Wireless

Communication

MCA -4th sem

Sub Code-MCA406C
Sub Name-WCMC

1
Course Information

2
Recommended Textbooks

◼ Theodore Rappaport, Wireless

Communications: Principles and Practice,
Second Edition, Prentice Hall, December
2001.

3
 Outline

◼ Introduction
❑ What is wireless and mobile networking
❑ History of Wireless
❑ Challenges of Mobile and Wireless
Communication
❑ What is Personal Communications Systems
❑ Overview of Wireless Technologies and Systems

4
 Outline

◼ Cellular concepts
• Frequency reuse,
• Handoff
• Interference and system capacity,
• Sectoring
• Cell splitting

5
 Outline

◼ Wireless Link Characteristics

❑ Radio Propagation
❑ Short and Long wave properties
❑ Attenuation
❑ Interference
❑ Fading and Multi-path Fading
❑ Transmit power and range
❑ Bit Error Rate and Models

6
 Outline

◼ Modulation Techniques
◼ Multiple Access (TDMA , FDMA and CDMA)
◼ GSM in detail

7
What is Wireless Communication

◼ Transmitting voice and data using

electromagnetic waves in open space
◼ Electromagnetic waves
◼ Travel at speed of light (c = 3x108 m/s)
◼ Has a frequency (f) and wavelength ( )
▪ c=fx
◼ Higher frequency means higher energy photons
◼ The higher the energy photon the more penetrating is
the radiation

8
Why Wireless?
❑ Freedom from wires
No cost of installing the wires, No bunches of wires
running around e.g. Bluetooth , Wi-Fi
❑ Global coverage
where wires communication is not feasible or costly
e.g. rural areas, battle field and outer space.
❑ Stay Connected
Anywhere any time
❑ Flexibility
Connect to multiple devices simultaneously
9
Wireless History
◼ Ancient Systems: Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeons…
◼ Using light and flags for wireless communication
remained important for the navy until radio transmission
was introduced. Even today a sailor has to know some
codes represented by flags if all other means of wireless
communication fail.
◼ James C Maxwell ( 1831- 1879) laying the theoretical
foundation for EM fields with his famous equations
◼ Heinrich Hertz (1857- 1894 ) was the first to demonstrate
the wave character of electrical transmission through
space (1886).(Note Today the unit Hz reminds us of this
discovery).

10
Wireless History cont…
◼ Radio invented in the 1880s by Marconi
◼ The first transatlantic transmission followed in 1901.
◼ WARC – World Administration Radio Conference took
place ,coordinating world wide use of radio frequencies
◼ The 1st radio broadcast took place in 1906 when
Reginald A Fessenden transmitted voice and music for
Christmas.
◼ The invention of electronic vacuum tube in 1906 by Lee
De Forest ( 1873- 1961) &Robert Von Lieben ( 1878 –
1913 )Helped to reduce the size of sender and receiver .
◼ One of the 1st mobile transmitter was on board at
Zeppelin in 1911

11
Wireless History cont…
◼ In 1915 , the first wireless voice transmission was set up
between New York and San Francisco
◼ The 1st commercial radio station started in 1920
–Note Sender & Receiver still needed huge
antennas High transmission power.
◼ In 1926, the first telephone in a train was available on
the Berlin – Hamburg line
◼ 1928 was the year of many field trials for TV
broadcasting. John L Baird ( 1888 – 1946 ) transmitted
TV across Atlantic and demonstrated color TV
◼ Until 1932 , all wireless communication used AM which
offered relatively poor quality due to interference.

12
Wireless History cont…
◼ Invention of FM in 1933 by Edwin H Armstrong [ 1890 -
1954 ] .
◼ Both the modulation schemes are still used for todays radio
broadcasting with FM having much better quality.
◼ 1946, Public Mobile in 25 US cities, high power transmitter
on large tower. Covers distance of 50 Km. Push to talk,
uses 120khz of RF bandwidth.1950 channels doubled and
BW 60k, 1960 4times increase, BW 30khz
◼ After 2nd world war (in 1958) ,a network in Germany was
build namely the analog A- Netz using a carrier frequency
of 160 Mhz.
◼ Connection setup was only possible from the mobile
station and no handover was possible
13
Wireless History cont…
◼ 1982: Groupe Spéciale Mobile was launched to
develop standards for pan-European mobile network
◼ GSM now stands for Global System for Mobile
Communications
◼ 1992 Official commercial launch of GSM in Europe
◼ 1995 GSM specifications ported to PCS 1900
◼ 1997 - Wireless LANs
◼ 1998 - Specification for next generation CDMA starts
Qualcomm starts work on wideband CDMA spec.
◼ 2000 - Bluetooth with 1Mbit/s specification, single cell
Later work on 10Mbit/s spec with multi cell capability
◼ In 2002 Camera phones are first introduced in the U.S.
market.
14
Wireless History cont…
◼ In 2005 mobile phone subscribers exceed fixed phone
subscriber.
◼ iTunes Application Store (July) and Android Market
(October) open in 2008
◼ In 2010 First 4G handset is introduced at International
CTIA WIRELESS show.
◼ In 2010 Apple introduced the iPad, another revolution in
portable “tablet” computing.
◼ In 2010 FCC proposes National Broadband Plan,
recommending 500MHz of spectrum be allocated for
commercial use by 2020.
◼ In 2012 the number of subscriber reaches 1 million.

15
Electromagnetic Spectrum
104 102 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8 10-10 10-12 10-14 10-16

Radio Micro Cosmic

IR UV X-Rays
Spectrum wave Rays

104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024

1MHz ==100m
100MHz ==1m
10GHz ==1cm
Visible light< 30 KHz VLF
30-300KHz LF
300KHz – 3MHz MF
3 MHz – 30MHz HF
30MHz – 300MHz VHF
300 MHz – 3GHz UHF
3-30GHz SHF
> 30 GHz EHF

16
Electromagnetic Spectrum

17
Wavelength of Some Technologies
◼ GSM Phones:
❑ frequency ~= 900 Mhz
❑ wavelength ~= 33cm
◼ PCS Phones
❑ frequency ~= 1.8 Ghz
❑ wavelength ~= 17.5 cm
◼ Bluetooth:
❑ frequency ~= 2.4Gz
❑ wavelength ~= 12.5cm
❑ Federal Communications
Commission(FCC)
❑ PTA

18
Frequency Carries/Channels

❑ The information from sender to receiver is carrier

over a well defined frequency band.
o This is called a channel
❑ Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in
KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate)
❑ Different frequency bands (channels) can be used
to transmit information in parallel and
independently.

19
Wireless Com Sys Examples

◼ Cellular Telephony
◼ Wide Area Wireless Data Systems
◼ High Speed Local and Personal Area
Networks
◼ Paging Messaging Systems
◼ Satellite Based Mobile System

20
Simplex Communication

◼ Normally, on a channel, a station can

transmit only in one way.
◼ This is called simplex transmision
◼ To enable two-way communication (called
full-duplex communication)
◼ We can use Frequency Division Multiplexing
◼ We can use Time Division Multiplexing

21
Duplex Communication - FDD

◼ FDD: Frequency Division Duplex

Mobile Forward Channel Base Station

Terminal B
Reverse Channel
M

Forward Channel and Reverse Channel use different frequency

bands

22
Duplex Communication - TDD

◼ TDD: Time Division Duplex

Mobile Base Station

Terminal M B M B M B
B
M

A singe frequency channel is used. The channel is divided into time

slots. Mobile station and base station transmits on the time slots
alternately.

23
Several PCS systems
❑ AMPS-USDC(NADC)IS-54 and 154
❑ IS-95 CDMA One System
◼ CDMA based multiple access
❑ GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications
◼ The mobile telephony system that we are using
❑ IS-136
◼ USA digital cellular mobile telephony system
◼ TDMA based multiple access
❑ Residential, business and public cordless access
applications and systems

24
Several PCS systems
❑ Wideband wireless systems
❑ For Internet access and multimedia transfer
❑ Cdma2000
❑ W-CDMA, proposed by Europe
❑ SCDMA, proposed by China/Europe
◼ Other PCS Systems
❑ Special data systems
◼ CDPD: Cellular Digital Packet Data
❑ Paging Systems
❑ Mobile Satellite Systems
❑ ISM band systems: Bluetooth, 802.11, etc

25
PCS Problems
◼ How to integrate mobile and wireless users to
the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) (Voice Network)
◼ Cellular mobile telephony system
◼ How to integrate mobile and wireless users to
the Internet (Data Network)
◼ Mobile IP, DHCP.
◼ How to integrate all of them together and also
add multimedia services (3G Systems)

26
Very Basic Cellular/PCS Architecture

Mobility
Public Switched Database
Base Station
Telephone Network Controller

Mobile
Switching
Center
(MSC)

Radio Network

Base Station
(BS) Mobile Station
PCS Systems Classification

◼ Cordless Telephones
◼ Cellular Telephony
◼ Wide Area Wireless Data Systems
◼ High Speed Local and Personal Area
Networks
◼ Paging Messaging Systems
◼ Satellite Based Mobile Systems
◼ 3G Systems
Cordless Telephones

PSTN
Telephone
Network
Cordless Base unit
Phone
Cordless Telephones
◼ Characterized by
❑ Low mobility (in terms of range and speed)
❑ Low power consumption
❑ Two-way voice communication
❑ High circuit quality
❑ Low cost equipment, small form factor and long talk-time
❑ No handoffs between base units
◼ Usage
❑ At homes and at public places where cordless phone
base units are available
◼ Design Choices
❑ Few users per MHz
❑ Few users per base unit
Cordless Phone
◼ Some more features
❑ 32 Kb/s adaptive differential pulse code
modulation (ADPCM) digital speech encoding
❑ Tx power <= 10 mW
❑ Low-complexity radio signal processing
❑ No forward error correction (FEC) or whatsoever.
❑ Low transmission delay < 50ms
❑ Simple Frequency Shift Modulation (FSK)
❑ Time Division Duplex (TDD)
Paging Systems
Example - Frequency Spectrum
Allocation in U.S. Cellular Radio Service
Reverse Channel Forward Channel

991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799 991 992 … 1023 1 2 … 799

824-849 MHz 869-894 MHz

Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)

Reverse Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 825.0
991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 825.0

Forward Channel 1 <=N <= 799 0.030N + 870.0

991 <= N <= 1023 0.030(N-1023) + 870.0

(Channels 800-990 are unused)

Fwd & Rev Channel in each duplex pair is 45 MHz apart
 Major Mobile Radio Standards

Standard Type Year Multiple Frequency Modulation Channel

Intro Access Band BW
(MHz) (KHz)
AMPS Cellular 1983 FDMA 824-894 FM 30

USDC IS- 54 Cellular 1991 TDMA 824-894 DQPSK 30

IS-136 3 users
in 30 and
6
IS-95 Cellular/PC 1993 CDMA 824-894 QPSK/BPSK 1250
S 1800-2000
FLEX Paging 1993 Simplex Several 4-FSK 15

DCS-1900 PCS 1994 TDMA 1850-1990 GMSK 200

(GSM)
PACS Cordless/PC 1994 TDMA/FDMA 1850-1990 DQPSK 300
S

34
 Major Mobile Radio Standards -
Europe
Standard Type Year Multiple Frequency Modulation Channel
Intro Access Band BW
(MHz) (KHz)
ETACS Cellular 1985 FDMA 900 FM 25

NMT- Cellular 1981/ FDMA 450-470 FM 25

450/900 1986 890-960 FM 12.5
GSM Cellular/PCS 1990 TDMA 890-960 GMSK 200KHz

C-450 Cellular 1985 FDMA 450-465 FM 20-10

ERMES Paging 1993 FDMA4 Several 4-FSK 25

CT2 Cordless 1989 FDMA 864-868 GFSK 100

DECT Cordless 1993 TDMA 1880-1900 GFSK 1728

DCS-1800 Cordless/PCS 1993 TDMA 1710-1880 GMSK 200

35
Wireless System Definitions

❑ Mobile Station
❑ A station in the cellular radio service intended for use while
in motion at unspecified locations. They can be either hand-
held personal units (portables e.g. a walkie-talkie or
cordless) or cell phone in fast moving vehicles (mobiles)
❑ Base station
❑ A fixed station in a mobile radio system used for radio
communication with the mobile stations. Base stations are
located at the center or edge of a coverage region. They
consists of radio channels and transmitter and receiver
antennas mounted on top of a tower.

36
 Wireless System Definitions

❑ Mobile Switching Center

❑ Switching center which coordinates the routing of calls in a
large service area. In a cellular radio system, the MSC
connections the cellular base stations and the mobiles to
the PSTN (telephone network). It is also called Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO)
❑ Subscriber
❑ A user who pays subscription charges for using a mobile
communication system
❑ Transceiver
❑ A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and
receiving radio signals

37
Wireless System Definitions

❑ Control Channel
❑ Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call
request, call initiation and other beacon and control
purposes.
❑ Forward Channel
❑ Radio channel used for transmission of information from
the base station to the mobile
❑ Reverse Channel
❑ Radio channel used for transmission of information from
mobile to base station

38
Wireless System Definitions
❑ Simplex Systems
❑ Communication systems which provide only one-way
communication
❑ Pagers
❑ Half Duplex Systems
❑ Communication Systems which allow two-way
communication by using the same radio channel for both
transmission and reception. At any given time, the user can
either transmit or receive information.
❑ Push-to-talk and release-to-listen systems
❑ Full Duplex Systems
❑ Communication systems which allow simultaneous two-way
communication. Transmission and reception is typically on
two different channels (FDD).
39
Wireless System Definitions

❑ Handoff
❑ The process of transferring a mobile station from one
channel or base station to an other.
❑ Roamer
❑ A mobile station which operates in a service area (market)
other than that from which service has been subscribed.
❑ Page
❑ A brief message which is broadcast over the entire service
area, usually in simulcast fashion by many base stations at
the same time.

40
Cellular Telephony
◼ Characterized by
❑ High mobility provision
❑ Wide-range
❑ Two-way voice communication
❑ Handoff and roaming support
❑ Integrated with sophisticated public switched
telephone network (PSTN)
❑ When mobile is turned on and not engaged in a call
monitors the control channel for strongest BS.

41
Cellular Telephony - Architecture

Radio tower

PSTN
Telephone
Network
Mobile Switching
Center

42
Cellular Telephony Systems
◼ Mobile users and handsets
❑ Very complex circuitry and design
◼ Base stations
❑ Provides gateway functionality between wireless
and wire line links
◼ Mobile switching centers
❑ Connect cellular system to the terrestrial
telephone network

43
Call to Mobile Initiated by PSTN

44
Mobile initiated Call

45
World Cellular Subscriber Growth

46
Cellular Networks
◼ First Generation
◼ Analog Systems
◼ Analog Modulation, mostly FM
◼ AMPS
◼ Voice Traffic
◼ FDMA/FDD multiple access
◼ Second Generation (2G)
◼ Digital Systems
◼ Digital Modulation
◼ Voice Traffic
◼ TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD multiple access
◼ 2.5G
◼ Digital Systems
◼ Voice + Low-datarate Data
◼ Third Generation
◼ Digital
◼ Voice + High data rate DATA
◼ Multimedia Transmission also

47
2nd Generation Cellular Networks
◼ 2 G networks include 3 TDMA and 1 CDMA based standards.

◼ GSM:
◼ 8 time slotted users for each 200kHz channel
◼ Deployed in cellular and PCS bands(Europe, Asia, Australia
and South America)
◼ IS-136(USDC/NADC):
◼ Supports 3 time slotted users in each 30 kHz channel
◼ Deployed in cellular and PCS bands(North and South America
and Australia)
◼ PDC: Japanese digital standard similar to IS136
◼ IS-95(cdma One):
◼ Supports 64 orthogonally coded users on 1.25MHz channel

48
2nd Generation Cellular Networks
◼ 2G standards were first to rely on digital modulation on
air interface and sophisticated DSP both in handsets and
BS.
◼ 2G networks were deployed for conventional mobile
telephony.
◼ In 2001 major carriers decided in favor of 3G systems
based on TDMA based GSM platform instead of IS136
and PDC.

49
2G Technologies
cdmaOne (IS-95) GSM, DCS-1900 IS-54/IS-136
PDC
Uplink Frequencies (MHz) 824-849 (Cellular) 890-915 MHz (Eurpe) 800 MHz, 1500 Mhz
1850-1910 (US PCS) 1850-1910 (US PCS) (Japan)
1850-1910 (US PCS)
Downlink Frequencies 869-894 MHz (US Cellular) 935-960 (Europa) 869-894 MHz (Cellular)
1930-1990 MHz (US PCS) 1930-1990 (US PCS) 1930-1990 (US PCS)
800 MHz, 1500 MHz
(Japan)
Deplexing FDD FDD FDD
Multiple Access CDMA TDMA TDMA
Modulation BPSK with Quadrature GMSK with BT=0.3 DQPSK
Spreading
Carrier Seperation 1.25 MHz 200 KHz 30 KHz (IS-136)
(25 KHz PDC)
Channel Data Rate 1.2288 Mchips/sec 270.833 Kbps 48.6 Kbps (IS-136)
42 Kbps (PDC)
Voice Channels per 64 8 3
carrier

50
2G and Data

◼ 2G is developed for voice communications

◼ Data sent using Circuit switching
◼ Provides data rates in the order of ~9.6 Kbps
◼ Increased data rates are required for internet
application
◼ This requires evolution towards new systems:
2.5 G

51
Evolution to 2.5G Mobile Networks
◼ The 2G deployed before the widespread use of
Internet.
◼ limited Internet browsing and short messaging
capability using CS approach.
◼ In effort to provide increased data-rates, new data
centric standards have been developed and overlaid
over existing 2G equipments.
◼ Existing systems were supplemented with hardware
and software upgrade to support high data rates for
web browsing, email, m-commerce and LBS.

52
2.5 Technologies
◼ Evolution of TDMA Systems
❑ HSCSD for 2.5G GSM
❑ Up to 57.6 Kbps data-rate
❑ GPRS for GSM and IS-136
❑ Up to 171.2 Kbps data-rate
❑ EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136
❑ Up to 384 Kbps data-rate

◼ Evolution of CDMA Systems

❑ IS-95B
❑ Up to 64 Kbps

53
Upgrade Paths for 2G Technologies
2G
IS-136
IS-95 GSM
PDC

2.5G
GPRS
IS-95B HSCSD
EDGE

W-CDMA
EDGE

TD-SCDMA

54
 3G
cdma200-1xRTT

cdma2000-1xEV,DV,DO

cdma200-3xRTT

55
2.5 Technologies
◼ HSCSD for 2.5G GSM
◼ Allows a user to use consecutive time slots(TS) in GSM to
obtain high data-rates.
◼ Relaxes error control algorithms and increases data rate to
14.4kbps as compared to 9.6kbps for GSM.
◼ Using 4 consecutive TS, HSCSD provides a raw tx-ion rate of
57.6kbps.
◼ Requires a software upgrade at the GSM BS.
◼ GPRS for GSM and IS-136
◼ General Packet Radio System is Packet based data networks.
◼ Well suited for internet usage.
◼ Supports multi-user network sharing of individual radio
channel and time slot

55
2.5 Technologies
◼ GPRS for GSM and IS-136
◼ Retains the modulation format specified in 2G standard, but
uses completely redefined air interface
◼ With all the time slots dedicated for a GPRS user its able to
achieve data rate of 171.2 kbps(where each slot provides
21.4 kbps raw un-coded date)
◼ Applications are required to provide there own error correction
schemes.
◼ Merely requires new routers and internet gateways at the BS,
and software upgrade to redefine BS air interface.

56
2.5 Technologies
◼ EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136
◼ Enhanced Data rate for GSM evolution.
◼ Requires new hardware and software upgrade at BSs.
◼ Uses 8PSK digital Modulation in addition to GMSK used for GSM
◼ 9 different autonomously selectable air interface format, Multiple
Modulation and Coding Schemes(MCS), with varying degree off
error control protections.
◼ Each MCS state may use GMSK or 8 PSK for network access,
depending on instantaneous demand of network and operating
conditions.
◼ User connection may adaptively determine best MCS
settings for particular radio propagation conditions,
selecting best air interface is called incremental redundancy.
❑ Radio data rate per time slot – 69.2kbps *8=547.2 per channel

57
2.5 Technologies

58
2.5 Technologies
◼ Evolution of CDMA Systems
❑ IS-95B
◼ Support medium data rate(MDR) service by allowing
user to command 8 Walsh codes simultaneously to
provide data rate of 115.2kbps (8*14.4kbps)

◼ In reality only 64kbps is available to a user due to

slotting techniques of the air interface.

59
2.5 Technologies
W ire le ss Requires
Cha nne l Infrastructure
Data Duple x New Re q u ir es New Ha nd sets
BW Cha nge
Tech Spectrum

Requires Yes, New HSCS D ha ndsets provide

Software 57 .6 Kbps on HS CSD n/w and 9 .6 Kbps on
HS CSD 200 KHz FDD No
Upgrade at GSM n/w with dua l mode pho nes. GSM
base station only pho nes will not work in HSCSD N/w.

Re q u ir es new
Ye s , New G PR S ha ndsets work on G P R S
pack et overla y
n/w at 171 .2 Kbps, 9 .6 Kbps on G SM n/w
GPRS 200 KHz FDD inc lu ding No
with dual mo de pho nes. G SM only pho nes
routers and
will not work in G PR S n/w.
gateways

Re q u ir es new
Yes, New handsets work on EDGE n/w at 384
transce iv ers at
Kbps, GPRS n/w at 144 Kbps, and
base station.
EDGE 200 KHz FDD No GSM n/w at 9 .6 Kbps with tri- mode
A ls o, software
pho nes. G SM and G P R S -o nly pho nes will
upgra de to the
not work in E D G E n/w.
BSC & BTS

Y e s , Ne w W-C D M A ha n ds e ts w ill w o rk o n
R e q uire s
W -C D M A a t 2 M b ps , E D G E n/w a t 3 8 4
c o m ple te ly
W -CDMA 5 M Hz FDD Yes K b ps , G P R S n/w a t 1 4 4 K bps . G S M n/w a t
ne w ba s e
9 .9 K bps . O lde r ha n ds e ts w ill no t w o rk i n
s ta tio ns
W -C D M A. 60
 Services roadmap
Improved performance, decreasing cost of delivery

Broadband
3G-specific services take
in wide area
advantage of higher bandwidth
and/or real-time QoS Video sharing
Video telephony
A number of mobile Multitasking Real-time IP

services are bearer multimedia and games

independent in nature WEB browsing Multicasting

Corporate data access

Streaming audio/video
MMS picture / video
xHTML browsing
Application downloading
E-mail
Voice & SMS Presence/location
Push-to-talk
Typical
average bit GSM GPRS EGPRS WCDMA HSDPA
rates 9.6 171 473 2 1-10
(peak rates
higher) kbps kbps kbps Mbps Mbps
◼
2000 1x
CDMA

CDMA

CDMA
EVDO

EVDV
2000-
2000-
61 61
3G Systems

◼ Goals
❑ Voice and Data Transmission
◼ Simultanous voice and data access
❑ Multi-megabit Internet access
◼ Interactive web sessions
◼ Communication using VoIP
❑ Multimedia Content
◼ Live music

62
3G Standards
◼ 3G Standard is created by ITU-T and is called as IMT-2000.

◼ The aim of IMT-2000 is to harmonize worldwide 3G systems

to provide Global Roaming.
3G Systems
◼ Evolution of CDMA Systems
◼ CDMA system evolved to CDMA2000
▪ CDMA2000-1xRTT: Upto 307 Kbps
▪ CDMA2000-1xEV: Evolutionary(Proprietary high data
rate )
▪ CDMA2000-1xEVDO: upto 2.4 Mbps(radio channels
with data only)
▪ CDMA2000-1xEVDV: 144 Kbps datarate (radio
channels with data and voice)
◼ GSM, IS-136 and PDC evolved to W-CDMA (Wideband
CDMA) (also called UMTS)
▪ Up to 2.048 Mbps data-rates
▪ Future systems 8Mbps
▪ Expected to be fully deployed by 2010-2015
3G W-CDMA(UMTS)
◼ UMTS is the European vision of 3G.
◼ UMTS is an upgrade from GSM via GPRS or EDGE.
◼ The standardization work for UMTS is carried out by Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
◼ Data rates of UMTS are:
❑ 144 kbps for rural

❑ 384 kbps for urban outdoor

❑ 2048 kbps for indoor and low range outdoor

◼ Virtual Home Environment (VHE)

◼ Wide band CDMA technology is selected for UTRAN air interface.
◼ New spectrum is allocated for these technologies i.e. 2500 to
2690, 1710-1885 and 806-960 MHz both for CDMA and
UMTS standards.
3G CDMA 2000
◼ Seamless and evolutionary high data rate for 2G and 2.5 G CDMA, around
1.25 MHz radio channel.
◼ The standardization work for 3G CDMA 2000 is carried out by Third
Generation Partnership Project 2(3GPP2).
◼ First air interface CDMA 2000 1X RTT (1X, 1 time original CDMA channel
bandwidth, RTT, Radio Transmission Technology)
◼ Supports data rate up-to 307kbps
◼ CDMA2000-3xRTT
◼ 3 adjacent (single 3.75 MHz)radio channels used together to provide
data throughput in excess of 2 Mbps, Requires new RF HW at BS
◼ 3 non adjacent channels may be operated as simultaneously in
parallel as 1.25 MHz each
◼ 3G TD-SCDMA (Radio Channel 1.6MHz)
◼ Chinese's standard for 3G, evolution o GSM, adds high data rate
equipment at BS, data only overlay on GSM using TDMA and TDD
3G CDMA 2000
R eq u ires
W ire les s C ha nne l In fra s tru c tu re
D up lex N ew R eq u ires N e w H and se ts
D a ta T ech . BW C ha nge
S pe c trum
Yes, N ew h an d sets w ill w o rk on IS -9 5 B
R eq u ires n ew at 6 4 K bp s an d IS -9 5 A at 1 4 .4 Kb p s.
IS -95B 1 .25 M H z FDD No
so ftw are in B S C C d m a O n e p hon es can w o rk in IS -9 5 B
at 1 4 .4 Kb p s
R eq u ires n ew
s/w in b a ck b o n e
an d n ew ch ann el Yes, N ew h an d sets w ill w o rk on 1 xR TT
C d m a 200 0 1 .25 M H z card s at b ase at 1 4 4 Kb p s, IS -9 5 B at 6 4 K bp s, IS -9 5 A
FDD No
1 xR T T statio n s. A lso at 1 4 .4 Kb p s. O ld er h an d sets can w o rk
n eed to b u ild a in 1 xR T T b u t at lo w er sp eed s.
n ew p acket
service n o d e.
Y es,N ew h an d sets c an w o rk on 1 xE V
C d m a 200 0 R eq u ires s/w
at 2 .4 M bp s, 1 xR T T at 14 4 K bp s, IS-
1 .25 M H z an d d ig ita l card
1 xE V FDD No 9 5 B at 6 4 K b p s, IS-9 5 A at 1 4 .4 K b p s.
u pg rad e o n
(D O & D V ) O ld er h an d sets c an w o rk in 1 xE V b u t at
1 xR T T n etw o rks
lo w er sp e ed s.

R eq u ires
Y es, N ew h an d sets w ill w o rk on 95 A at
b ac kb on e
1 4 .4 K b p s, 95 B at 6 4 K bp s, 1 xR TT at
C d m a 200 0 3 .75 M H z m od if ic atio n s
FDD M ayb e 1 44 K b p s, 3 xR TT at 2 M bp s. O ld er
3 xR T T an d n ew c h ann el
h an d sets c an w o rk in 3 X bu t at lo w er
c ard s at b ase
sp eed s.
statio n s.
The Cellular Concept

1
Cellular Systems-Basic Concepts
◼ Cellular system solves the problem of spectral congestion.
◼ Offers high capacity in limited spectrum.
◼ High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage area of
each BS to a small geographical area called cell.
◼ Replaces high powered transmitter with several low power
transmitters.
◼ Each BS is allocated a portion of total channels and nearby
cells are allocated completely different channels.
◼ All available channels are allocated to small no of neighboring
BS.
◼ Interference between neighboring BSs is minimized by
allocating different channels.

2
Cellular Systems-Basic Concepts
◼ Same frequencies are reused by spatially
separated BSs.
◼ Interference between co-channels stations is
kept below acceptable level.
◼ Additional radio capacity is achieved.
◼ Frequency Reuse-Fix no of channels serve
an arbitrarily large no of subscribers

3
Frequency Reuse
◼ used by service providers to improve the efficiency of a
cellular network and to serve millions of subscribers using a
limited radio spectrum
◼ After covering a certain distance a radio wave gets attenuated
and the signal falls below a point where it can no longer be
used or cause any interference
◼ A transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will
have only a limited coverage area
◼ Beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by
another transmitter.
◼ The entire network coverage area is divided into cells based on the
principle of frequency reuse

4
Frequency Reuse
◼ A cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network; is the
area around an antenna where a specific frequency range is
used.
◼ when a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the
new cell takes over the signal transmission

◼ a cluster is a group of adjacent cells, usually 7 cells; no

frequency reuse is done within a cluster

◼ the frequency spectrum is divided into sub-bands and each

sub-band is used within one cell of the cluster

◼ in heavy traffic zones cells are smaller, while in isolated zones

cells are larger

5
Frequency Reuse
◼ The design process of selecting and
allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system is
called frequency reuse or frequency planning.
◼ Cell labeled with same letter use the same
set of frequencies.
◼ Cell Shapes:
◼ Circle, Square, Triangle and Hexagon.
◼ Hexagonal cell shape is conceptual , in
reality it is irregular in shape
6
Frequency Reuse

7
Frequency Reuse
◼ In hexagonal cell model, BS transmitter can
be in centre of cell or on its 3 vertices.
◼ Centered excited cells use omni directional
whereas edge excited cells use directional
antennas.
◼ A cellular system having „S‟ duplex channels,
each cell is allocated „k‟ channels(k<S).
◼ If S channels are allocated to N cells into
unique and disjoint channels, the total no of
available channel is S=kN.

8
Frequency Reuse
◼ N cells collectively using all the channels is called a cluster, is
a group of adjacent cells.
◼ If cluster if repeated M times, the capacity C of system is
given as
C=MkN=MS
◼ Capacity of system is directly proportional to the no of times
cluster is repeated.
◼ Reducing the cluster size N while keeping the cell size
constant, more clusters are required to cover the given area
and hence more capacity.
◼ Co-channel interference is dependent on cluster size, large
cluster size less interference and vice versa.

9
Frequency Reuse
◼ The Frequency Reuse factor is given as 1/N, each cell is
assigned 1/N of total channels.
◼ Lines joining a cell and each of its neighbor are separated by
multiple of 600,certain cluster sizes and cell layout possible
◼ Geometery of hexagon is such that no of cells per cluster i.e
N, can only have values which satisfy the equation
N=i2+ij+j2
N, the cluster size is typically 4, 7 or 12.
In GSM normally N =7 is used.
◼ i and j are integers, for i=3 and j=2 N=19.
◼ Example from Book

10
Locating co-channel Cell

11
Channel Assignment Strategies
◼ A scheme for increasing capacity and minimizing interference
is required.
◼ CAS can be classified as either fixed or dynamic
◼ Choice of CAS impacts the performance of system.
◼ In Fixed CA each cell is assigned a predetermined set of
voice channels
◼ Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the
unused channel in that particular cell
◼ If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call is blocked.
The user does not get service.
◼ In variation of FCA, a cell can borrow channels from its
neighboring cell if its own channels are full.

12
Dynamic Channel Assignment
◼ Voice channels are not allocated to different cells permanently.
◼ Each time a call request is made, the BS request a channel
from the MSC.
◼ MSC allocates a channel to the requesting cell using an
algorithm that takes into account
❑ likelihood of future blocking
❑ The reuse distance of the channel ( should not cause interference)
❑ Other parameters like cost
◼ To ensure min QoS, MSC only allocates a given frequency if
that frequency is not currently in use in the cell or any other
cell which falls within the limiting reuse distance.
◼ DCA reduce the likelihood of blocking and increases capacity
◼ Requires the MSC to collect realtime data on channel
occupancy and traffic distribution on continous basis.

13
Hand-off
◼ Mobile moves into a different cell during a conversation, MSC
transfers the call to new channel belonging to new BS
◼ Handoff operation involves identifying the new BS and
allocation of voice and control signal to channels associated
with new BS
◼ Must be performed successfully, infrequently and impercitble to user
◼ To meet these requirements an optimum signal level must be
defined to initiate a handoff.
◼ Min usuable signal for acceptable voice qualtiy -90 to -100 dBm
◼ A slight higher value is used as threshold

14
Handoff

By looking at the variations of signal strength from either BS it is

possible to decide on the optimum area where handoff can take
place

15
16
Hand-off strategies
◼ Handoff is made when received signal at the BS falls below a
certain threshold
◼ During handoff: to avoid call termination, safety margin should
exist and should not be too large or small
=Power_handoff – Power_min usable
◼ Large results in unecesarry handoff and for small
unsufficient time to complete handoff, so carefully chosen to
meet the requirements.
◼ Fig a, handoff not made and signal falls below min acceptable
level to keep the channel active.
◼ Can happen due to excessive delay by MSC in assigning
handoff, or when threshold is set to small.
◼ Excessive delay may occur during high traffic conditions due to
computional loading or non avialablilty of channels in nearby cells

17
Hand-off
◼ In deciding when to handoff , it is important to ensure that the
drop in signal level is not due to momentary fading.

◼ In order to ensure this the BS monitors the signal for a certain

period of time before initiating a handoff

◼ The length of time needed to decide if handoff is necessary

depends on the speed at which the mobile is moving

18
Hand-off strategies
◼ In 1st generation analog cellular systems, the signal strength
measurements are made by the BS and are supervised by the
MSC.
◼ A spare Rx in base station (locator Rx) monitors RSS of
RVC's in neighboring cells
◼ Tells Mobile Switching Center about these mobiles and
their channels
◼ Locator Rx can see if signal to this base station is
significantly better than to the host base station
❑ MSC monitors RSS from all base stations & decides on

handoff

19
Hand-off strategies
◼ In 2nd generation systems Mobile Assisted Handoffs
(MAHO)are used
◼ In MAHO, every MS measures the received power from the
surrounding BS and continually reports these values to the
corresponding BS.
◼ Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a neighboring BS
exceeds that of current BS
◼ MSC no longer monitors RSS of all channels
❑ reduces computational load considerably
❑ enables much more rapid and efficient handoffs
❑ imperceptible to user

20
Soft Handoff
◼ CDMA spread spectrum cellular systems provides a unique
handoff capability
◼ Unlike channelized wireless systems that assigns different
radio channel during handoff (called hard handoff), the spread
spectrum MS share the same channel in every cell
◼ The term handoff here implies that a different BS handles the
radio communication task
◼ The ability to select between the instantaneous received
signals from different BSs is called soft handoff

21
Inter system Handoff
◼ If a mobile moves from one cellular system to a different
system controlled by a different MSC, an inter-system handoff
is necessary
◼ MSC engages in intersystem handoff when signal becomes
weak in a given cell and MSC cannot find another cell within
its system to transfer the on-going call
◼ Many issues must be resolved
❑ Local call may become long distance call
❑ Compatibility between the two MSCs

22
Prioritizing Handoffs
❑ Issue: Perceived Grade of Service (GOS) – service quality
as viewed by users
◼ “quality” in terms of dropped or blocked calls (not voice quality)
◼ assign higher priority to handoff vs. new call request
◼ a dropped call is more aggravating than an occasional
blocked call
◼ Guard Channels
❑ % of total available cell channels exclusively set aside for
handoff requests
❑ makes fewer channels available for new call requests
❑ a good strategy is dynamic channel allocation (not fixed)
◼ adjust number of guard channels as needed by demand

◼ so channels are not wasted in cells with low traffic

23
Prioritizing Handoffs
◼ Queuing of Handoff Requests
❑ use time delay between handoff threshold and minimum useable
signal level to place a blocked handoff request in queue
❑ a handoff request can "keep trying" during that time period,
instead of having a single block/no block decision
❑ prioritize requests (based on mobile speed) and handoff as
needed
❑ calls will still be dropped if time period expires

24
Practical Handoff Considerations
◼ Problems occur because of a large range of mobile velocities
❑ pedestrian vs. vehicle user
◼ Small cell sizes and/or micro-cells → larger # handoffs
◼ MSC load is heavy when high speed users are passed
between very small cells
◼ Umbrella Cells
❑ use different antenna heights and Tx power levels to provide
large and small cell coverage
❑ multiple antennas & Tx can be co-located at single location if
necessary (saves on obtaining new tower licenses)
❑ large cell → high speed traffic → fewer handoffs
❑ small cell → low speed traffic
❑ example areas: interstate highway passing through urban center,
office park, or nearby shopping mall

25
Umbrella Cells

26
Typical handoff parameters

❑ Analog cellular (1st generation)

◼ threshold margin △ ≈ 6 to 12 dB

◼ total time to complete handoff ≈ 8 to 10 sec

❑ Digital cellular (2nd generation)

◼ total time to complete handoff ≈ 1 to 2 sec

◼ lower necessary threshold margin △ ≈ 0 to 6 dB

◼ enabled by mobile assisted handoff

27
Reuse Ratio:
◼ For hexagonal cell reuse distance is given by
D=R(√3N)
◼ Where R is cell size or cell radius and N is cluster size
◼ D increases as we increase N
◼ Reuse factor is given by Q=D/R=(√3N)

28
Interference
◼ Goals for this section
❑ Co-Channel
❑ Adjacent Channel
◼ How to calculate signal to interference ratio

29
Interference
◼ Interference is major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio. It limits the
capacity and increases the no of dropped
calls.
◼ Sources of interference include
❑ Another mobile in same cell
❑ A call in progress in a neighboring cell
❑ Other BSs operating in the same frequency band

30
Effects of Interference
◼ Interference in voice channels causes
❑ Crosstalk
❑ Noise in background
◼ Interference in control channels causes
❑ Error in digital signaling, which causes
◼ Missed calls
◼ Blocked calls
◼ Dropped calls

31
Interference
◼ Two major types of Interferences
❑ Co-channel Interference (CCI)

❑ Adjacent channel Interference (ACI)

◼ CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the same frequency
set. These cells using the same frequency set are called Co-
channel cells
◼ ACI is caused due to the signals that are adjacent in
frequency

32
Co-channel Interference
❑ Increase base station Tx power to improve radio signal
reception?
◼ will also increase interference into other co-channel cells by
the same amount
◼ no net improvement
❑ Separate co-channel cells by some minimum distance to
provide sufficient isolation from propagation of radio
signals?
◼ if all cell sizes, transmit powers, and coverage
patterns ≈ same → co-channel interference is
independent of Tx power

33
Co-channel Interference
◼ co-channel interference depends on:
❑ R : cell radius
❑ D : distance to base station of nearest co-channel cell where D=R(√3N)

◼ if D/R ↑ then spatial separation relative to cell coverage area ↑

❑ improved isolation from co-channel RF energy

◼ Q = D / R : co-channel reuse ratio

◼ hexagonal cells → Q = D/R = √3N
◼ Smaller value of Q provides larger capacity, but higher CCI
◼ Hence there is tradeoff between capacity and interference.
❑ small Q → small cluster size → more frequency reuse → larger
system capacity
❑ small Q → small cell separation → increased CCI

34
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
◼ The Signal-to-Interference (S/I) for a mobile is

❑ S is desired signal power ,Ii : interference power from ith co-channel cell
◼ The average received power at distance d is
Pr=Po (d/do)-n
◼ The RSS decays as a power law of the distance of separation
between transmitter and receiver
◼ Where Po is received power at reference distance do and n is the
path loss exponent and ranges between 2-4
◼ If Di is the distance of ith interferer, the received power is
proportional to (Di)-n

35
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
◼ The S/I for mobile is given by

n n 4
S (D / R ) ( 3 N ) Q

I 6 6 6

◼ With only the first tier(layer of) equidistant interferers.

◼ For a hexagonal cluster size, which always have 6 CC cell in
first tier

36
Signal to Interference ratio S/I
◼ The MS is at cell
boundary

The aproximate S/I is

given by, both in terms
of R and D, along with
channel reuse ratio Q

37
Example S/I
◼ Examples for Problem 2.3
◼ TDMA can tolerate S/I = 15 dB
◼ What is the optimal value of N for omni-directional antennas? Path loss =
4. Co-channel Interference

◼ cluster size N =7 (choices 4,7,12)

◼ path loss exponent (means)n=4
◼ co-channel reuse ratio Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
◼ Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=4.582576
◼ number of neighboring cells io=6 # of sides of hexagon
◼ signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =73.5
◼ convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I) =18.66287dB

◼ S/I is greater than required, it will work.

38
Example S/I
◼ cluster size N=4 (choices 4,7,12)
◼ path loss exponent (means) n=4
◼ co-channel reuse ratio Q= sqrt(3N)=3.464102
◼ Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=3.464102
◼ number of neighboring cells io=6 ,# of sides of hexagon
◼ signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =24
◼ convert to dB, S/I= 10log(S/I)=13.80211dB
◼ S/I is less than required, it will not work!

◼ cluster size N=7

◼ path loss exponent n=3
◼ Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
◼ number of neighboring cells io= 6, # of sides of hexagon
◼ signal to interference ratio=S/I= (D/R)^n / io =16.03901
◼ convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I)=12.05178dB
◼ S/I is less than required, it will not work!

39
Adjacent Channel Interference
◼ Results from imperfect receiver filters, allowing nearby frequencies
to leak into pass-band.
◼ Can be minimized by careful filtering and channel assignments.
◼ Channels are assigned such that frequency separations between
channels are maximized.
◼ For example, by sequentially assigning adjacent bands to different
cells
◼ Total 832 channels, divided into two groups with 416 channels each.
◼ Out of 416, 395 are voice and 21 are control channels.
◼ 395 channels are divided into 21 subsets, each containing almost 19
channels, with closet channel 21 channels away
◼ If N=7 is used, each cell uses 3 subsets, assigned in such a way
that each channel in a cell is 7 channels away.

40
Improving Capacity
◼ As demand for service increases, system designers have to provide
more channel per unit coverage area

◼ Common Techniques are: Cell Splitting, Sectoring and Microcell

Zoning

◼ Cell Splitting increases the number of BS deployed and allows an

orderly growth of the cellular system

◼ Sectoring uses directional antennas to further control interference

◼ Micro cell Zoning distributes the coverage of cell and extends the
cell boundary to hard-to-reach areas

64
Cell Splitting
◼ Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell
into smaller cells with
❑ their own BS
❑ a corresponding reduction in antenna height
❑ a corresponding reduction in transmit power

◼ Splitting the cell reduces the cell size and thus more number
of cells have to be used
◼ For the new cells to be smaller in size the transmit power of
these cells must be reduced.
◼ Idea is to keep Q=D/R constant while decreasing R

◼ More number of cells ► more number of clusters ► more

channels ►high capacity

65
Cells are split to add channels
with no new spectrum usage
Example S/I
◼ cluster size N=4 (choices 4,7,12)
◼ path loss exponent (means) n=4
◼ co-channel reuse ratio Q= sqrt(3N)=3.464102
◼ Ratio of distance to radius Q=D/R=3.464102
◼ number of neighboring cells io=6 ,# of sides of hexagon
◼ signal to interference ratio S/I= (D/R)^n / io =24
◼ convert to dB, S/I= 10log(S/I)=13.80211dB
◼ S/I is less than required, it will not work!

◼ cluster size N=7

◼ path loss exponent n=3
◼ Q=sqrt(3N)=4.582576
◼ number of neighboring cells io= 6, # of sides of hexagon
◼ signal to interference ratio=S/I= (D/R)^n / io =73.334
◼ convert to dB, S/I=10log(S/I)=18.65dB
◼ S/I is less than required, it will work!

67
Cell Splitting-Power Issues
◼ Suppose the cell radius of new cells is reduced by half
◼ What is the required transmit power for these new cells??
Pr[at old cell boundary]=Pt1R-n
Pr[at new cell boundary]= Pt2(R/2) –n
◼ where Pt1and Pt2are the transmit powers of the larger and
smaller cell base stations respectively, and n is the path loss
exponent.
◼ So, Pt2= Pt1/2n
◼ If we take n=3 and the received powers equal to each other, then
Pt2=Pt1/8
◼ In other words, the transmit power must be reduced by 9dB in order
to fill in the original coverage area while maintaining the S/I
requirement

68
Illustration of cell splitting in 3x3 square
centered around base station A

69
Cell Splitting
◼ In practice not all the cells are split at the same time hence different
size cells will exist simultaneously.

◼ In such situations, special care needs to be taken to keep the

distance between co-channel cells at the required minimum, and
hence channel assignments become more complicated.

◼ To overcome handoff problem:

❑ Channels in the old cell must be broken down into two channel groups, one for
smaller cell and other for larger cell
❑ The larger cell is usually dedicated to high speed traffic so that handoffs occur
less frequently
❑ At start small power group has less channels and large power group has large no
of channels, at maturity of the system large power group does not have any
channel

70
Umbrella Cells

71
72
Sectoring
◼ In this approach
◼ first SIR is improved using directional antennas,

◼ capacity improvement is achieved by reducing the number of

cells in a cluster thus increasing frequency reuse

◼ The CCI decreased by replacing the single omni-directional antenna

by several directional antennas, each radiating within a specified
sector

73
Sectoring
A directional antenna transmits to and receives from only a fraction
of total of the co-channel cells. Thus CCI is reduced

74
Problems with Sectoring

◼ Increases the number of antennas at each BS

◼ Decrease in trunking efficiency due to sectoring(dividing the

bigger pool of channels into smaller groups)

◼ Increase number of handoffs(sector-to sector)

◼ Good news:Many modern BS support sectoring and related

handoff without help of MSC

75
Microcell Zone Concept
◼ The Problems of sectoring can be addressed by Microcell
Zone Concept
◼ A cell is conceptually divided into microcells or zones
◼ Each microcell(zone) is connected to the same base
station(fiber/microwave link)
◼ Doing something in middle of cell splitting and sectoring by
extracting good points of both
◼ Each zone uses a directional antenna
◼ Each zone radiates power into the cell.
◼ MS is served by strongest zone
◼ As mobile travels from one zone to another, it retains the
same channel, i.e. no hand off
◼ The BS simply switches the channel to the next zone site

76
Micro Zone Cell Concept

77
Microcell Zone Concept

◼ Reduced Interference (Zone radius is small so small and

directional antennas are used).

◼ Decrease in CCI improves the signal quality and capacity.

◼ No loss in trunking efficiency (all channels are used by all

cells).

◼ No extra handoffs.

◼ Increase in capacity (since smaller cluster size can be used).

78
Repeaters for Range Extension
◼ Useful for hard to reach areas
❑ Buildings
❑ Tunnels
❑ Valleys

◼ Radio transmitters called Repeaters can be used to provide

coverage in these area
◼ Repeaters are bi-directional
◼ Rx signals from BS
◼ Amplify the signals
◼ Re-radiate the signals
◼ Received noise and interference is also re-radiated

79
Mobile Radio Propagation
Large-scale Path loss

Wireless Communication
Chapter 3

1
Introduction
◼ The mobile radio channel places fundamental limitations on
the performance of a wireless communication system
◼ The wireless transmission path may be
❑ Line of Sight (LOS)

❑ Non line of Sight (NLOS)

◼ Radio channels are random and time varying

◼ Modeling radio channels have been one of the difficult parts of
mobile radio design and is done in statistical manner
◼ When electrons move, they create EM waves that can
propagate through space.
◼ By using antennas we can transmit and receive these EM
wave
◼ Microwave ,Infrared visible light and radio waves can be used.

2
Properties of Radio Waves
◼ Are easy to generate

◼ Can travel long distances

◼ Can penetrate buildings

◼ May be used for both indoor and outdoor coverage

◼ Are omni-directional-can travel in all directions

◼ Can be narrowly focused at high frequencies(>100MHz) using

parabolic antenna

3
Properties of Radio Waves
◼ Frequency dependence

❑ Behave more like light at high frequencies

◼ Difficulty in passing obstacle

◼ Follow direct paths

◼ Absorbed by rain

❑ Behave more like radio at lower frequencies

◼ Can pass obstacles

◼ Power falls off sharply with distance from source

◼ Subject to interference from other radio waves

4
Propagation Models
❑ The statistical modeling is usually done based on data
measurements made specifically for
❑ the intended communication system

❑ the intended spectrum

◼ They are tools used for:

❑ Predicting the average signal strength at a given
distance from the transmitter

❑ Estimating the variability of the signal strength in close

spatial proximity to a particular locations

5
Propagation Models
◼ Large Scale Propagation Model:

❑ Predict the mean signal strength for an arbitrary

transmitter-receiver(T-R) separation

❑ Estimate radio coverage of a transmitter

❑ Characterize signal strength over large T-R

separation distances(several 100’s to 1000’s
meters)

6
Propagation Models
◼ Small Scale or Fading Models:

❑ Characterize rapid fluctuations of received signal

strength over

◼ Very short travel distances( a few wavelengths)

◼ Short time durations(on the order of seconds)

7
Small-scale and large-scale fading

8
Free Space Propagation Model
❑ For clear LOS between T-R
 Ex: satellite & microwave communications

❑ Assumes that received power decays as a function of T-R distance

separation raised to some power.

❑ Given by Friis free space eqn:

‘L’ is the system loss factor

L >1 indicates loss due to transmission line attenuation, filter losses &
antenna losses
L = 1 indicates no loss in the system hardware
❑ Gain of antenna is related to its effective aperture Ae by
G=4 π Ae /λ2

9
Free Space Propagation Model
◼ Effective Aperture Ae is related to physical size of antenna.
λ= c/f.
◼ c is speed of light,
◼ Pt and Pr must be in same units
◼ Gt ad Gr are dimensionless

◼ An isotropic radiator, an ideal radiator which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions, and is often used as reference

◼ Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is defined as

EIRP= Pt Gt
◼ Represents the max radiated power available from a transmitter in direction
of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator

10
Free Space Propagation Model
◼ In practice Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is used instead of
(EIRP)

◼ Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is radiated power compared

to half wave dipole antennas

◼ Since dipole antenna has gain of 1.64(2.15 dB)

ERP=EIRP-2.15(dB)

◼ the ERP will be 2.15dB smaller than the EIRP for same
Transmission medium

11
 Free Space Propagation Model
◼ Path Loss (PL) represents signal attenuation and is defined
as difference between the effective transmitted power and
received power
Path loss PL(dB) = 10 log [Pt/Pr]
= -10 log {GtGr λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}

◼ Without antenna gains (with unit antenna gains)

PL = - 10 log { λ^2/(4π)^2d^2}
❑ Friis free space model is valid predictor for Pr for values of d
which are in the far-field of transmitting antenna

12
Free Space Propagation Model
◼ The far field or Fraunhofer region that is beyond far field distance df given
as : df=2D2/λ
◼ D is the largest physical linear dimension of the transmitter antenna
◼ Additionally, df>>D and df>>λ
◼ The Friis free space equation does not hold for d=0
◼ Large Scale Propagation models use a close-in distance, do, as received
power reference point, chosen such that do>= df
◼ Received power in free space at a distance greater then do
Pr (d)=Pr(do )(do /d)2 d>do>df
Pr with reference to 1 mW is represented as
Pr(d)=10log(Pr(do)/0.001W)+20log (do /d)
Electrostatic,inductive and radiated fields are launched, due to flow of current
from anntena.
Regions far away from transmitter electrostatic and inductive fields become
negligible and only radiated field components are considered.

13
Example
◼ What will be the far-field distance for a Base station antenna
with
◼ Largest dimension D=0.5m
◼ Frequency of operation fc=900MHz,1800MHz

◼ For 900MHz
◼ λ =3*10^8/900*10^6)=0.33m
◼ df= 2D^2/ λ =2(0.5)^2/0.33=1.5m

14
Example
◼ If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power,
express the transmit power in units of (a)
dBm, and (b) dBW. If 50 watts is applied to a
unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBm at
a free space distance of 100 m from the
antenna, What is Pr (10 km)? Assume unity
gain for the receiver antenna.

15
solution

16
Propagation Mechanisms
◼ Three basic propagation mechanism which impact
propagation in mobile radio communication system are:

❑ Reflection
❑ Diffraction
❑ Scattering

17
Propagation Mechanisms
◼ Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object which has very large dimensions as
compared to wavelength e.g. surface of earth , buildings,
walls

◼ Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter

and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities(edges)
❑ Explains how radio signals can travel urban and rural environments
without a line of sight path

◼ Scattering occurs when medium has objects that are smaller

or comparable to the wavelength (small objects, irregularities
on channel, foliage, street signs etc)
18
Reflection
◼ Occurs when a radio wave propagating in one medium
impinges upon another medium having different electrical
properties
◼ If radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric
❑ Part of energy is reflected back

❑ Part of energy is transmitted

◼ In addition to the change of direction, the interaction between

the wave and boundary causes the energy to be split between
reflected and transmitted waves
◼ The amplitudes of the reflected and transmitted waves are
given relative to the incident wave amplitude by Fresnel
reflection coefficients

19
Vertical and Horizontal polarization

20
Reflection- Dielectrics

21
Reflection
◼

22
Reflection-Perfect Conductor
◼ If incident on a perfect conductor the entire EM energy is
reflected back

◼ Here we have θr= θi

◼ Ei= Er (E-field in plane of incidence)

◼ Ei= -Er (E field normal to plane of incidence)

◼ Γ(parallel)= 1

◼ Γ(perpendicular)= -1

23
Reflection - Brewster Angle
◼

24
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

◼ In mobile radio channel, single direct path between base

station and mobile and is seldom only physical means for
propagation
◼ Free space model as a stand alone is inaccurate
◼ Two ray ground reflection model is useful
❑ Based on geometric optics

❑ Considers both direct and ground reflected path

◼ Reasonably accurate for predicting large scale signal strength

over several kms that use tall tower height
◼ Assumption: The height of Transmitter >50 meters

25
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

26
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

27
Ground Reflection(Two Ray) Model

28
Path Difference

29
Phase difference

E (t ) E 0 d 0 sin    
=2
TOT  
d 2
 
 2 hr ht  0 .3 rad

2 d
E (t )  2 E 0 d 0 2 hr ht  k V /m

d
TOT 2
d d

30
31
Diffraction
◼ Diffraction is the bending of wave fronts around obstacles.

◼ Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate behind

obstructions and is thus one of the factors why we receive
signals at locations where there is no line-of-sight from base
stations

◼ Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a

receiver moves deeper into an obstructed (shadowed) region,
the diffraction field still exists and often has sufficient signal
strength to produce a useful signal.

32
Diffraction

33
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
◼ Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction of radio
waves over hills and buildings is essential in predicting the field
strength in a given service area.

◼ As a starting point, the limiting case of propagation over a knife edge

gives good in sight into the order of magnitude diffraction loss.

◼ When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a building,

the attenuation caused by diffraction can be estimated by treating
the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge

34
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
Consider a receiver at point R located in the shadowed region. The field
strength at point R is a vector sum of the fields due to all of the
secondary Huygens sources in the plane above the knife edge.

35
Knife-edge Diffraction Model
◼

Which gives

35
Knife-edge Diffraction Model

36
Fresnel zones
◼ Fresnel zones represent successive regions where secondary
waves have a path length from the TX to the RX which are nλ/2
greater in path length than of the LOS path. The plane below
illustrates successive Fresnel zones.

37
Fresnel zones

38
Diffraction gain
◼ The diffraction gain due to the presence of a knife edge, as
compared to the free space E-field

◼ The electric field strength, Ed, of a knife edge diffracted wave is

given by

◼ Eo : is the free space field strength in the absence of both the

ground and the knife edge.
◼ F(v): is the complex fresnel integral.
◼ v: is the Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter

39
Graphical Calculation of diffraction
attenuation

40
Numerical solution
◼ An approximate numerical solution for
equation

◼ Can be found using set of equations given

below for different values of v
Gd(dB) v
0  -1
20 log(0.5-0.62v) [-1,0]
20 log(0.5 e- 0.95v) [0,1]
20 log(0.4-(0.1184-(0.38-0.1v)2)1/2) [1, 2.4]
20 log(0.225/v) > 2.4

41
Example

42
43
Example

44
45
46
Multiple Knife Edge Diffraction

47
Scattering
◼ Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of
obstacles per unit volume is large.

◼ Scattered waves are produced by

❑ rough surfaces,
❑ small objects,
❑ or by other irregularities in the channel.

◼ Scattering is caused by trees, lamp posts, towers, etc.

48
Scattering
◼ Received signal strength is often stronger than that predicted
by reflection/diffraction models alone

◼ The EM wave incident upon a rough or complex surface is

scattered in many directions and provides more energy at a
receiver
❑ energy that would have been absorbed is instead reflected

to the Rx.

◼ flat surface → EM reflection (one direction)

◼ rough surface → EM scattering (many directions)

49
Scattering
◼ Rayleigh criterion: used for testing surface roughness
◼ A surface is considered smooth if its min to max protuberance
(bumps) h is less than critical height hc
hc = λ/8 sinΘi

◼ Scattering path loss factor ρs is given by

ρs =exp[-8[(π*σh *sinΘi)/ λ] 2]
Where h is surface height and σh is standard deviation of surface
height about mean surface height.

◼ For rough surface, the flat surface reflection coefficient is multiplied

by scattering loss factor ρs to account for diminished electric field

◼ Reflected E-fields for h> hc for rough surface can be calculated as

Гrough= ρsГ

50
Scattering

51
Outdoor propagation Environment
◼ Based on the coverage area, the Outdoor
propagation environment may be divided into
three categories
1. Propagation in Macro cells
2. Propagation in Micro cells
3. Propagation in street Micro cells

52
Outdoor propagation Environment

53
Outdoor propagation Models
◼ Outdoor radio transmission takes place over
an irregular terrain.
◼ The terrain profile must be taken into
consideration for estimating the path loss
e.g. trees buildings and hills must be taken
into consideration
◼ Some common models used are
➢ Longley Rice Model
➢ Okumura Model
➢ Hatta model

54
Longley Rice Model
◼ Longley Rice Model is applicable to point to point
communication.
◼ It covers 40MHz to 300 GHz
◼ It can be used in wide range of terrain
◼ Path geometry of terrain and the refractivity of
troposphere is used for transmission path loss
calculations
◼ Geometrical optics is also used along with the two
ray model for the calculation of signal strength.
◼ Two modes
❖ Point to point mode prediction
❖ Area mode prediction
55
Longley Rice Model
◼ Longley Rice Model is normally available as a
computer program which takes inputs as
❑ Transmission frequency
❑ Path length
❑ Polarization
❑ Antenna heights
❑ Surface reflectivity
❑ Ground conductivity and dialectic constants
❑ Climate factors
❖ A problem with Longley rice is that It doesn't
take into account the buildings and multipath.

56
Okumura Model
◼ In 1968 Okumura did a lot of measurements and
produce a new model.
◼ The new model was used for signal prediction in Urban
areas.
◼ Okumura introduced a graphical method to predict the
median attenuation relative to free-space for a quasi-
smooth terrain
◼ The model consists of a set of curves developed from
measurements and is valid for a particular set of system
parameters in terms of carrier frequency, antenna height,
etc.

57
Okumura Model
◼ First of all the model determined the free space path loss
of link.
◼ After the free-space path loss has been computed, the
median attenuation, as given by Okumura’s curves has
to be taken to account
◼ The model was designed for use in the frequency range
200 up to 1920 MHz and mostly in an urban propagation
environment.
◼ Okumura’s model assumes that the path loss between
the TX and RX in the terrestrial propagation environment
can be expressed as:

58
Okumura Model
▪ Estimating path loss using Okumura Model

1. Determine free space loss and Amu(f ,d ), between points of interest

2. Add Amu(f ,d) and correction factors to account for terrain

L50 = 50% value of propagation path loss (median)

LF = free space propagation loss
Amu(f,d) = median attenuation relative to free space
G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor
G(hre) = mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA = gain due to environment

59
59
Okumura Model
◼ Amu(f,d) & GAREA have been plotted for wide range of
frequencies
◼ Antenna gain varies at rate of 20dB or 10dB per decade
hte
G(hte) = 20 log 10m < hte < 1000m
200

hre
G(hre) = 10 log hre  3m
3

hre
G(hre) = 20 log 3m < hre <10m
3

◼ model corrected for

60
h = terrain undulation height, isolated ridge height
average terrain slope and mixed land/sea parameter

61
Median Attenuation Relative to Free Space = Amu(f,d) (dB)

70 100
Urban Area
ht = 200m 80
60 hr = 3m 70
60
50 50
40
40 30

d(km)
Amu(f,d) (dB)

20
10
30 5
2
20 1

10

61
100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 f (MHz)

62
Correction Factor GAREA

63
Example

64
Hata Model
◼ Most widely used model in Radio frequency.

◼ Predicting the behavior of cellular communication in built

up areas.

◼ Applicable to the transmission inside cities.

◼ Suited for point to point and broadcast transmission.

◼ 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz, Transmission height up to 200m

and link distance less than 20 Km.

64
 Hata Model
◼ Hata transformed Okumura’s graphical model into an analytical framework.

◼ The Hata model for urban areas is given by the empirical formula:

L50, urban = 69.55 dB +26.16 log(fc)- 3.82 log(ht) -a(hr) + (44.9 − 6.55 log(ht)) log(d)

◼ Where L50, urban is the median path loss in dB.

◼ The formula is valid for

150 MHz<=fc<=1.5GHz,
1 m<=hr<=10m, 30m<=ht<=200m,
1km<d<20km

65
Hata Model
◼ The correction factor a(hr) for mobile antenna height hr for a small or
medium-sized city is given by:
a(hr) = (1.1 logfc − 0.7)hr − (1.56 log(fc) − 0.8) dB

◼ For a large city it is given by

a(hr) = 8.29[log(1.54hr)]2 − 1.10 dB for fc <=300 MHz
3.20[log (11.75hr)]2 − 4.97 dB for fc >= 300 MHz

◼ To obtain path loss for suburban area the standard Hata model is
modified as
L50 =L50(urban)-2[log(fc/28)]2-5.4
◼ For rural areas
L50 =L50(urban)-4.78log(fc)2-18.33logfc -40.98

66
Indoor Models
◼ Indoor Channels are different from traditional
channels in two ways
1. The distances covered are much smaller
2. The variability of environment is much greater for a
much small range of Tx and Rx separation.

◼ Propagation inside a building is influenced by:

- Layout of the building
- Construction materials
- Building Type: office , Home or factory

67
Indoor Models
◼ Indoor models are dominated by the same
mechanism as out door models:
- Reflection, Diffraction and scattering
◼ Conditions are much more variable
- Doors/Windows open or not
- Antenna mounting : desk ceiling etc
- The levels of floor
◼ Indoor models are classifies as
- Line of sight (LOS)
- Obstructed (OBS) with varying degree of clutter

68
Indoor Models
◼ Portable receiver usually experience
- Rayleigh fading for OBS propagation paths
- Ricean fading for LOS propagation path
◼ Indoors models are effected by type of
building e.g. Residential buildings, offices,
stores and sports area etc.
◼ Multipath delay spread
- Building with small amount of metal and hard partition
have small delay spread 30 to 60ns
- Building with large amount of metal and open isles
have delay spread up to 300ns
69
Partition losses (same floor)
◼ Two types of partitions
1. hard partitions: Walls of room
2. Soft partitions : Moveable partitions that
donot span to ceiling

◼ Partitions vary widely in their Physical and

electrical properties.

◼ Path loss depend upon the types of partitions

70
Partition losses (same floor)

71
Partitions losses (between floors)
◼ Partition losses between the two floors
depend on
1. External dimension and material used for buildings
2. Types of construction used to create floors
3. External surroundings
4. No of windows used
5. Tinting on the windows

◼ Floor Attenuation Factor (FAF) increases as we

increase the no of floors

72
Partitions losses (between floors)

73
Log distance path loss model
◼ Path loss can be given as

where n is path loss exponent and σ is

standard deviation
◼ n and σ depend on the building type.
◼ Smaller value of σ indicates better accuracy of
path loss model

74
Log distance path loss model

75
Ericsson Multiple Break Point Model

76
Attenuation factor model
◼ Obtained by measurement in multiple floors building

77
Attenuation factor model

78
Signal penetration into building
◼ Effect of frequency
- Penetration loss decreases with increasing frequency

◼ Effect of Height
◼ Penetration loss decreases with the height of
building up to some certain height.
- At lower heights the Urban clutter induces greater attenuation
- Up to some height attenuation decreases but then again
increase after a few floors
- Increase in attenuation at higher floors is due to the
Shadowing effects of adjacent buildings
79
Mobile Radio Propagation
Small-scale Path loss

Chapter 4
Wireless communication

1
Small-Scale Fading and Multipath
◼ The term fading is used to describe rapid fluctuation of
the amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time
or travel distance

◼ Fading is caused by destructive interference between

two or more versions of the transmitted signal being
slightly out of phase due to the different propagation time

◼ This is also called multipath propagation

◼ The different components are due to reflection and

scattering form trees buildings and hills etc.

2
Small-Scale Fading and Multipath
◼ At a receiver the radio waves generated by same
transmitted signal may come
From Different direction
With Different propagation delays,
With Different amplitudes
With Different phases
◼ Each of the factor given above is random

◼ The multipath components combine vectorially at

the receiver and produce a fade or distortion.

3
Effects of Fading/Multipath
◼ Multipath propagation creates small-scale fading effects.
The three most important effects are:

❑ Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel

distance or time interval;
❑ Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multipath signals; and
❑ Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation
delays.

◼ Even when a mobile receiver is stationary, the received

signal may fade due to a non-stationary nature of the
channel (reflecting objects can be moving)

4
Factors influencing small-scale fading
◼ Multipath propagation
❑ The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers in the
space between transmitter and receiver creates a
constantly changing channel environment
❑ Causes the signal at receiver to fade or distort

◼ Speed of mobile receiver

❑ The relative motion between the transmitter and
receiver results in a random frequency modulation due to
different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath signals
❑ Doppler shift may be positive or negative depending on
direction of movement of mobile

5
 Factors influencing small-scale fading
◼ Speed of surrounding objects:
❑ If the speed of surrounding objects is greater than
mobile, the fading is dominated by those objects
❑ If the surrounding objects are slower than the mobile,
then their effect can be ignored
◼ The transmission bandwidth:
❑ Depending on the relation between the signal
bandwidth and the coherence bandwidth of the
channel, the signal is either distorted or faded
❑ If the signal bandwidth is greater than coherence
bandwidth it creates distortion
❑ If the signal bandwidth is smaller than coherence
bandwidth it create small scale fading
The coherence bandwidth of a wireless channel is the range of frequencies
that are allowed to pass through the channel without distortion. This is the bandwid6 th
over which the channel transfer function remains virtually constant.
Some Terminologies
◼ Level Crossing Rate
Average number of times per sec that the signal crosses
a certain level going in positive going direction
◼ Fading Rate
Number of times the signal envelop crosses middle
value in positive going direction per unit time
◼ Depth of Fading
Ratio of mean square value and minimum value of fading
◼ Fading Duration
Time for which signal remain below a certain threshold

7
Doppler shiftBook sy
◼ Change in the apparent frequency of a signal as
Tx and Rx move toward or away from each other
◼ If mobile is moving towards the direction of arrival
of the signal, the Doppler shift is positive(apparent
received frequency is increased i.e. fc+fd) and
vice versa
Mathematically

8
Impulse response of Multipath channel
◼ The small scale variations of a mobile radio signal
can be directly related to the impulse response of
mobile radio channel.
◼ Impulse response contains information to Simulate
and Analyze the channel
◼ The mobile radio channel can be modeled as
Linear filter with time varying impulse response
◼ In case of mobile reception, the length and
attenuation of various paths will change with time
i.e. Channel is time varying.
◼ The time variation is strictly due to receiver
movement (t=d/v).
9
Impulse response of Multipath channel
◼ At any distance d=vt, the received signal is the
combination of different signals coming with
different propagation delays depending on the
distance between transmitter and receiver.

◼ So the impulse response is a function of d, which

is the separation between the transmitter and
receiver.

10
Impulse response Model of Multipath channel

11
Impulse Response Model of Multipath channel

12
Discrete time Impulse Response Model of
Multipath channel
◼ Discretize the multipath delay axis τ into equal
time delay segments called Excess Delay Bins
◼ For N such multipath components (0…N-1)

13
Discrete time Impulse Response Model of
Multipath channel

14
Discrete time Impulse Response Model of
Multipath channel
◼ If the channel impulse response is assumed to
be time invariant over small scale time or
distance, then it may be simplified as

◼ When measuring or predicting hb(t), a probing

pulse P(t) which approximates a unit impulse
function is used as signal at the transmitter.

15
Power Delay Profile
◼ For small scale fading, the power delay profile of
channel can be found using the spatial average
of over the local area.
◼ It P(t) has time duration much smaller than the
impulse response of multipath channel, the
received power delay profile in local area can be

◼ Where the gain k relates the power of input

pulse to the received power.

16
Measuring PDPs
◼ Power Delay Profiles
❑ Are measured by channel sounding techniques
❑ Plots of relative received power as a function of
excess delay
❑ They are found by averaging intantenous power
delay measurements over a local area
❑ Local area: no greater than 6m outdoor
❑ Local area: no greater than 2m indoor
▪ Samples taken at /4 meters approximately
▪ For 450MHz – 6 GHz frequency range.

17
Small-Scale Multipath Measurements
◼ Multipath structure is very important for small
scale fading.
◼ Several Methods
❑ Direct RF Pulse System
❑ Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel
Sounding
❑ Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
◼ These techniques are also called channel
sounding techniques

18
Direct RF Pulse System
◼ This method help us to determine the power
delay profile directly
◼ Objective is to find impulse response
◼ A narrow pulse is used for channel sounding.
◼ At the receiver the signal is amplified and
detected using an envelop detector.
◼ It is then stored on a high speed digital
oscilloscope.
◼ If the receiver is set on averaging mode, the
local average power delay profile is obtained
19
Direct RF Pulse System
Tx

fc

Pulse Generator

RF Link

Rx

Digital
BPF Detector
Oscilloscope

20
Direct RF Pulse System
◼ Problems:
◼ Subject to interference
◼ Subject to noise due to wideband pass band
filter required for multipath resolution
◼ The phases of individual multi path components
are not received due to the use of envelop
detector

21
Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding
◼ The probing signal is wide band but the receiver
is narrow band
◼ The carrier signal is spread over large
bandwidth by mixing it with Pseudorandom-
noise(PN) sequence having chip rate Tc.
◼ At receiver signal is despread using same PN
◼ The transmitter chip clock rate is a little faster
then the receiver chip clock rate
◼ The result is sliding correlator.
◼ If the sequences are not maximally correlated
then the mixer will further despread the signal
22
Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel
Sounding

23
Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel
Sounding
◼ The chip rate Rc=1/Tc.
◼ RF bandwidth = 2Rc

◼ Processing gain: :

◼ Time resolution Δτ=2Tc = 2/Rc

◼ Sliding factor (gamma)γ=α/α-β
◼ Alpha= transmitter chip rate
◼ Beta=receiver chip rate
24
Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel
Sounding
◼ Advantages:
◼ Improves coverage range using same
transmitter power.
◼ Transmitter receiver synchronization is
eliminated using sliding correlator.
◼ Disadvantages:
◼ Measurement are not made real time
◼ The associated time required is more
◼ Phase information is lost.
25
Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
◼ Because of the dual relationship between
time and frequency it is possible to measure
channel impulse response in frequency
domain
◼ A vector network analyzer is used.
◼ The S-parameter test set is used to monitor
the frequency response of the channel.
◼ The frequency sweeper scans a particular
frequency band by stepping through the
discrete frequencies.

26
Frequency Domain Channel Sounding

27
Frequency Domain Channel Sounding

◼ The number and spacing of frequency steps

impact the time resolution of impulse
response measurements.
◼ The response is converted to time domain by
using Inverse Discrete time Fourier
Transform(IDFT)

28
Frequency Domain Channel Sounding
◼ Disadvantages:
◼ System requires careful calibration
◼ System required hardwired synchronization
between transmitter and receiver.
◼ Practical only for indoor channel
measurements
◼ Non real time nature of measurements
◼ For time varying channels the channel
impulse response may change giving
erroneous measurements
29
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels

◼ Time Dispersion Parameters

❑ Grossly quantifies the multipath channel
❑ Determined from Power Delay Profile
❑ Parameters include
❑ Mean Access Delay
❑ RMS Delay Spread
❑ Excess Delay Spread (X dB)

◼ Coherence Bandwidth
◼ Doppler Spread and Coherence Time

30
 Timer Dispersion Parameters
❑ Determined from a power delay profile

Mean excess delay( ):

P( k )

Rms delay spread

2 2
a P( k )( k )
k k
2
ak P( k
)
k k

31
Timer Dispersion Parameters
Maximum Excess Delay (X dB):

• Defined as the time delay value after

which the multipath energy falls to X dB
below the maximum multipath energy
(not necessarily belonging to the first
arriving component).

It is also called excess delay spread.

32
RMS Delay Spread

33
Noise Threshold
◼ The values of time dispersion parameters
also depend on the noise threshold (the level
of power below which the signal is
considered as noise).

◼ If noise threshold is set too low, then the

noise will be processed as multipath and thus
causing the parameters to be higher.

34
Delay Spread, Coherence BW
◼ Describes the time dispersive nature of a channel in a local
area
◼ A received signal suffers spreading in time compared to the
transmitted signal
◼ Delay spread can range from a few hundred nanoseconds for
indoor scenario up to some microseconds in urban areas
◼ The coherence bandwidth Bc translates time dispersion into the
language of the frequency domain.
◼ It specifies the frequency range over which a channel affects
the signal spectrum nearly in the same way, causing an
approximately constant attenuation and linear change in phase
◼ The rms delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely
proportional to each other.

35
Coherence Bandwidth (BC)
❑ Range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat (i.e. channel passes all spectral
components with equal gain and linear phase).
❑ It is a definition that depends on RMS Delay Spread.
❑ Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than Bc
are affected quite differently by the channel.

f1

Receiver
f2

Multipath Channel Frequency Separation: |f1-f2|

36
 Coherence Bandwidth
Frequency correlation between two sinusoids: 0 <= Cr1, r2 <= 1.

If we define Coherence Bandwidth (BC) as the range of

frequencies over which the frequency correlation is
above 0.9, then
B C is rms delay spread
50

If we define Coherence Bandwidth as the range of

frequencies over which the frequency correlation is
above 0.5, then

This is called 50% coherence bandwidth.

37
Coherence Bandwidth
◼ Example:
◼ For a multipath channel, s is given as 1.37ms.
◼ The 50% coherence bandwidth is given as: 1/5s =
146kHz.
❑ This means that, for a good transmission from a
transmitter to a receiver, the range of transmission
frequency (channel bandwidth) should not exceed
146kHz, so that all frequencies in this band
experience the same channel characteristics.
❑ Equalizers are needed in order to use transmission
frequencies that are separated larger than this value.
❑ This coherence bandwidth is enough for an AMPS
channel (30kHz band needed for a channel), but is
not enough for a GSM channel (200kHz needed per
channel).
38
Doppler Spread and Coherence time
◼ Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth describe the
time dispersive nature of the channel in a local area.
They don’t offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by relative motion of
transmitter and receiver.
◼ Doppler Spread and Coherence time are parameters
which describe the time varying nature of the channel
in a small-scale region.
◼ Time varying nature of channel caused either by
relative motion between BS and mobile or by motions
of objects in channel are categorized by BD and Tc

39
Doppler Spread
◼ Measure of spectral broadening caused by
motion
◼ We know how to compute Doppler shift: fd
◼ Doppler spread, BD, is defined as the maximum
Doppler shift: fm = v/
◼ if Tx signal bandwidth (Bs) is large such that Bs
>> BD then effects of Doppler spread are NOT
important so Doppler spread is only important
for low bps (data rate) applications (e.g. paging),
slow fading channel

40
 Coherence Time
❑ Coherence time is the time duration over which the channel
impulse response is essentially invariant.
❑ If the symbol period of the baseband signal (reciprocal of the
baseband signal bandwidth) is greater the coherence time, than
the signal will distort, since channel will change during the
transmission of the signal .

TS Coherence time (TC) is defined as:

TC TC
fm

f2
f1

t1 t=t2 - t1 t2

41
Coherence Time

❑ Coherence time is also defined as:

T 0 .423
C
fm

❑ Coherence time definition implies that two signals arriving

with a time separation greater than TC are affected
differently by the channel.

42
43
Classification of Multipath Channels
◼ Depending on the relation between signal parameters
(bandwidth and symbol period) and channel
parameters (delay spread and Doppler spread)
different signals undergo different types of fading
◼ Based on delay spread the types of small scale
fading are
❑ Flat fading
❑ Frequency selective fading
◼ Based on Doppler spread the types of small scale
fading are
❑ Fast fading
❑ Slow fading

44
Flat fading:
◼ Occurs when the amplitude of the received signal
changes with time
◼ Occurs when symbol period of the transmitted signal
is much larger than the Delay Spread of the channel
❑ Bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow.

◼ The channel has a flat transfer function with almost

linear phase, thus affecting all spectral components
of the signal in the same way
◼ May cause deep fades.
❑ Increase the transmit power to combat this situation.

45
Flat Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,

TS

0 TS TS+

Occurs when: B : Coherence bandwidth

C
BS << BC BS: Signal bandwidth
and TS: Symbol period
TS >> : Delay Spread

46
Frequency selective fading:
A channel that is not a flat fading channel is called
frequency selective fading because different
frequencies within a signal are attenuated differently
by the MRC.
◼ Occurs when channel multipath delay spread is
greater than the symbol period.
❑ Symbols face time dispersion
❑ Channel induces Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
◼ Bandwidth of the signal s(t) is wider than the
channel impulse response.

47
Frequency Selective Fading
s(t) r(t)
h(t,

TS

0 TS 0 TS TS+

Causes distortion of the received baseband signal

Causes Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI)

Occurs when:
BS > BC As a rule of thumb:TS <
and
TS <

48
Fast Fading
◼ Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is larger than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal
◼ The channel changes during a symbol period.
◼ The channel changes because of receiver motion.
◼ Coherence time of the channel is smaller than the
symbol period of the transmitter signal

Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal

BS < BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS > T C TC: Coherence Bandwidth

49
Slow Fading
◼ Rate of change of the channel characteristics
is much smaller than the
Rate of change of the transmitted signal

Occurs when: BS: Bandwidth of the signal

BS >> BD BD: Doppler Spread
and TS: Symbol Period
TS << TC TC: Coherence Bandwidth

50
51
Fading Distributions
◼ Describes how the received signal amplitude
changes with time.
◼ Remember that the received signal is combination of multiple
signals arriving from different directions, phases and
amplitudes.
◼ With the received signal we mean the baseband
signal, namely the envelope of the received signal (i.e. r(t)).

◼ Its is a statistical characterization of the multipath

fading.
◼ Two distributions
❑ Rayleigh Fading
❑ Ricean Fading

52
Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions

◼ Describes the received signal envelope

distribution for channels, where all the
components are non-LOS:
◼ i.e. there is no line-of–sight (LOS) component.
◼ Describes the received signal envelope
distribution for channels where one of the
multipath components is LOS component.
◼ i.e. there is one LOS component.

53
Rayleigh Fading

54
Rayleigh
❑ Rayleigh distribution has the probability density
function (PDF) given by:

2
p (r ) 2
e (0 r )

(r 0)

• is the time average power of the received signal

before envelope detection.
• is the rms value of the received voltage signal
before envelope detection

55
Rayleigh
The probability that the envelope of the received signal does not exceed a
specified value of R is given by the CDF:

P(R) Pr ( r R) p ( r ) dr 1 e
0

rmean E[r ] rp ( r ) dr 1 .2533

0
2
rmedian
1
rmedian 1 .177 found by solving p ( r ) dr
2 0

rrms 2

56
Rayleigh PDF
0.7

0.6
mean = 1.2533
median = 1.177
0.5
variance = 0.4292
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
1 2 3 4 5

57
Ricean Distribution
◼ When there is a stationary (non-fading) LOS
signal present, then the envelope distribution
is Ricean.
◼ The Ricean distribution degenerates to
Rayleigh when the dominant component
fades away.
◼ The Pdf of Ricean function is given as

58
Ricean Distribution

59
 IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services

▪ In 1990, IEEE 802 Committee formed a new

working group, IEEE 802.11, specifically devoted
to wireless LANs, with a charter to develop a
MAC protocol and physical medium specification
 Key IEEE 802.11 Standards
Standard Scope
IEEE Physical layer: 5-GHz OFDM at rates from 6 to 54 Mbps
802.11a
IEEE
Physical layer: 2.4-GHz DSSS at 5.5 and 11 Mbps
802.11b
IEEE
Bridge operation at 802.11 MAC layer
802.11c
IEEE Physical layer: Extend operation of 802.11 WLANs to new
802.11d regulatory domains (countries)
IEEE MAC: Enhance to improve quality of service and enhance
802.11e security mechanisms
IEEE
Physical layer: Extend 802.11b to data rates >20 Mbps
802.11g
IEEE
MAC: Enhance security and authentication mechanisms
802.11i
IEEE
Physical/MAC: Enhancements to enable higher throughput
802.11n
IEEE Recommended practice for the evaluation of 802.11
802.11T wireless performance
IEEE Physical/MAC: Enhancements to support 0.5–1 Gbps in 5-GHz
802.11ac band
IEEE Physical/MAC: Enhancements to support ≥ 1 Gbps in the 60-
802.11ad GHz band
 Wi-Fi Alliance
▪ There is always a concern whether products from different vendors
will successfully interoperate

▪ Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA)

▪ Industry consortium formed in 1999

▪ Renamed the Wi-Fi Alliance

▪ Created a test suite to certify interoperability for 802.11 products

 Extended IEEE 802.x LAN
service set (ESS)
portal

Distribution System (DS)

Access Access
point point
(AP) (AP)
Basic service STA1 STA5
set (BSS)
STA7
STA2 STA6
STA4 Basic
STA3
Service Set

STA = station

Figure 13.4 IEEE 802.11 Architecture

 IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services

▪ Basic service set (BSS) consists of some number of stations executing

the same MAC protocol and competing for access to the same shared
wireless medium

▪ A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone distribution

system (DS) through an access point (AP)

▪ In a BSS, client stations do not communicate directly with one another

▪ In an IBSS the stations all communicate directly

▪ No AP is involved.

▪ An IBSS is typically an ad hoc network.

 IEEE 802.11 Architecture and Services

▪ An extended service set (ESS) consists of two or more basic service

sets interconnected by a distribution system

▪ To integrate the IEEE 802.11 architecture with a traditional wired LAN,

a portal is used
 IEEE 802.11 Operating Modes

▪ 802.11 Infrastructure Mode

o at least one wireless AP and one wireless client.

▪ 802.11 Ad Hoc Mode

o wireless clients communicate directly with each other without the

use of a wireless AP
 IEEE 802.11 Terminology
Access point (AP) Any entity that has station functionality and provides
access to the distribution system via the wireless
medium for associated stations
Basic service set A set of stations controlled by a single coordination
(BSS) function
Coordination function The logical function that determines when a station
operating within a BSS is permitted to transmit and
may be able to receive PDUs
Distribution system A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and
(DS) integrated LANs to create an ESS
Extended service set A set of one or more interconnected BSSs and
(ESS) integrated LANs that appear as a single BSS to the LLC
layer at any station associated with one of these BSSs
Frame Synonym for MAC protocol data unit
MAC protocol data The unit of data exchanged between two peer MAC
unit (MPDU) entities using the services of the physical layer
MAC service data unit Information that is delivered as a unit between MAC
(MSDU) users
Station Any device that contains an IEEE 802.11 conformant MAC
and physical layer
 IEEE 802.11 Terminology
▪ Each layer has Service Data Unit (SDU) as input

▪ Each layer makes Protocol Data Unit (PDU) as output to communicate

with the corresponding layer at the other end

▪ SDUs may be fragmented or aggregated to form a PDU

▪ PDUs have a header specific to the layer

 IEEE 802.11 Services
IEEE 802.11 defines nine services that need to be provided by WLAN

Service Provider Used to support

Association Distribution MSDU delivery
system
Authentication Station LAN access and
security
Deauthentication Station LAN access and
security
Dissassociation Distribution MSDU delivery
system
Distribution Distribution MSDU delivery
system
Integration Distribution MSDU delivery
system
MSDU delivery Station MSDU delivery
Privacy Station LAN access and
security
Reassocation Distribution MSDU delivery
system
Distribution of Messages Within a DS
Services involved with the distribution of messages within a DS

Distribution service Integration service

Primary service used by

Enables transfer of data
stations to exchange MAC
between a station on an
frames when frame must
IEEE 802.11 LAN and a
traverse the DS to get from
station on an integrated
a station in one BSS to a
IEEE 802.x LAN
station in another BSS

If stations are in the same Takes care of any address

BSS, distribution service translation and media
logically goes through the conversion logic required
single AP of that BSS for the exchange of data
 Association-Related Services

▪ DS requires information about stations within the ESS

that is provided by the association-related services

▪ Station must be associated before DS can deliver data to

or accept data from it

▪ 3 mobility transition types

No transition BSS transition ESS transition

stationary or in between BSS in between BSS in
single BSS same ESS different ESS
 Association-Related Services
▪ Association station must establish an association with an
AP within a particular BSS
▪ The AP can then communicate this information to other APs
within the ESS to facilitate routing and delivery of addressed
frames

▪ Reassociation Enables an established association to be

transferred from one AP to another, allowing a mobile
station to move from one BSS to another
▪ Disassociation: A notification from either a station or an
AP that an existing association is terminated
IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control

Access
control
Reliable
data Security
delivery
MAC layer
covers three
functional
areas
 Reliable Data Delivery

▪ 802.11 physical and MAC layers unreliable

o Noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in the loss of a
significant number of frames

o The issue can be addressed at a higher layer such as TCP

▪ Timers used for retransmission at higher layers are typically on the order of seconds

▪ More efficient to deal with errors at MAC level

▪ 802.11 includes frame exchange protocol

o Station receiving frame returns acknowledgment (ACK) frame

o Exchange treated as atomic unit
o If no ACK within short period of time, retransmit
 Reliable Data Delivery

▪ To further enhance reliability, a four

frame exchange may be used Source issues a Request
to Send (RTS) frame
o RTS alerts all stations within range of
source that exchange is under way Destination responds
with Clear to Send (CTS)
o CTS alerts all stations within range of
destination
After receiving CTS,
o Other stations don’t transmit to avoid source transmits data

collision
Destination responds
o RTS and CTS exchange is a required with ACK
function of MAC but may be disabled
 MAC Algorithm

▪ Two types of proposals for a MAC algorithm

o Distributed access protocol which distribute the decision to transmit over all the
nodes using a carrier sense mechanism

o Centralized access protocol which involve regulation of transmission by a

centralized decision maker
 LOGICAL LINK CONTROL (LLC)

Contention-free
service
Contention
service
Point
Coordination
Function (PCF)
MAC
layer
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

PHYSICAL LAYER
(802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, 802.11ad)

Figure 13.5 IEEE 802.11 Protocol Architecture

 Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)

▪ DCF sublayer uses

If station has frame to
CSMA algorithm send it listens to
medium
▪ Does not include a
collision detection If medium is idle, station
may transmit
function because it is
not practical on a
wireless network
▪ Includes a set of delays
that amounts as a Else waits until current
transmission is complete
priority scheme
 Wait for frame
to transmit

Medium No
idle?

Yes

Wait IFS

Still No Wait until current

idle? transmission ends

Yes
Wait IFS
Transmit frame

Still No
idle?

Yes

Exponential backoff
while medium idle

Transmit frame

Figure 13.6 IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control Logic

 Priority IFS Values

PIFS DIFS
SIFS
point coordination distributed coordination
short IFS
function IFS function IFS

Used as
Used by the
minimum delay
For all centralized
for
immediate controller in
asynchronous
response PCF scheme
frames
actions when issuing
contending for
polls
access
 Immediate access
when medium is free DIFS Contention window
longer than DIFS
PIFS
DIFS
SIFS
Busy Medium Backoff window Next frame
time

Slot time
Defer access
Select slot using binary exponential backoff

(a) Basic Access Method

During the first part

of Superframe Superframe (fixed nominal length)
interval, the point
coordinator issues Superframe (fixed nominal length)
Foreshortened actual
polls in a round- superframe period
Contention-free Contention period
robin fashion to all period
stations PCF (optional)
DCF
Busy medium PCF (optional)
configured for
polling. The point Variable length
(per superframe) PCF CF-Burst;
coordinator then defers asynchronous
traffic defers
idles for the
remainder of the
PCF Superframe Construction
superframe,
allowing a
contention period
for asynchronous Figure 13.7 IEEE 802.11 MAC Timing
access
(b)
 SIFS

▪ Any station using SIFS to determine transmission opportunity has

the highest priority

▪ SIFS is used in the following circumstances:

o Acknowledgment (ACK)
▪ Station responds with an ACK frame after waiting only for a
SIFS gap

▪ Provides for efficient collision recovery

o Clear to Send (CTS)

▪ Station ensures data frame gets through by issuing RTS
SIFS
 Point Coordination Function (PCF)

▪ Point coordination function (PCF) resides in a point coordinator also known as

Access Point , to coordinate the communication within the network

▪ The AP waits for PIFS duration rather than DIFS duration to grasp the channel

▪ Channel access in PCF mode is centralized

o Access to the medium is restricted by the point coordinator

o Associated stations can transmit data only when they are allowed to do so
by the point coordinator

▪ Due to the priority of PCF over DCF, stations that only use DCF might
not gain access to the medium

▪ To prevent this, a repetition interval has been designed to cover both

Contention free or PCF & Contention Based or DCF traffic
 PCF Operation

▪ Reserving the medium during the contention-free period

▪ The polling list

o Stations get on the polling list when they associate with the AP
o Polls any associated stations on a polling list for data transmissions
o Each CF-Poll is a license to transmit one frame
o Multiple frames can be transmitted only if the access point sends
multiple poll requests
 octets

2 Frame Control
2 Duration/ID

6 Address 1

6 Address 2

6 MAC
Address 3
header
2 Sequence Control

6 Address 4

2 QoS Control

4 High Throughput Control

Always present
0—7951
Present only in
certain frame
types and subtypes

4 Frame Check Sequence (FCS)

Figure 13.8 IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format

 Control Frames
Assist in the reliable delivery of data frames

Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll)

• The purpose is to request that the AP transmit a frame that has been
buffered for this station while the station was in power saving mode

Request to Send (RTS)

• First frame in four-way frame exchange
Clear to Send (CTS)

• Second frame in four-way exchange

Acknowledgment (ACK)
• Acknowledges correct receipt

Contention-Free (CF)-end
• Announces end of contention-free period that is part of PCF

CF-End + CF-Ack:
• Acknowledges CF-end to end contention-free period and release stations
from associated restrictions
Control Frames

Duration field in RTS frame

 Control Frames

The receiver of a CTS frame is the transmitter of the previous RTS frame, so the MAC
copies the transmitter address of the RTS frame into the receiver address of the CTS frame
 Data Frames
▪ Data frames carry higher-level protocol data in the frame body

▪ Eight data frame subtypes

o Organized in two groups

▪ First four carry upper-level data

▪ Remaining do not carry any user data

o Data
▪ Simplest data frame, it may be used in both a contention or contention-free period
o Data + CF-Ack
▪ Carries data and acknowledges previously received data during contention-free period
o Data + CF-Poll
▪ Used by point coordinator to deliver data and also to request that the mobile station send a data
frame that it may have buffered
o Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
▪ Combines Data + CF-Ack and Data + CF-Poll
Data Frames
 Management Frames

Used to manage
communications between
stations and APs Management of associations
• Request, response,
reassociation, dissociation,
and authentication
 Management Frames
▪ Beacon

o announce the existence of a network

o transmitted at regular intervals to allow mobile stations to find and identify

a network, as well as match parameters for joining the network

▪ Probe Request

o Mobile stations use Probe Request frames to scan an area for existing
802.11 networks

o Include SSID and the rates supported by the mobile station

o Stations that receive Probe Requests use the information to determine

whether the mobile station can join the network

▪ Probe Response
 Management Frames
▪ Disassociation and Deauthentication

▪ Association Request

▪ Authentication