KCL to node a.
IT + I2 = I1 +I3 or IT = I1 - I2+I3

(a) (b)
Figure: 0.4: Current sources in parallel: (a) original circuit, (b) equivalent circuit.

A circuit can’t contain two different I1 and I2, in series, unless I1 = I2; otherwise KCL will be
violated.
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Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.
∑ …………………………………………………. (2.9)
To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.6. Suppose we start with the voltage source and go
clockwise around the loop; then voltages would be –V1, +V2, +V3, –V4 and +V5 in that order.

Figure: 0.5: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counterclockwise trip around
the loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero.
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises …………………… (2.10)
Notice that if we had traveled counterclockwise, the result would have been +V1, –V2, –V3, +V4
and –V5 which is the same as before except that the signs are reversed.
V2 + V3 + V5 = V1 + V4

–V1 + V2 + V3 –V4 + V5 = 0
Example 1: For the circuit shown below find V1 and V2?

Solution: To find V1 and V2 we apply Ohm’s Law and KVL, Then

From Ohm’s Law:
V1 = 2i and V2 = -3i …….. (*)
Apply KVL around the loop we get,
……… (**)
Substitute Equation (*) in to Equation (**) gives,

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i = 4A
Therefore, V1 = 8V and V2 = -12V
Example 2: Find Vo and i in the circuit shown below

Solution:
We apply KVL around the loop,
………….. (*)
By applying ohm’s law we get,
…………. (**)
Substitute Equation (**) in to Equation (*) gives,

i = -8A, Then
Example 3: Find all the currents and voltages on the circuit shown below?

Solution:
By ohm’s law:
……….. (*)
Apply KCL at node a:
…………. (**)
Apply KVL at loop 1:
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…………. (***)
Substitute Equation (*) in to Equation (**)

Apply KVL at loop 2:

From Equation (**)

And

2.5 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

Consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.7. The two resistors are in series, since the same current i flow in
both of them. Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain

V1 = iR1, and V2 = iR2 ……………………..……………… (2.1)

Figure: 0.6: A single-loop circuit with two resistors in series.

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If we apply KVL to the loop (moving in the clockwise direction), we have

–V + V1 + V2 = 0 …………………………………….…...… (2.12)
Combining Equations (2.11) and (2.12), we get

V = V1 + V2 = i (R1 + R2) ………………..……………...…. (2.13)

Or i = V/ R1 + R2 ………………………..……………………… (2.14)
Notice that Eq. (2.14) can be written as

i = V/ Req ………………………….……………………..…. (2.15)

Where, Req = R1 + R2.

Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their
resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle
of voltage division, and the circuit is called a voltage divider.
The voltage across each resistor

For N resistors in series then,

Voltage division for N resistors:

Figure: 0.7 Equivalent circuit

2.6 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.

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Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.9, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have
the same voltage across them. From Ohm’s law,

Figure: 0.8: Two resistors in parallel.

V = i1R1 = i2R2 …………………………………………….…….…. (2.16)

Or i1 = V/ R1, i2 = V/ R2 …………………………………………..……. (2.17)
Applying KCL at node a gives the total current i as
i = i1 + i2 …………………………………………………………... (2.18)
Substituting Eq. (2.17) into Eq. (2.18), we get
i = V/ R1 + V/R2 = V (1/R1 + 1/R2) = V/ Req …………………….. (2.19)
Where Req is the equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel.
Req = R1R2 / R1 + R2……………………………………………….. (2.20)

The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.

From Eq. (2.20), for two resistors in parallel, if R1 = R2, then Req = R1 / 2.

The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse proportion to their resistances. This
is known as the principle of current division, and the circuit is known as a current divider.

The current through each resistor is:

For N resistors, equivalent resistor will be:

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Example 1: Find Req for the circuit shown below

Solution: Req = 14.4Ω

Example 2: Calculate the equivalent resistance RAB for the circuit shown below

Solution: RAB = 11.2Ω

Example 3: For the circuit shown below determine: (a) The voltage (b) The power supplied by
the current source, (c) The power absorbed by each resistor.

Solution:

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(a).

Notice that the voltage across the 9-kΩ and 18-kΩ resistors is the same, and

(b). Power supplied by the source is

(c).
Power absorbed by the 12-kΩ resistor is

Power absorbed by the 6-kΩ resistor is

Power absorbed by the 9-kΩ resistor is

2.7 Wye-Delta Transformations

Situations often arise in circuit analysis when the resistors are neither in parallel nor in series. To
overcome these problems we apply Wye-Delta transformation or vice versa.

Figure: 2.10. Two forms of the same network: (a) Y, (b) T.

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Figure: 2.11. Two forms of the same network: (a) ∆, (b) ∏

Delta to Wye Conversion
Suppose it is more convenient to work with a wye network in a place where the circuit contains a delta
configuration. We superimpose a wye network on the existing delta network and find the equivalent
resistances in the wye network. To obtain the equivalent resistances in the wye network, we compare the
two networks and make sure that the resistance between each pair of nodes in the (or) network is the same
as the resistance between the same pair of nodes in the Y (or T) network. For terminals 1 and 2 in Figs.
2.10 and 2.11, for example,
R12(Y) = R1 + R3

R12(∆) = Rb || (Ra + Rc)

Setting R12(Y) = R12(∆) gives:

Similarly;

Subtracting R34 from R12 we get:

Adding (R13) and (R1-R2) gives

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And subtracting (R1-R2) from (R13) yields

Subtracting (R1-R2) from (R12), we obtain

Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two adjacent ∆ branches,

divided by the sum of the three ∆ resistors.

Wye to Delta Conversion:

To obtain the conversion formulas for transforming a wye network to an equivalent delta
network:

Dividing (****) by each of n (*), (**), (***) leads to the following equations:

Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible products of Y resistors taken two at
a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

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Figure: 2.12. Superposition of Y and ∆ networks as an aid in transforming one to the other.

Example: Obtain the equivalent resistance Rab for the circuit in Figure below and use it to find
current i.

Solution: If we convert the Y network comprising the 5Ω- 10 Ω - and 20 Ω - resistors, we may
select. R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω

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Combining the three pairs of resistors in parallel, we obtain

Hence, we find

Then:

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