Chapter 9

Chapter Summary
 Relations and Their Properties
 n-ary Relations and Their Applications (not currently
included in overheads)
 Representing Relations
 Closures of Relations (not currently included in
overheads)
 Equivalence Relations
 Partial Orderings
Section 9.1
Section Summary
 Relations and Functions
 Properties of Relations
 Reflexive Relations
 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations
 Transitive Relations
 Combining Relations
Binary Relations
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A to a set B
is a subset R ⊆ A × B.
Example:
 Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {a,b}
 {(0, a), (0, b), (1,a) , (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
 We can represent relations from a set A to a set B
graphically or using a table:
Relations are more general than
functions. A function is a relation
where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A.
Binary Relation on a Set
Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a subset
of A × A or a relation from A to A.
Example:
 Suppose that A = {a,b,c}. Then R = {(a,a),(a,b), (a,c)} is
a relation on A.
 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the relation
R = {(a,b) | a divides b} are
(1,1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
Binary Relation on a Set (cont.)
Question: How many relations are there on a set A?

Solution: Because a relation on A is the same thing as a

subset of A ⨉ A, we count the subsets of A × A. Since
A × A has n2 elements when A has n elements, and a set
m | A|2
with m elements has 2 subsets, there are 2 subsets of
| A|2
A × A. Therefore, there are 2 relations on a set A.
Binary Relations on a Set (cont.)
Example: Consider these relations on the set of integers:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1},
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}, R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
Note that these relations are on an infinite set and each of these relations is an
infinite set.

Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?

Solution: Checking the conditions that define each relation, we see

that the pair (1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 , and R6: (1,2) is in R1 and R6: (2,1) is in
R2, R5, and R6: (1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6 : (2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4.
Reflexive Relations
Definition: R is reflexive iff (a,a) ∊ R for every element
a ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is reflexive if and only if
∀x[x∊U ⟶ (x,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are
reflexive: If A = ∅ then the empty relation is
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, reflexive vacuously. That is the empty
relation on an empty set is reflexive!
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following relations are not reflexive:
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 3 ≠3 + 1),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).
Symmetric Relations
Definition: R is symmetric iff (b,a) ∊ R whenever (a,b) ∊ R
for all a,b ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is symmetric if and
only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ⟶ (y,x) ∊ R]
Example: The following relations on the integers are
symmetric:
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
The following are not symmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠4 + 1).
Antisymmetric Relations
Definition:A relation R on a set A such that for all a,b ∊ A if
(a,b) ∊ R and (b,a) ∊ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric.
Written symbolically, R is antisymmetric if and only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,x) ∊ R ⟶ x = y]
 Example: The following relations on the integers are
antisymmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For any integer, if a a ≤ b and
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, b ≤ a , then a = b.
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1}.
The following relations are not antisymmetric:
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}
(note that both (1,−1) and (−1,1) belong to R3),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (1,2) and (2,1) belong to R6).
Transitive Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if
whenever (a,b) ∊ R and (b,c) ∊ R, then (a,c) ∊ R, for all a,b,c ∊ A.
Written symbolically, R is transitive if and only if
∀x∀y ∀z[(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,z) ∊ R ⟶ (x,z) ∊ R ]
 Example: The following relations on the integers are transitive:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For every integer, a ≤ b
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following are not transitive:
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that both (3,2) and (4,3) belong to R5,
but not (3,3)),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (2,1) and (1,2) belong to R6, but
not (2,2)).
Combining Relations
 Given two relations R1 and R2, we can combine them
using basic set operations to form new relations such
as R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2, R1 − R2, and R2 − R1.
 Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4}. The
relations R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} and
R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} can be combined using
basic set operations to form new relations:
R1 ∪ R2 ={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(3,3)}
R1 ∩ R2 ={(1,1)} R1 − R2 ={(2,2),(3,3)}
R2 − R1 ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
Composition
Definition: Suppose
 R1 is a relation from a set A to a set B.
 R2 is a relation from B to a set C.
Then the composition (or composite) of R2 with R1, is a
relation from A to C where
 if (x,y) is a member of R1 and (y,z) is a member of R2,
then (x,z) is a member of R2∘ R1.
Representing the Composition of a
Relation
R1 m R2 w
a
x
n
b
y
o
c
p z

R1∘ R2 = {(b,D),(b,B)}
Powers of a Relation
Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. Then the
powers Rn of the relation R can be defined inductively by:
 Basis Step: R1 = R
 Inductive Step: Rn+1 = Rn ∘ R
(see the slides for Section 9.3 for further insights)
The powers of a transitive relation are subsets of the
relation. This is established by the following theorem:
Theorem 1: The relation R on a set A is transitive iff
Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3 ….
(see the text for a proof via mathematical induction)
Section 9.5
Section Summary
 Equivalence Relations
 Equivalence Classes
 Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Equivalence Relations
Definition 1: A relation on a set A is called an
equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

Definition 2: Two elements a, and b that are related

by an equivalence relation are called equivalent. The
notation a ∼ b is often used to denote that a and b are
equivalent elements with respect to a particular
equivalence relation.
Strings
Example: Suppose that R is the relation on the set of strings of English
letters such that aRb if and only if l(a) = l(b), where l(x) is the length of the
string x. Is R an equivalence relation?

Solution: Show that all of the properties of an equivalence relation hold.

 Reflexivity: Because l(a) = l(a), it follows that aRa for all strings a.
 Symmetry: Suppose that aRb. Since l(a) = l(b), l(b) = l(a) also holds
and bRa.
 Transitivity: Suppose that aRb and bRc. Since l(a) = l(b),and l(b) = l(c),
l(a) = l(a) also holds and aRc.
Congruence Modulo m
Example: Let m be an integer with m > 1. Show that the relation
R = {(a,b) | a ≡ b (mod m)}
is an equivalence relation on the set of integers.

Solution: Recall that a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m divides a − b.

 Reflexivity: a ≡ a (mod m) since a − a = 0 is divisible by m since
0 = 0 ∙ m.
 Symmetry: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m). Then a − b is divisible by m,
and so a − b = km, where k is an integer. It follows that b − a = (− k) m,
so b ≡ a (mod m).
 Transitivity: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m). Then m
divides both a − b and b − c. Hence, there are integers k and l with
a − b = km and b − c = lm. We obtain by adding the equations:
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = km + lm = (k + l) m.
Therefore, a ≡ c (mod m).
Divides
Example: Show that the “divides” relation on the set of positive
integers is not an equivalence relation.
Solution: The properties of reflexivity, and transitivity do hold,
but there relation is not transitive. Hence, “divides” is not an
equivalence relation.
 Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all a.
 Not Symmetric: For example, 2 ∣ 4, but 4 ∤ 2. Hence, the relation is
not symmetric.
 Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides c. Then there
are positive integers k and l such that b = ak and c = bl. Hence, c =
a(kl), so a divides c. Therefore, the relation is transitive.
Equivalence Classes
Definition 3: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all
elements that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class of
a. The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted by [a]R.
When only one relation is under consideration, we can write [a], without the
subscript R, for this equivalence class.

Note that [a]R = {s|(a,s) ∈ R}.

 If b ∈ [a]R, then b is called a representative of this equivalence class. Any

element of a class can be used as a representative of the class.
 The equivalence classes of the relation congruence modulo m are called the
congruence classes modulo m. The congruence class of an integer a modulo m
is denoted by [a]m, so [a]m = {…, a−2m, a−m, a+2m, a+2m, … }. For example,

[0]4 = {…, −8, −4 , 0, 4 , 8 , …} [1]4 = {…, −7, −3 , 1, 5 , 9 , …}

[2]4 = {…, −6, −2 , 2, 6 , 10 , …} [3]4 = {…, −5, −1 , 3, 7 , 11 , …}

Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Theorem 1: let R be an equivalence relation on a set A.
These statements for elements a and b of A are equivalent:
(i) aRb
(ii) [a] = [b]
(iii) [a] ∩ [b] = ∅
Proof: We show that (i) implies (ii). Assume that aRb. Now
suppose that c ∈ [a]. Then aRc. Because aRb and R is
symmetric, bRa. Because R is transitive and bRa and aRc, it
follows that bRc. Hence, c ∈ [b]. Therefore, [a]⊆ [b]. A similar
argument (omitted here) shows that [b]⊆ [a]. Since [a]⊆ [b]
and [b]⊆ [a], we have shown that [a] = [b].
(see text for proof that (ii) implies (iii) and (iii) implies (i))
Partition of a Set
Definition: A partition of a set S is a collection of
disjoint nonempty subsets of S that have S as their
union. In other words, the collection of subsets Ai,
where i ∈ I (where I is an index set), forms a partition
of S if and only if
 Ai ≠ ∅ for i ∈ I,
 Ai ∩ Aj=∅ when i ≠ j,
 and

A Partition of a Set
An Equivalence Relation Partitions
a Set
 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The union
of all the equivalence classes of R is all of A, since an
element a of A is in its own equivalence class [a]R. In
other words,

 From Theorem 1, it follows that these equivalence

classes are either equal or disjoint, so [a]R ∩[b]R=∅
when [a]R ≠ [b]R.
 Therefore, the equivalence classes form a partition of
A, because they split A into disjoint subsets.
An Equivalence Relation Partitions
a Set (continued)
Theorem 2: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set S. Then the equivalence
classes of R form a partition of S. Conversely, given a partition {Ai | i ∈ I} of the
set S, there is an equivalence relation R that has the sets Ai, i ∈ I, as its
equivalence classes.

Proof: We have already shown the first part of the theorem.

For the second part, assume that {Ai | i ∈ I} is a partition of S. Let R be the
relation on S consisting of the pairs (x, y) where x and y belong to the same
subset Ai in the partition. We must show that R satisfies the properties of an
equivalence relation.
 Reflexivity: For every a ∈ S, (a,a) ∈ R, because a is in the same subset as itself.
 Symmetry: If (a,b) ∈ R, then b and a are in the same subset of the partition, so
(b,a) ∈ R.
 Transitivity: If (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ R, then a and b are in the same subset of
the partition, as are b and c. Since the subsets are disjoint and b belongs to
both, the two subsets of the partition must be identical. Therefore, (a,c) ∈ R
since a and c belong to the same subset of the partition.
Section 9.6
Section Summary
 Partial Orderings and Partially-ordered Sets
 Lexicographic Orderings
 Hasse Diagrams
 Lattices (not currently in overheads)
 Topological Sorting (not currently in overheads)
Partial Orderings
Definition 1: A relation R on a set S is called a partial
ordering, or partial order, if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive. A set together with a
partial ordering R is called a partially ordered set, or
poset, and is denoted by (S, R). Members of S are
called elements of the poset.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 1: Show that the “greater than or equal”
relation (≥) is a partial ordering on the set of integers.
 Reflexivity: a ≥ a for every integer a.
 Antisymmetry: If a ≥ b and b ≥ a , then a = b.
 Transitivity: If a ≥ b and b ≥ c , then a ≥ c.

These properties all follow from the order axioms for the integers.
(See Appendix 1).
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 2: Show that the divisibility relation (∣) is a
partial ordering on the set of integers.
 Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all integers a. (see Example 9 in
Section 9.1)
 Antisymmetry: If a and b are positive integers with a | b
and b | a, then a = b. (see Example 12 in Section 9.1)
 Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides c.
Then there are positive integers k and l such that b = ak
and c = bl. Hence, c = a(kl), so a divides c. Therefore, the
relation is transitive.
 (Z+, ∣) is a poset.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 3: Show that the inclusion relation (⊆) is a
partial ordering on the power set of a set S.
 Reflexivity: A ⊆ A whenever A is a subset of S.
 Antisymmetry: If A and B are positive integers with
A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.
 Transitivity: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

The properties all follow from the

definition of set inclusion.
Comparability
Definition 2: The elements a and b of a poset (S,≼ ) are comparable if
either a ≼ b or b ≼ a. When a and b are elements of S so that neither
a ≼ b nor b ≼ a, then a and b are called incomparable.

The symbol ≼ is used to denote the relation in any

poset.

Definition 3: If (S,≼ ) is a poset and every two elements of S are

comparable, S is called a totally ordered or linearly ordered set, and ≼ is
called a total order or a linear order. A totally ordered set is also called a
chain.
Definition 4: (S,≼ ) is a well-ordered set if it is a poset such that ≼ is a
total ordering and every nonempty subset of S has a least element.
Lexicographic Order
Definition: Given two posets (A1,≼1) and (A2,≼2), the lexicographic
ordering on A1 ⨉ A2 is defined by specifying that (a1, a2) is less than
(b1,b2), that is,
(a1, a2) ≺ (b1,b2),
either if a1 ≺1 b1 or if a1 = b1 and a2 ≺2 b2.
 This definition can be easily extended to a lexicographic ordering on
strings (see text).
Example: Consider strings of lowercase English letters. A
lexicographic ordering can be defined using the ordering of the letters
in the alphabet. This is the same ordering as that used in dictionaries.
 discreet ≺ discrete, because these strings differ in the seventh position
and e ≺ t.
 discreet ≺ discreetness, because the first eight letters agree, but the
second string is longer.
Hasse Diagrams
Definition: A Hasse diagram is a visual representation of a
partial ordering that leaves out edges that must be present
because of the reflexive and transitive properties.

A partial ordering is shown in (a) of the figure above. The

loops due to the reflexive property are deleted in (b). The
edges that must be present due to the transitive property
are deleted in (c). The Hasse diagram for the partial
ordering (a), is depicted in (c).
Procedure for Constructing a
Hasse Diagram
 To represent a finite poset (S,≼ ) using a Hasse
diagram, start with the directed graph of the relation:
 Remove the loops (a, a) present at every vertex due to
the reflexive property.
 Remove all edges (x, y) for which there is an element
z ∈ S such that x ≺ z and z ≺ y. These are the edges that
must be present due to the transitive property.
 Arrange each edge so that its initial vertex is below the
terminal vertex. Remove all the arrows, because all edges
point upwards toward their terminal vertex.