metals

Article
Optimizing the Gating System for Steel Castings †
Jan Jezierski * ID
, Rafał Dojka and Krzysztof Janerka
Department of Foundry Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
[email protected] (R.D.); [email protected] (K.J.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-691-544-485
† This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper titled Cast steel—a fresh look at the potential and
future which was presented at the 5th International Conference on Modern Manufacturing Technologies in
Industrial Engineering ModTech 2017, 14–17 June 2017, Sibiu, Romania.




Received: 17 March 2018; Accepted: 10 April 2018; Published: 13 April 2018


Abstract: The article presents the attempt to optimize a gating system to produce cast steel castings.
It is based on John Campbell’s theory and presents the original results of computer modelling of
typical and optimized gating systems for cast steel castings. The current state-of-the-art in cast
steel casting foundry was compared with several proposals of optimization. The aim was to find a
compromise between the best, theoretically proven gating system version, and a version that would
be affordable in industrial conditions. The results show that it is possible to achieve a uniform and
slow pouring process even for heavy castings to preserve their internal quality.

Keywords: gating system; flow analysis; steel casting; pouring process; internal quality

1. Introduction
Cast steel comprises a group of alloys that are widely known and have been used for many years
in various industrial applications. The articles [1–3] present the statistical data and the forecast for the
foundry industry in Poland and the rest of the world, showing that the steel castings are still popular
and useful. Most heavy casting was made from cast steel, including the heaviest castings that were ever
cast for hydraulic presses, forging hammer frames, or parts for offshore energy facilities for example
the heavy hydro turbine blades [4–8]. This was due to the superior properties of many cast steel grades
and the possibility of being able to tailor the properties to specific conditions with heat treatment or
surface engineering [9–11], bi-metallic casting production, including welding techniques, etc. [12–14].
However, because the sector of iron castings production is growing because of new developments and
improvements, and due to cheaper prices for cast iron grades, such as ductile iron, ADI (Austempered
Ductile Iron), or CGI (Compacted Graphite Iron, the so-called vermicular iron), cast steel is considered
to be an obsolescent material. In [15], the use of the wear resistant Fe-C-Cr alloys have been proposed
instead of some steel castings. The article [16] shows the method of cheap ductile iron production on
the base of steel scrap, while the authors of [17,18] presented the high-silicon cast iron and SiMo iron
capabilities and advantages. The authors of [19–21] thoroughly described the outstanding properties
of the CGI iron while comparing it with the Ductile Iron (DI). The properties of the modern ADI
grades and their capability to replace the steel castings in some applications have been presented
in [22,23]. Yearly production of steel castings oscillates at ca. 10–11% worldwide, whereas in some
countries, including Poland, the production rate is only ca. 5–6% [1]. In recent years, a new shift has
started and the trend to return to cast steel grades has returned along with some developments in
metallurgy and casting mold technology [24,25]. This article focuses on steel casting mold design
and particularly on the issue of the gating system, as it is necessary to follow a strict technological
regime, regarding not only molten alloy purity to achieve the best casting quality. An incorrectly

Metals 2018, 8, 266; doi:10.3390/met8040266 www.mdpi.com/journal/metals

Metals 2018, 8, 266 2 of 13

performed mold pouring process via a poorly designed gating system can result in re-oxidation and
in the appearance of small mold damages with a final internal defect (non-metallic inclusions acting
as small cracks, excessive gas porosity) [26–30]. Research studies regarding the above phenomena
were conducted by many scientists, yet John Campbell’s theory of bi-film and the ‘ten rules of casting’
have had one of the most important impacts, and have been described, among others, in [31–36].
The theory and practice regarding the gating system constitute an extensive topic and many different
approaches and proposals have been recommended. The issue has been developed and solutions
proposed, although the issue is still open to discussion. Every casting, particularly a single heavy one
that is designed and manufactured from scratch, is a completely new and demanding object. Thus,
the gating system must be developed for each specific shape, size, wall thickness, alloy, etc. There is
no place for mistakes when only one or a few identical castings are being produced, thus the most
sophisticated procedures and tools should be used.

2. Materials and Methods

It is common knowledge that the molten metal velocity should equal approximately 0.5 m/s to
ensure a proper (not too slow and not too fast) mold cavity filling process [33]. Yet, this is very difficult
or is sometimes nearly impossible under normal gravity pouring conditions when using a simple,
old-fashioned gating system. Thus, a special gating system design is crucial, although simple channel
cross-section changes are not enough to significantly change the character of the metal flow [24,37–39].
In the presented research, authors resigned from implementing offset pouring basin, gating systems
will be filled using contact pouring method, as it allows for isolating the metal from the surrounding
atmosphere [31]. The experiments that are described in this article constitute the computer modelling
part of a large experimental plan to develop a scientifically optimized and practically useful molding
technology for heavy (up to 25–30 tons) steel castings. The foundry plant where the industrial part of
the research will be completed in the near future cannot achieve better performance due to an excessive
level of internal and surface defects. At present, both the internal and surface quality of the castings
are too often outside the specifications, and there is significant evidence to show that the reason might
be improper pouring process control. Thus, this problem has both scientific and practical meaning.
Several gating system designs were examined for model simple casting, which is a typical clover-like
sample whose geometry is shown in Figure 1. This sample is used as an obligatory cast for every melt
in the steel foundry to check the main mechanical properties; its quality is nearly as important as the
real casting quality. Moreover, the gating system that is used for the sample is more or less the same as
those that will be used in actual production.

Figure 1. Clover-like sample according to Polish norm PN-H-04309:1976.

The modelling was conducted on two popular and well-known computer packages, namely
NowaFlow & Solid (ver. CV 4.4r2, NovaCast Systems AB, Ronneby, Sweden) and MagmaSoft®(ver.
5.0, MAGMA Giessereitechnologie GmbH, Aachen. Germany), but the latter was chosen after the trial
modelling experiments. The main modelling parameters were the same for all of the experiments, i.e.,
Metals 2018, 8, 266 3 of 13

alloy: low-carbon cast steel GS52 according to Polish norm PN-ISO 3755:1994 and pouring temperature:
1570 ◦ C.

3. Results and Discussion

In this section, the approach to the gating system optimization has been shown, starting with the
reference gating system, being in use now in the foundry plant that is subjected to the research.

3.1. Reference Gating System Geometry

The modelling started with the present gating system design, which is based on commercially
available ready-to-use refractory elements/bricks combined and set together to the desired shape and
lengths of the gating system channels; see Figure 2.

Figure 2. Reference geometry of the gating system pouring process; average filling time 2 s.

The pouring process is unstable, and the liquid alloy front velocity is far too large. It is highly
visible that when the alloy passes through the downsprue, its velocity is higher than 6 m/s and when
it reaches the mould cavity it is still ca. 5 m/s, so it is 10× greater than the 0.5 m/s, which is considered
as the proper value. That is why we can observe a jet splashing effect and its attack on the mould
walls. Molten metal appears to hit the top of the casting geometry and turn. Top of the mold is open
and thus the rebounding shown in the bottom row would not occur in real life. The software cannot
solve for a control volume not present in the mesh so it makes this free surface act like a mold wall
and turns like displayed in the figure. This results from the very dangerous mixing of the liquid
alloy with the air that is entrapped in the mould that is then sucked into the mould by the pump
Metals 2018, 8, 266 4 of 13

effect, as described in [36]. The effect is present when the alloy does not fill the full cross-section
of the downsprue, thus producing an air gap between the metal and sprue surface. A visible back
wave travelling through the gating system can be noticed; it not only changes the distribution of
the metal velocity, but its pressure also results in the further mixing and quality degradation via the
formation of oxide biofilms. It can also be noticed that the velocity of the metal is not constant after
the gating system is filled, i.e., the velocity changes gradually, thus proving that the flow is turbulent.
Current moulding technology in the foundry is based on an analogical method (bottom pouring), so
analogical phenomena occur in the castings that are manufactured there. The castings’ cross-sections
(during sample cutting from the clover casting) show an elevated level of non-metallic impurities and
bubble-like defects. This affects the mechanical properties of the sample and nearly definitely the final
castings. Thus, an optimisation exercise was conducted to increase the overall castings quality and to
level up the foundry performance.

3.2. Gating System Optimization Based on a Re-Design of the Downsprue

A series of modelling experiments was conducted with various (optimised according to different
authors’ proposals) gating system modifications, all of which were focused on downsprue tapering in
the first stage (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Various modifications of the gating system (downsprue) geometry.

Metals 2018, 8, 266 5 of 13

Nearly all of the bottom-top ladles have circularly shaped nozzles that should constitute the initial
shape of a gating system. The tapering of the sprues’ cross-section should change according to the
hyperbolic curve, as it depicts the actual nature of the stream [34–36]. The authors of this paper noticed
in their most recent studies that liquid metal flowing through runners having different shapes and
circumference and the same cross-section area tend to behave differently, i.e., the slimmer the runner,
the lower the potential metal mixing takes place and the more laminar the flow is, which is why it was
decided to study rectangular-shaped runners. The authors examined the transition of the downsprue
from a circular to a rectangular shape. The best results were obtained when the transition took place
on the longest section possible, i.e., the shorter the length of the transition, the more turbulent the
flow. Tests included a triangular ending of the runner with a perpendicular ingate, although this
solution increased the jetting effect and created an uneven velocity in the runner, so it was found
to be inefficient. Tens of modelling iterations were conducted, but only some of them were selected
and representative examples are shown. In the foundry, designers with some knowledge regarding
downsprue tapering do indeed try to taper it, but the results will be far from perfect when it is not
done properly (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Improper downsprue tapering (NovaFlow & Solid).

Even though the liquid alloy velocity is not too poor in the mould cavity entrance (ca. 0.8 m/s), it
is observable that the metal flow in the downsprue has no contact with its walls, thus a huge sucking
pump effect appears and the gas porosity ratio in the sample casting is high. The aim of the experiments
was to achieve a stable, uniform metal flow with a velocity that is no higher than 0.5 m/s during the
decisive moments of the pouring process. Thus, further research was done using an increasingly more
complex and sophisticated gating system starting with a prolonged runner, vortex gate and spin trap,
and ending with a combined trident gate system [24,40–42].

3.3. Gating System with a Prolonged Runner

The first attempt was based on the prolonged runner idea, i.e., that the additional part of the
runner after the ingate part should act as a brake for the liquid alloy. Yet, for very fast liquid velocity,
which is the result of a long downsprue and the dynamics of the ladle bottom pouring system, such a
gating design is inefficient (see Figure 5).
Metals 2018, 8, 266 6 of 13

Figure 5. Prolonged runner system pouring process; filling time 10 s.

It should be noticed that the velocity in the sprue is almost constant, which is a perfect outcome,
proving that this design of the downsprue is a vital improvement to the process. When the flow enters
the ingate area, its velocity is in the range of 1.2–1.4 m/s, but the additional runner part, which is
curved vertically to the top, makes its almost acceptable. However, a turbulent character is still visible
when the alloy enters the mold cavity, although this effect can be decreased by increasing the length
of the prolonged runner. The process stabilizes after a few seconds (the total filling time is 10 s on
average), but the splashes are still too excessive. It must be mentioned that the prolonged runner can
be the place for the non-metallic inclusions (oxides, loose sand grains, etc.), capturing some portions of
them and improving the internal cleanliness of the casting.
Metals 2018, 8, 266 7 of 13

3.4. Vortex Gate System

Another modification that was checked in the experimental procedure concerned the so-called
vortex gate, whose concept is presented in Figure 6. A special cylindrical volume is shaped directly
below the ingate and it is equipped with a filter system of various geometry, which mostly depends on
the casting size. The sprue is joined to the chamber at the outer diameter, generating that vortex so
that two effects are present, namely the metal flow velocity is directed downwards to the acceptable
limit and the impurities should be captured by the filtering system.

Figure 6. Vortex gate system idea.

Figure 7 shows some still images from the modelling results of the same sample casting poured
through the vortex gating system.
As is observable in Figure 7, the vortex system works quite well, thus the metal flow velocity
is uniform during the mold cavity filling and its value is ca. the desired 0.5 m/s. Also, the purity of
the alloy should be much better because of the filtration of the non-metallic inclusions, as the filter
keeps them from entering the mold cavity. However, there is a problematic issue with the vortex gate
where the bubbles are held in the middle by centrifugal force. This may result in the penetration of the
filter by the bubbles when they merge and reach sufficient floating power. The 10 s filling duration is
enough to give ample time for entrapped air bubbles to float onto the surface, so the overall internal
quality should be better than in the case of the prolonged runner. The proper height-to-diameter ratio
of the spin trap will be a topic of further experiments to maximize the yield, while maintaining the
effect of vertical velocity reduction.

3.5. Spin Trap System

Another gating system modification that was proposed by some researchers is the so-called spin
trap system, thus this option was also checked by the authors of this paper. Figure 8 shows the idea of
the spin trap and Figure 9 presents the modelling results.
Metals 2018, 8, 266 8 of 13

Figure 7. Vortex gate system pouring process; filling time 10 s.

Figure 8. Spin trap idea.

Metals 2018, 8, 266 9 of 13

Figure 9. Spin trap gating system; filling time 10 s.

This additional, round cross-section volume is situated at the end of the runner, which is joined
at the outer diameter like a typical vortex system. Another version was examined with the spin trap
between the down sprue and the mould cavity, but the results were much worse and thus are not
presented here. Additionally, there is a vent to evacuate the gases from the mould. The results of such
an approach should be the following: flow velocity decrease, liquid alloy degassing, and non-metallic
inclusions captured in the spin trap volume.
The results of the last approach seem to be fully acceptable and promising. The velocity of
the liquid alloy introducing the mould cavity is ca. 0.4–0.6 m/s, and then during cavity filling it is
even lower, ca. 0.3–0.4 m/s. Moreover, the gases and the non-metallic inclusions that are typically
located at the front of the metal flow should end up inside the spin trap with the vent. The optimal
height-to-diameter ratio of a spin trap will be a topic of further examination. The filter should be
placed in the ingate tangentially to the runner in order to prevent any oxide bifilms from entering the
mold cavity, as the metal going from the sprue will constantly push them from the surface of the filter
into the runner’s extension, where they will be trapped inside a spin trap allowing for increasing the
amount of metal being able to flow through a filter without choking it, theoretically, to infinity. The
shape and cross section of the ingate can be freely chosen in such a way that it will reduce the speed of
metal entering the mold cavity to the desired value.

3.6. Trident Gate System

The most complex and engineered is the so-called trident gate, with a combination with a spin
trap and an additional bubble trap to take advantage of all the above solutions. Figure 10 presents
an approach in which two ceramic filters were perpendicularly located, according to Campbell’s
guidelines [33]. The spin trap was added by the authors after very promising results were obtained,
Metals 2018, 8, 266 10 of 13

as described earlier. Modelling was conducted for the gating system and the results are presented in
Figure 11.

Figure 10. Trident gate system with filters.

Figure 11. Combined gating system design; filling time 10 s.

This option seems to be the best for a casting poured from the bottom, as it gives the opportunity
to decrease the flow velocity to the desired level and the internal quality of the casting should be
the best because of the bubble trap, spin trap, and two ceramic filters that were located according
Metals 2018, 8, 266 11 of 13

to the authors’ best knowledge. This solution is dedicated to aluminum alloys, as they are greatly
vulnerable to oxidation defects, although it might be useful in the manufacturing of high quality cast
steel castings.

4. Conclusions
After a series of experiments with a step-by-step modified gating system design to achieve a flow
velocity that was as close to the “gold standard” of 0.5 m/s as possible and to ensure the capture of
gas bubbles and non-metallic (including possible re-oxidation) inclusions, the following conclusions
were formulated:

1. The necessity of metal velocity reduction may require a reduction of metallostatic pressure,
and a possible solution is using an offset step pouring basin or an intermediate ladle, although
it will provide unwanted metal mixing. This option will be checked in the next stage of the
experimental plan.
2. The modelling confirms the effectiveness of the gating systems that are presented here as a way
of controlling the velocity of the metal entering the mould cavity, although they also allow a
much less turbulent flow of metal through the gating system, thus reducing the possibility of
bifilm creation that is caused by the re-oxidation process.
3. The most optimal system is the combined system with trident gates, a spin trap, and a bubble trap,
and it seems to be an affordable (optimised) approach for heavy, single manufactured castings.
The mould is handmade in this case, so no problems relate to shaping an even more complex
gating system than that developed for the clover-like sample.
4. Studies are under way that will allow for comparing the gating systems that are presented here
in terms of the quality of the obtained castings and the ease of their implementation. Then, after
the gating system quality is proven for the clover-like sample, selected commercial castings will
be cast based on the results.
5. Application of presented solutions (e.g., spin trap and vortex gates) may decrease the metal
yield in comparison to tradition gating systems. However, in the case of responsible casting,
especially concerning piece production, yield decrease can be justified with a potential increase
of mechanical properties and a reduction of the number of defects.
6. Proper use of the gating system can improve the course of solidification. Thin ingates (with high
width and low thickness) have smaller heat module in comparison to round and square gates.
This results in their faster solidification after the filling process, and thus the ability to work as
a chill.

Author Contributions: Jan Jezierski and Rafał Dojka proposed the research and designed the experiment
plan. Rafał Dojka created and conducted the modelling experiments while Jan Jezierski supervised them all.
Krzysztof Janerka consulted the results and critically reviewed the paper. Jan Jezierski and Rafał Dojka wrote the
paper while Krzysztof Janerka drew all the supplementary sketches and schemes. The article was proofread by
the professional.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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