1-деңгей

1 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Xenophobia and
Meritocracy
Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is
an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-group and an
out-group and it may manifest itself in suspicion of one group's activities by members of the
other group, a desire to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and
fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity

Meritocracy, political, social, or economic system in which individuals are assigned to positions
of power, influence, or reward solely on the basis of their abilities and achievements and not on
the basis of their social, cultural, or economic background or irrelevant personal characteristics.

2 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Oligarchy and
Opposition
Oligarchy, government by the few, especially despotic power exercised by a small and privileged
group for corrupt or selfish purposes. Oligarchies in which members of the ruling group are
wealthy or exercise their power through their wealth are known as plutocracies.

In politics, the opposition comprises one or more political parties or other organized groups that
are opposed, primarily ideologically, to the government (or, in American English, the
administration), party or group in political control of a city, region, state, country or other
political body. The degree of opposition varies according to political conditions. For example, in
authoritarian and democratic systems, opposition may be respectively repressed or desired.
Members of an opposition generally serve as antagonists to the other parties.

3 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Kleptocracy and
Republic.
Kleptocracy - a government or state in which those in power exploit national resources and steal;
rule by a thief or thieves

Republic-a government in which supreme power resides in a body of citizens entitled to vote and
is exercised by elected officers and representatives responsible to them and governing according
to law

4 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Federation and
Authoritarianism.
Federation - a group of organizations, states, etc., that have united to form a larger organization
or government

Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by a controlling government and the

rejection of democracy, human rights, and political plurality. It involves the use of strong central
power to preserve the political status quo, and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers,
and democratic voting

5 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Democracy and
Nepotism.
Democracy is a system of government in which state power is vested in the people or the general
population of a state
Nepotism refers to the practice of favoring relatives or close friends, especially in matters of
employment and promotion. In a political context, nepotism occurs when individuals in positions
of power or authority use their influence to provide preferential treatment to their family
members, often in terms of job opportunities, appointments, or other privileges

6 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Monarchy and
Totalitarianism.
Monarchy is a form of government where a single person, often referred to as the monarch, holds
supreme authority and usually inherits the position. The position of the monarch can be
determined by hereditary succession, where power is passed down through a royal family, or it
can be an elective monarchy, where the ruler is chosen by a specific group or institution.

Totalitarianism is a political system where the state recognizes no limits to its authority and
seeks to regulate every aspect of public and private life. Totalitarian regimes are characterized by
a single ruling party or leader, centralized control over the economy, strict censorship, and
suppression of opposition.

7 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Autocracy and
Conservatism.
Autocracy is a form of government in which a single person, the autocrat, holds absolute and
unchecked power. In an autocratic system, the ruler's decisions are not subject to meaningful
constraints, such as constitutional limitations or the will of the people through democratic
processes. Autocrats often govern without accountability and may use force or coercion to
maintain control.

Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the preservation of existing
institutions, traditions, and established practices. Conservatives generally advocate for a cautious
approach to change and are skeptical of radical social or political transformations. The specific
principles and policy positions associated with conservatism can vary, but they often include a
preference for limited government intervention, respect for traditional values, and a belief in the
importance of social order.
8 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Unitary State and
Aristocracy.
A unitary state is a political system in which sovereignty and authority are concentrated at the
national level. In this form of government, a central government holds significant power, and
regional or local governments derive their authority from the central government. The central
government can create or abolish administrative divisions, and these subdivisions (provinces,
states, regions, etc.) typically have limited powers that are delegated by the central authority.
Examples of unitary states include the United Kingdom and France.

Aristocracy is a political system in which political power and leadership are vested in a
privileged class of individuals, often based on hereditary or noble status. In an aristocracy, social
and political elites, often referred to as aristocrats or nobles, hold a disproportionate share of
political influence and may inherit their positions. The concept contrasts with democracy, where
political power is ideally distributed among the broader population.

9 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Bureaucracy and
Pacifism.
Bureaucracy refers to a system of government or management in which decisions are made by
state officials or administrators rather than by elected representatives. Bureaucracies are
characterized by a hierarchical structure, with clear lines of authority and specialized roles for
individuals. The term is often associated with a large, organized, and complex administrative
system that implements and enforces government policies. Bureaucracies can exist within
various forms of government, including democracies, authoritarian regimes, and monarchies.

Pacifism is a political and philosophical stance that opposes the use of violence, aggression, or
war as a means to resolve conflicts. Pacifists advocate for peaceful solutions, diplomacy, and
nonviolent resistance in addressing disputes and promoting social change. The rejection of war
as a tool of foreign policy is a central tenet of pacifism, and individuals or movements adhering
to this philosophy often emphasize the value of human life and the pursuit of justice through
nonviolent means.

10 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Parliamentary System
and Corruption.
Parliamentary System:
A parliamentary system is a form of government in which the executive branch derives its
legitimacy and authority from the legislative branch (parliament) and is accountable to it. In a
parliamentary system, the head of government (often the Prime Minister) is typically the leader
of the majority party in the parliament.

Corruption refers to the abuse of power for personal gain or the violation of trust for dishonest or
unethical purposes. It can manifest in various forms, including bribery, embezzlement, nepotism,
fraud, and other unethical practices

11 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Presidential System
and Plutocracy.
A presidential system is a form of government in which the head of state and the head of
government are distinct individuals. The President serves as the head of state and is usually
elected independently of the legislature. The President's powers are often separate from those of
the legislative branch, and they typically have a fixed term in office.

Plutocracy refers to a political system or society in which power is concentrated in the hands of
the wealthy or the ruling class, often to the detriment of the general population. In a plutocracy,
economic and financial elites exert significant influence over government policies and decision-
making.

12 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Dictatorship and
Liberalism.
Dictatorship is a form of government where political power is concentrated in the hands of a
single individual or a small group, often without meaningful checks and balances. In a
dictatorship, the ruler, known as a dictator, exercises authoritarian control over the state, and
there is typically limited political pluralism, restricted civil liberties, and minimal political
opposition

Liberalism is a political and philosophical ideology that emphasizes individual freedoms,

equality, and the protection of human rights. Liberals advocate for representative democracy, the
rule of law, and a market-based economy
13 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Forms of State and
Democratic Socialism.
Forms of State:
Different models of organizing political authority within a territory, including unitary, federal,
and confederal systems.

Democratic Socialism:
An ideology combining democratic principles with socialist goals, advocating for a mixed
economy, social ownership, and a strong welfare state.

14 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: Forms of Government
and Communism.
Forms of government refer to the various structures and systems by which political authority is
organized and exercised within a state. These structures define how power is distributed, who
holds authority, and the relationship between different branches of government. Common forms
of government include democracy, monarchy, oligarchy, authoritarianism, and more.

Communism is a socio-economic and political ideology advocating for a classless and stateless
society where the means of production are collectively owned and controlled. The goal is to
establish a system where wealth and resources are distributed based on the principle "from each
according to their ability, to each according to their needs

15 Explain, Please, the Meanings of the Following Political Notions: System of Government
and Nationalism
The system of government refers to the organizational structure and mechanisms by which
political authority is exercised and government functions are carried out in a state or society.
Examples: Various systems include democracy, monarchy, authoritarianism, totalitarianism,
federalism, and parliamentary systems.

Nationalism is a political ideology and sentiment that emphasizes the importance of a shared
national identity, pride, and loyalty to a nation or a specific group of people.

2-деңгей
1 What Do You Know About the Meaning of a Notion ‘Politics’ and What About the Structure
of the Politics?
Politics is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms
of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch
of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.

2 What Do You Know About the Appearance and Development of Political Ideas in History?
History of political ideas is about ideas, theories and traditions in the western history of political
ideas from antiquity to the present. In addition to the ideas, focus is also on the social and
historical context in which these ideas were developed.

3 What Do You Know About the Political Ideas of Plato and Aristotle?
Justice was one of the central notions in Plato’s political philosophy. In “The Republic”, the
philosopher defined it as the ability “to do one’s own business and not to be a busybody”. This
definition applied both to the city and the individuals. Plato defined three different social classes,
in accordance with the three components of the soul. Each class should receive different
education and its members would be occupied with specific tasks suited for them. The higher
class was that of the “guardians”, who were philosophers and must rule the city. The second
class comprised the “auxiliaries”, who were the soldiers who defended it. The lowest class
consisted of the “producers”, people working on manual labour. As the different parts of human
souls, the social classes had predetermined roles in the organization of public life. The
philosophers were meant to govern, the soldiers had to protect the city from its enemies, and the
producers provided food and shelter. In Plato’s ideal society, then, there was no social mobility
between different classes
A central pillar in Aristotle’s philosophy was that everything in nature served a specific purpose
(télos). Moreover, he believed that human beings were naturally set to live in groups, as nobody
could survive while being completely autonomous. The most primitive group form was the
family, and society was its evolution. Therefore, living in societies was deemed necessary, as it
served certain specific goals: the “living” (zín), and the “well-living” (éu zín). The condition of
well-living in society could only be granted through justice. The laws, in fact, must oblige
citizens to act properly and make them accustomed to the right way of behaving until they
became virtuous. In contrast with Plato, Aristotle believed that there was no single ideal political
system, and that different systems could be desirable or not according to their purpose.

4 What Do You Know About the Political Ideas of Machiavelli and What Means the Term
‘Machiavellianism’ in Modern Politics?
Machiavelli’s best-known book, The Prince, contains several maxims concerning politics.
Instead of the more traditional target audience of a hereditary prince, it concentrates on the
possibility of a “new prince. As a political theorist, Machiavelli emphasized the occasional need
for the methodical exercise of brute force or deceit, including extermination of entire noble
families to head off any chance of a challenge to the prince’s authority. He asserted that violence
may be necessary for the successful stabilization of power and introduction of new legal
institutions. Further, he believed that force may be used to eliminate political rivals, to coerce
resistant populations, and to purge the community of other men of strong enough character to
rule, who will inevitably attempt to replace the ruler.
“Machiavellianism” is a widely used negative term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of
the sort Machiavelli described most famously in The Prince.

5 How Did Political Science Develop Since Its Appearance and What Can You Say on the
Nowadays Level of Its Development in Different Regions of the World?
Historical Development:
Political science originated in ancient times, with contributions from philosophers like Plato and
Aristotle. It evolved through the medieval, Renaissance, and Enlightenment periods. In the 19th
and 20th centuries, it became a distinct academic discipline, focusing on empirical research and
systematic analysis.
Contemporary Status:
United States:
Significant center for political science research.
Europe:
Rich tradition, with a focus on EU governance.
Latin America:
Growing emphasis on democratization and social movements.
Asia:
Increasing growth, especially in China.
Africa:
Addresses governance, conflict, and development.
Current Trends:
Interdisciplinarity:
Integration with sociology, economics, and psychology.
Globalization:
Emphasis on global politics and international relations.
Technology and Data:
Data-driven analysis and computational methods.
Diversity:
Inclusive with diverse voices and perspectives.
Challenges:
Addresses representation, power dynamics, and evolving political systems.
In summary, political science is a diverse and dynamic field adapting to contemporary
challenges, shaped by regional contexts and global dynamic

6 What Do You Know on the Meaning of the Main Political Institutions

Political institutions are essential components of a political system, providing the framework and
structure for governance. Here are brief explanations of some main political institutions:

Executive Branch: Definition: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and
enforcing laws. It is headed by the head of state or government, who may be a president,
monarch, or prime minister. The executive branch also includes various government ministries
and agencies.

Legislative Branch: Definition: The legislative branch, often called the legislature or parliament,
is responsible for making laws. It typically consists of elected representatives who debate and
vote on proposed legislation. The structure may include one or two chambers, such as a lower
house (e.g., House of Representatives) and an upper house (e.g., Senate).

Judicial Branch: Definition:The judicial branch interprets laws and ensures their
constitutionality. It includes courts, judges, and legal institutions. The judiciary has the power of
judicial review, allowing it to determine the constitutionality of laws and government actions.

Head of State: Definition: The head of state is the ceremonial leader of a country, representing its
unity and continuity. This position may be held by a monarch, president, or other symbolic
figurehead. In some systems, the head of state and head of government are separate roles.

Head of Government: Definition: The head of government is responsible for running the day-to-
day affairs of the state and implementing laws. This role is often held by a prime minister,
chancellor, or president, depending on the political system.

Political Parties: Definition: Political parties are organized groups that seek to influence
government policies by electing their members to public office. They play a crucial role in
democratic systems, providing a way for citizens to participate in the political process and
formulating policy platforms.

Bureaucracy: Definition: The bureaucracy consists of non-elected government officials and

administrators responsible for implementing and managing public policies. Bureaucrats work in
various government agencies and departments, helping execute laws and programs.

Electoral Systems: Definition: Electoral systems are the rules and mechanisms governing how
representatives are elected to public office. Different systems include first-past-the-post,
proportional representation, and mixed electoral systems.

Constitution: Definition: The constitution is a fundamental legal document that outlines the
structure of government, the distribution of powers, and the rights of citizens. It serves as the
supreme law of the land and often includes provisions for amendments.
Local Government:
Definition: Local government refers to governing bodies at the regional or municipal level.
These institutions are responsible for managing local affairs, services, and infrastructure within a
defined geographic area.
These political institutions collectively shape the functioning of a political system, providing a
balance of power, checks and balances, and mechanisms for representation and governance. The
specific nature and roles of these institutions can vary widely based on the type of political
system in place (e.g., democracy, monarchy, republic).

7 What Can You Write About State as a Main Political Institution? Explain, Please, the
Principle of Dividing of Power to Three Branches.
The state is a central political institution that represents the organized political community within
a defined territory. It is characterized by the presence of governing authorities, institutions, and a
legal framework that establishes and maintains order. One of the key principles in the
organization of the state is the separation of powers into three branches: the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches. This principle is often associated with the concept of checks
and balances.

Executive Branch:

Role: The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing laws. It is headed by
the head of state (such as a president or monarch) and the head of government (such as a prime
minister). The executive branch includes government ministries, agencies, and departments that
carry out various functions, from enforcing laws to managing public services.
Legislative Branch:

Role: The legislative branch is responsible for making laws. It typically consists of elected
representatives who debate, propose, and vote on legislation. The legislature may have one or
two chambers, such as a lower house and an upper house. The legislative branch plays a crucial
role in representing the interests of the people and shaping the legal framework of the state.
Judicial Branch:

Role: The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring their constitutionality.
It includes courts and judges who hear legal cases, adjudicate disputes, and apply the law to
specific situations. The judiciary has the power of judicial review, allowing it to review and
potentially invalidate laws or government actions that are deemed unconstitutional.
Principle of Dividing Power:

Purpose: The principle of dividing power into three branches is rooted in the philosophy of
checks and balances, which aims to prevent the concentration of power in any one branch and
protect against potential abuses. This separation is designed to ensure that no single branch
becomes too powerful, thereby safeguarding individual rights and liberties.

Checks and Balances:

Executive vs. Legislative: The executive branch can veto legislation proposed by the legislative
branch, but the legislative branch can override a veto with a sufficient majority.
Legislative vs. Judicial: The legislative branch can impeach judges or amend the constitution,
while the judicial branch can review and invalidate laws passed by the legislature.
Judicial vs. Executive: The judicial branch can rule on the constitutionality of executive actions,
and the executive branch appoints judges.
Benefits:
Preventing Tyranny: Dividing power prevents the concentration of authority, reducing the risk of
tyranny and abuse of power.
Ensuring Accountability: Each branch serves as a check on the others, promoting accountability
and transparency in government actions.
Protecting Rights: The separation of powers is seen as a means to protect individual rights and
freedoms by dispersing authority across different branches.
The principle of dividing power into three branches is a fundamental aspect of constitutional
democracies and republics, serving as a cornerstone in the design of political systems to promote
stability, fairness, and the protection of citizens' rights.

8 What Do You Know on the Basic Forms of a State and Basic Forms of Government.
States and governments can take various forms based on their structures, authority distribution,
and the relationship between the rulers and the ruled. Here are the basic forms of a state and
government:

Basic Forms of a State:

Unitary State:

Definition: In a unitary state, sovereignty is concentrated at the national level, and regional or
local governments derive their powers from the central government. The central authority may
create or abolish administrative divisions as needed.
Federal State:

Definition: A federal state divides powers between a central (national) government and
subnational entities (such as states or provinces). Each level of government has its own set of
powers, and there is often a constitution that outlines their respective jurisdictions.
Confederation:

Definition: A confederation is a loose association of sovereign states that delegate some powers
to a central authority for common purposes. The central authority's powers are limited, and
member states retain significant autonomy.
Basic Forms of Government:
Monarchy:

Definition: In a monarchy, a single person, the monarch, holds supreme authority. Monarchies
can be absolute, where the monarch has unrestricted power, or constitutional, where the
monarch's powers are limited by a constitution.
Republic:

Definition: A republic is a form of government in which the head of state is usually elected, and
political power is derived from the people. Republics can take various forms, such as
parliamentary republics or presidential republics.
Democracy:

Definition: Democracy is a system of government where political power is vested in the hands of
the people. Citizens typically participate in decision-making through voting and elected
representatives. Democracies can be direct (citizens vote on laws directly) or representative
(citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf).
Authoritarianism:
Definition: Authoritarian governments are characterized by strong central power, limited
political freedoms, and a lack of meaningful political competition. Authority is often
concentrated in a single leader or a small group, and dissent is typically suppressed.
Totalitarianism:

Definition: Totalitarianism is an extreme form of authoritarianism where the government seeks

to control every aspect of public and private life. It involves extensive state control, censorship,
and often a single ruling party.
Oligarchy:

Definition: Oligarchy is a form of government where power is concentrated in the hands of a

small, privileged group, whether based on wealth, family ties, or other criteria. The interests of
the few dominate over those of the broader population.
Theocracy:

Definition: In a theocracy, religious leaders or religious institutions hold political power.

Government decisions are often based on religious principles, and the legal system is influenced
by religious doctrine.
These forms of government and state are not mutually exclusive, and variations and
combinations exist in practice. For example, a federal state can have a democratic or
authoritarian form of government. Additionally, political systems may evolve, and the
classification of a state or government can change over time.

9 What Do You Know on the Differences between Systems of Government.

Various systems of government exist, each characterized by its structure, decision-making
processes, and distribution of power. Here are some key differences between different systems of
government:

Democracy vs. Authoritarianism:

Democracy: In a democracy, political power is derived from the people. Citizens have the right
to participate in decision-making, often through voting, and elected representatives govern on
their behalf. Democracies aim to protect individual rights and promote political pluralism.
Authoritarianism: Authoritarian governments are characterized by strong central control, limited
political freedoms, and minimal political competition. Authority is concentrated in the hands of a
single leader or a small group, and dissent is often suppressed.
Republic vs. Monarchy:

Republic: In a republic, the head of state is usually elected, and political power is derived from
the people. Republics can take various forms, including parliamentary republics and presidential
republics.
Monarchy: Monarchies involve a single person, the monarch, who holds supreme authority.
Monarchies can be absolute, where the monarch has unrestricted power, or constitutional, where
the monarch's powers are limited by a constitution.
Totalitarianism vs. Pluralism:

Totalitarianism: Totalitarian systems seek to control every aspect of public and private life. They
often involve extensive state control, censorship, and a single ruling party.
Pluralism: Pluralistic systems embrace diversity and political competition. Multiple political
parties or interest groups coexist, and decisions are reached through negotiation and
compromise.
Federalism vs. Unitarism:
Federalism: Federal systems divide powers between a central (national) government and
subnational entities (states or provinces). Each level of government has its own set of powers,
and there is often a constitution outlining their jurisdictions.
Unitarism: Unitary states concentrate sovereignty at the national level, and regional or local
governments derive their powers from the central government. The central authority can create
or abolish administrative divisions as needed.
Parliamentary vs. Presidential System:

Parliamentary System: In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is drawn from the
legislative branch. The head of government (prime minister) is typically the leader of the
majority party in the legislature.
Presidential System: In a presidential system, the executive and legislative branches are separate.
The head of state (president) is elected independently of the legislature and serves a fixed term.
Theocracy vs. Secular State:

Theocracy: In a theocracy, religious leaders or religious institutions hold political power.

Government decisions are often based on religious principles, and the legal system is influenced
by religious doctrine.
Secular State: A secular state separates religion from government affairs. Laws are not based on
religious doctrine, and citizens are free to practice any religion or none.
Oligarchy vs. Democracy:

Oligarchy: Oligarchies are characterized by power concentrated in the hands of a small,

privileged group, often based on wealth, family ties, or other criteria.
Democracy: Democracies aim to distribute political power broadly among the population,
allowing citizens to participate in decision-making through voting and representation.
These distinctions highlight the diversity of political systems, and real-world governments often
exhibit a mix of features from different systems. Additionally, political systems can evolve over
time in response to societal changes and political developments.

10 What Do You Know About Meaning of the Notion ‘Political Party’. What Basic Kinds of
Political Parties and Party Systems in Modern Democracies You Know?
Basic Kinds of Political Parties:
1. Major Parties: These are the dominant political parties in a particular country, typically
enjoying widespread support. They often compete for the majority of seats in legislative bodies
and have a realistic chance of forming a government.
2. Minor or Third Parties: These are political parties with less influence and a smaller voter
base compared to major parties. While they may not win elections outright, third parties can
influence the political agenda by drawing attention to specific issues.
3. Ideological Parties: These parties are based on a particular set of political beliefs or
ideologies. Examples include socialist parties, conservative parties, and liberal parties, each
advocating for a distinct vision of governance.
4. Single-Issue Parties: These parties focus on a specific policy or concern, often
representing a narrow interest or cause. Green parties, for example, may prioritize environmental
issues as their primary focus.
5. Big-Tent Parties: These are parties that aim to appeal to a broad spectrum of voters and
often have a more diverse range of policy positions. Big-tent parties seek to build large coalitions
to secure electoral victories.

Party Systems in Modern Democracies:

1. Two-Party System: In a two-party system, two major political parties dominate the
political landscape, and smaller parties have limited influence. The United States is often cited as
an example of a two-party system, with the Democratic and Republican parties being the main
contenders.
2. Multi-Party System: In a multi-party system, several political parties compete for power,
and no single party typically wins an outright majority. Coalitions and alliances are common,
and governments may be formed through negotiations between multiple parties. Many European
countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands, have multi-party systems.
3. Dominant-Party System: In a dominant-party system, one political party has a significant
advantage over others, often enjoying long-term dominance in terms of electoral success. While
other parties may exist, the dominant party consistently holds power. Examples include the
African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa.
4. One-Party System: In a one-party system, only one political party is legally allowed to
exist, and it holds complete control over the government. These systems are often associated
with authoritarian regimes. Examples include the Communist Party of China.

11 May You Explain the Basic Features of Liberal, Conservative and Socialist Parties?
Liberal Party
• Ideology: Liberal parties generally advocate for individual rights, personal freedoms, and
the protection of civil liberties. They often emphasize the importance of a market economy but
support social policies aimed at reducing inequality and promoting social justice.
• Economic Views: Liberals tend to support a mixed-market economy where government
intervention is accepted, particularly in areas such as social welfare and environmental
protection. They often prioritize economic growth and individual entrepreneurship.
• Social Issues: Liberals are often progressive on social issues, supporting policies such as
LGBTQ+ rights, gender equality, and multiculturalism.
• Role of Government: Liberals believe in an active role for government in addressing
social inequalities and promoting equal opportunities.
2. Conservative Party:
• Ideology: Conservative parties emphasize tradition, order, and stability. They often
advocate for the preservation of existing social structures and institutions. Conservatism may
have variations, including fiscal conservatism (emphasizing limited government spending) and
social conservatism (supporting traditional values).
• Economic Views: Conservatives generally support free-market principles and limited
government intervention in the economy. They often prioritize economic stability and individual
responsibility.
• Social Issues: Socially conservative parties may oppose or seek to slow down social
changes, supporting traditional family values and cultural norms.
• Role of Government: Conservatives typically favor a smaller role for government in the
economy and society, with an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-reliance.
3. Socialist Party:
• Ideology: Socialist parties advocate for social ownership or control of the means of
production, distribution, and exchange. They aim to address economic inequalities and promote
social justice through collective ownership and democratic decision-making.
• Economic Views: Socialists often support a mixed economy with a significant role for
public ownership or control of key industries. They prioritize reducing income inequality and
may advocate for social welfare programs.
• Social Issues: Socialists may align with progressive social views, supporting issues such
as workers' rights, environmental protection, and social equality.
• Role of Government: Socialists believe in an active role for government in regulating the
economy and redistributing wealth to reduce social disparities.
12 What Do You Know About Basic Principles of Election in Democracy. What Differences
Are There Between Basic Electoral Systems?
Basic Principles of Election in Democracy:
1. Universal Suffrage: All eligible citizens have the right to vote.
2. Free and Fair Elections: Conducted without coercion or manipulation.
3. Secret Ballot: Votes are cast in secret.
4. Regular and Periodic Elections: Held at regular intervals.
5. Political Pluralism: Multiple parties and candidates participate.
6. Representation: Elected officials represent constituents.
7. Majority Rule with Minority Rights: Majority decisions respect minority rights.
Differences Between Basic Electoral Systems:
1. First-Past-the-Post (FPTP): Winner-takes-all in each constituency.
2. Proportional Representation (PR): Seats allocated based on overall vote percentage.
3. Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP): Combines FPTP and PR elements.
4. Single Transferable Vote (STV): Voters rank candidates by preference.

13 What You Know About Political Culture and Ideology. What Differences Are There
Between Basic Modern Political Ideologies?
Political Culture:
• Shared values and beliefs shaping political behavior.
Ideology:
• Comprehensive set of beliefs guiding political worldview.
Differences Between Basic Modern Political Ideologies:
1. Liberalism:
• Emphasizes individual freedoms and limited government.
2. Conservatism:
• Values tradition, order, and smaller government role.
3. Socialism:
• Advocates for social ownership, welfare, and intervention.
4. Communism:
• Envisions classless, stateless society with collective ownership.
5. Fascism:
• Emphasizes authoritarianism, nationalism, and centralized control.
6. Green Politics:
• Focuses on ecological sustainability, social justice, and grassroots democracy.

14 What You Know About Political Systems of Democracy and Dictatorship? What Can
Say You On Main Principles of Democracy and the Kinds of Modern Dictatorships?
Democracy:
• Principles: Power with people, political equality, protection of rights.
• Types: Representative, direct democracy.
Dictatorship:
• Definition: Power in hands of few, limited political freedoms.
• Types: Authoritarian, totalitarian dictatorship

15 What Do You Know About the Role of Basic International Organizations in the World
Politics?
International organizations, like the UN, World Bank, IMF, WTO, NATO, EU, AU, and OAS,
play key roles in global governance. They address issues such as peacekeeping, development,
trade, security, and regional cooperation, contributing to stability, economic progress, and
collaboration on a worldwide scale.
1. United Nations (UN):
• Role: The UN is a global organization that aims to maintain international peace and
security, promote cooperation in solving international problems, and serve as a platform for
dialogue among nations.
• Functions: Peacekeeping, conflict resolution, humanitarian aid, development assistance,
and coordination of international efforts.
2. World Bank:
• Role: The World Bank is a financial institution that provides financial and technical
assistance to developing countries for development projects, infrastructure, and poverty
reduction.
• Functions: Funding development projects, policy advice, and capacity-building in areas
such as education, health, and infrastructure.
3. International Monetary Fund (IMF):
• Role: The IMF aims to ensure the stability of the international monetary system and
facilitate international economic cooperation.
• Functions: Providing financial assistance to member countries facing balance of
payments problems, conducting economic surveillance, and offering policy advice.

3-деңгей
1 Describe, Please, the Political System of the United States in short answers.
 Type of Government: Federal Republic
 Head of State: President
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Congress (Senate and House of Representatives)
 Executive Branch: President, Vice President, and Cabinet
 Judicial Branch: Supreme Court and federal judiciary
 Election System: Presidential elections every four years, congressional elections every two
years
 Political Parties: Dominated by two major parties - Democrats and Republicans
 Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the three branches to prevent the abuse of
power
 Constitution: Governing document that outlines the structure and powers of the federal
government
 Federalism: Division of powers between the federal government and individual states

2 Describe, Please, the Political System of Canada in short answers.

 Type of Government: Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy.
 Head of State: Monarch (as of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Queen Elizabeth
II), represented by the Governor General at the federal level and Lieutenant Governors at the
provincial level.
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament (House of Commons and Senate).
 Executive Branch: Prime Minister and Cabinet.
 Judicial Branch: Supreme Court of Canada and federal/provincial courts.
 Election System: First-past-the-post for federal elections; varies at the provincial level.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with the major ones being the Liberal Party, Conservative
Party, New Democratic Party (NDP), and Bloc Québécois.
 Checks and Balances: Similar to the British parliamentary system with checks and balances
between the executive and legislative branches.
 Constitution: Includes the Constitution Act, 1867, and the Constitution Act, 1982, which
includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
 Federalism: Division of powers between the federal government and provinces/territories.

3 Describe, Please, the Political System of the Germany in short answers.

 Type of Government: Federal Republic.
 Head of State: President.
 Head of Government: Chancellor.
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament (Bundestag - Federal Diet and Bundesrat - Federal
Council).
 Executive Branch: President and Chancellor.
 Judicial Branch: Federal Constitutional Court and federal courts.
 Election System: Mixed-member proportional representation for federal elections.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including Christian Democratic Union
(CDU), Social Democratic Party (SPD), and Free Democratic Party (FDP).
 Checks and Balances: Division of powers between the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
 Constitution: Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz).
 Federalism: Division of powers between the federal government and states (Länder).

4 Describe, Please, the Political System of Britain in short answers.

 Type of Government: Constitutional Monarchy and Parliamentary Democracy.
 Head of State: Monarch (as of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Queen Elizabeth
II).
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament (House of Commons and House of Lords).
 Executive Branch: Prime Minister and Cabinet.
 Judicial Branch: Supreme Court and lower courts.
 Election System: First-past-the-post for general elections; members of the House of Lords
are not elected.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including the Conservative Party, Labour
Party, Liberal Democrats, and others.
 Checks and Balances: The separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and
judicial branches.
 Constitution: The UK does not have a single, written constitution; it relies on statutes,
common law, and conventions.
 Devolution: Powers are devolved to the Scottish Parliament, Senedd (Welsh Parliament), and
the Northern Ireland Assembly.

5 Describe, Please, the Political System of Spain in short answers.
 Type of Government: Spain is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy.
 Head of State: The head of state is the monarch, currently King Felipe VI (as of my
knowledge cutoff in January 2022).
 Head of Government: The head of government is the Prime Minister, who is the leader of the
majority party in the Parliament. As of my last knowledge update, Pedro Sánchez is the
Prime Minister.
 Legislature: Spain has a bicameral legislature, consisting of the Congress of Deputies (lower
house) and the Senate (upper house).
 Political Parties: Major political parties include the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE),
the People's Party (PP), and other regional and smaller parties.
 Constitution: Spain's current constitution was adopted in 1978, following the end of
Francisco Franco's regime. It establishes the country as a constitutional monarchy and
outlines the structure of government.
 Autonomous Communities: Spain is divided into autonomous communities with varying
degrees of self-governance. Some regions, like Catalonia and the Basque Country, have
extensive devolved powers.
 Elections: General elections are held every four years. Regional and local elections also play
a significant role in Spain's political landscape.
 Legal System: Spain follows a civil law legal system, with influences from Roman and
Napoleonic legal traditions.
 European Union:Spain is a member of the European Union (EU) and participates in EU
institutions and decision-making processes.
 Note: For the most up-to-date information, especially regarding specific officeholders and
recent political developments, it's advisable to check the latest sources as my information is
accurate up to January 2022

6 Describe, Please, the Political System of Australia in short answers.

 Type of Government: Federal Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy.
 Head of State: Monarch (as of my last knowledge update in January 2022, Queen Elizabeth
II), represented by the Governor-General.
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament with the House of Representatives and the Senate.
 Executive Branch: Prime Minister and Cabinet.
 Judicial Branch: Independent judiciary, with the High Court as the highest court.
 Election System: Preferential voting system for the House of Representatives, proportional
representation for the Senate.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including the Liberal Party, Australian
Labor Party, and the Nationals.
 Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
 Constitution: The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900.
 Federalism: Division of powers between the federal government and states/territories.
 Monetary System: Australia uses the Australian Dollar (AUD) as its currency.

7 Describe, Please, the Political System of Sweden in short answers.

 Type of Government: Parliamentary Democracy and Constitutional Monarchy.
 Head of State: Monarch (as of my last knowledge update in January 2022, King Carl XVI
Gustaf).
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Unicameral Parliament known as the Riksdag.
 Executive Branch: Prime Minister and Cabinet.
 Judicial Branch: Independent judiciary, with the Supreme Court as the highest court.
 Election System: Proportional representation in multi-member constituencies for
parliamentary elections.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including the Swedish Social Democratic
Party, Moderate Party, and the Sweden Democrats.
 Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
 Constitution: Sweden does not have a single, written constitution; instead, it relies on a
collection of fundamental laws.
 Local Government: Sweden is divided into municipalities and counties with a degree of local
autonomy.

8 Describe, Please, the Political System of Finland in short answers.

 Type of Government: Parliamentary Republic.
 Head of State: President.
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Unicameral Parliament known as the Eduskunta.
 Executive Branch: President and Cabinet.
 Judicial Branch: Independent judiciary, with the Supreme Court as the highest court.
 Election System: Proportional representation for parliamentary elections.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including the Social Democratic Party,
National Coalition Party, and the Centre Party.
 Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
 Constitution: The Constitution Act of Finland.
 Local Government: Finland is divided into municipalities and regions with a significant
degree of local autonomy.

9 Describe, Please, the Political System of Poland in short answers.

 Type of Government: Republic.
 Head of State: President.
 Head of Government: Prime Minister.
 Legislative Branch: Bicameral Parliament known as the National Assembly, consisting of the
Sejm (lower house) and the Senate (upper house).
 Executive Branch: President and Council of Ministers (Cabinet).
 Judicial Branch: Independent judiciary, with the Supreme Court as the highest court.
 Election System: Mixed-member proportional representation for parliamentary elections.
 Political Parties: Multiple parties, with major ones including Law and Justice (PiS) and Civic
Coalition (KO).
 Checks and Balances: Separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial
branches.
 Constitution: The Constitution of the Republic of Poland.
 Local Government: Poland is divided into voivodeships, counties, and municipalities, each
with its own level of self-government.
10 Describe, Please, the Political System of Lithuania in short answers.
 Type of Government: Lithuania is a parliamentary democracy.
 Head of State: The President of Lithuania serves as the head of state. As of my last
knowledge update in January 2022, the President is elected for a five-year term through
direct popular vote.
 Head of Government: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is appointed by the
President. The Prime Minister leads the Cabinet, which is composed of ministers responsible
for various government departments.
 Legislature: Lithuania has a unicameral parliament known as the Seimas. Members of the
Seimas are elected by proportional representation for a four-year term.
 Political Parties: Lithuania has a multi-party system. Major political parties include the
Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union (LVŽS), the Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian
Democrats (TS-LKD), and the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party (LSDP), among others.
 Constitution: The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania, adopted in 1992, serves as the
fundamental law of the country.
 Judiciary: The judiciary in Lithuania is independent. The Constitutional Court of the
Republic of Lithuania is responsible for constitutional review, ensuring the compatibility of
laws with the constitution.
 European Union Membership: Lithuania is a member of the European Union (EU) and
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).

11 Describe, Please, the Political System of Georgia in short answers.

 Type of Government: Georgia is a republic with a mixed presidential-parliamentary system.
 Head of State: The President of Georgia serves as the head of state. The President is elected
through direct popular vote for a term of up to two consecutive terms.
 Head of Government: The Prime Minister is the head of government and is appointed by the
President. The Prime Minister leads the Cabinet.
 Legislature: Georgia has a unicameral parliament known as the Parliament of Georgia
(Sakartvelos Parlamenti). Members are elected through a mixed-member proportional
representation system.
 Political Parties: Georgia has a multi-party system. Major political parties include the
Georgian Dream party and the United National Movement, among others.
 Constitution: The Constitution of Georgia serves as the supreme law of the country. It was
adopted in 1995 and has been amended since.
 Judiciary: The judiciary in Georgia is independent. The highest court is the Supreme Court of
Georgia.
 Local Government: Georgia is divided into administrative units, including regions and
municipalities, each with its local government structure.
 European Union Association: Georgia has expressed aspirations to deepen its ties with the
European Union and has an association agreement with the EU.

12 Describe, Please, the Political System of Turkey in short answers.

 Type of Government: Turkey is a presidential republic.
 Head of State: The President of Turkey serves as both the head of state and the head of
government. The president is elected by popular vote for a term of five years, renewable for
one additional term.
 Legislature: The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) is the
unicameral legislature. Members are elected for a term of five years.
 Political Parties: Turkey has a multi-party system. Major political parties include the Justice
and Development Party (AKP), the Republican People's Party (CHP), and the Nationalist
Movement Party (MHP), among others.
 Constitution: The Constitution of the Republic of Turkey serves as the supreme law of the
country. It was adopted in 1982 and has been amended multiple times.
 Judiciary: Turkey has an independent judiciary. The Constitutional Court is the highest court
for constitutional issues.
 Local Government: Turkey is divided into provinces, each with elected governors, and
further subdivided into districts with local municipalities.
 Elections: Elections are held regularly for the presidency, the Grand National Assembly, and
local offices.
 Military: The Turkish Armed Forces play a significant historical role but are under civilian
control.
 European Union: Turkey has been a candidate for European Union membership, although the
accession process has faced challenges.
13 Describe, Please, the Political System of Russia in short answers.
 Type of Government: Russia is a federal semi-presidential republic.
 Head of State: The President of Russia serves as the head of state. The president is elected
through popular vote for a term of six years, with the possibility of re-election for one
additional term.
 Head of Government: The Prime Minister of Russia is the head of government and is
appointed by the President.
 Legislature: The Federal Assembly of Russia is the bicameral legislature, consisting of the
State Duma (lower house) and the Federation Council (upper house).
 Political Parties: Russia has a multi-party system, with the United Russia party being the
dominant political force. Other parties include the Communist Party, Liberal Democratic
Party, and A Just Russia party.
 Constitution: The Constitution of the Russian Federation serves as the supreme law of the
country. It was adopted in 1993.
 Judiciary: Russia has a judiciary with a Constitutional Court as the highest authority for
constitutional issues.
 Local Government: Russia is divided into federal subjects, each with its own administrative
structure and local government.
 Elections: Elections are held for the presidency, the State Duma, regional governors, and
local authorities.
 Military: The Russian Armed Forces play a significant role in national defense and security.

14 Describe, Please, the Political System of China in short answers.

 Type of Government: China is a one-party socialist republic.
 Ruling Party: The Communist Party of China (CPC) is the sole governing party.
 Head of State: The President of China is the ceremonial head of state. As of my last update,
Xi Jinping held this position.
 Head of Government: The Premier of the State Council is the head of government. As of my
last update, Li Keqiang held this position.
 Legislature: The National People's Congress (NPC) is the highest organ of state power and is
unicameral.
 Political Parties: While multiple parties exist, the CPC is the dominant and ruling party.
 Constitution: The Constitution of the People's Republic of China serves as the fundamental
law.
 Military: The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is under the leadership of the CPC.
 Elections: Elections occur at various levels, but the CPC maintains its central role in
decision-making.

15 Describe, Please, the Political System of Qazaqstan in short answers.

 Type of Government: Kazakhstan is a presidential republic.
 Head of State: The President of Kazakhstan serves as both the head of state and the head of
government.
 Legislature: The Parliament of Kazakhstan is bicameral, consisting of the Majilis (lower
house) and the Senate (upper house).
 Political Parties: Kazakhstan has a multi-party system, but Nur Otan has been the dominant
party.
 Constitution: The Constitution of Kazakhstan serves as the supreme law.
 Judiciary: The judiciary includes the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council.
 Local Government: Kazakhstan is divided into regions, cities, districts, and villages, each
with local government structures.
 Elections: Elections are held for the presidency, parliament, and local offices.