Chapter 9 Sleep

Madeline Carter | Psychology, Unit 4 https://quizlet.com/_3knpgk

Sleep is defined as a reversible state of perceptual disengagement from and unresponsiveness to the environment.
Reversibility (a sleeper can be woken with a strong enough stimulus and therefore ‘reverse back’ to the waking state
quite quickly – if not, the state may be a coma, an anaesthetic state or a similar condition), perceptual disengagement
(means that the sleeper has no awareness of the sights, sounds, smells and other sensory stimuli in their external
environment of which they are usually conscious in the waking state) and unresponsiveness to the environment are
key characteristics that enable sleep to be distinguished from other states of consciousness.

Sleep and Biological Rhythms

Biological rhythms are cyclic changes in bodily functions or activities that repeat themselves through time in the same
order (e.g. body temp, blood pressure). Each biological is said to be maintained by an internal ‘biological clock’. Two
categories of biological rhythms are circadian and ultradian rhythms.

Circadian Rhythms
Involves changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as a part of a cycle with a duration of around 24 hours.
The circadian rhythm controls how we are drowsier at night time and more alert throughout certain times of the day.
Although internally produced and persisting in the absence of external cues as sunsets, our sleep-wake cycle is
nonetheless influenced by environmental time-giving stimuli which are used to keep it in sync with the 24-hour day-
night cycle that occurs as the Earth rotates on its axis.

Environmental cues are called zeitgebers. When a clock is ‘reset’ and matched to an environmental cycle or changes
through the influence of a zeitgeber is said to be entrained. When a circadian rhythm is synchronised with the day-
night cycle is may be referred to as a diurnal rhythm.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), an area of the hypothalamus, is considered to be the ‘master’ biological clock.
The SCN is a pair of pinhead-sized structures that together contain about 20,000 neurons, it is named for its location
just above (‘supra’) the optic chiasm, the point where the optic nerves that connect the eyes and brain cross. The SCN
receives info about the amount of incoming light from the eyes and adjusts our sleep-wake cycle accordingly. It does
so by sending neuronal messages to the pineal gland to secrete more/less melatonin into the blood. High levels are
associated with levels of drowsiness and vice versa. Melatonin levels are dependent on light cues – when it gets dark,
more levels of melatonin are secreted into the bloodstream. When light is detected SCN may also increase body
temperature and secrete other stimulating hormones such as cortisol (alertness and other arousal activities).
Ultradian Rhythms
An ultradian rhythm involves changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle shorter than 24
hours. Ultradian rhythms include our heartbeat, which occurs thousands of times each day in a fairly regular and
predictable rhythm. Hunger and eating behaviour, secretion of different types of hormones, the activity of certain
neurotransmitters in the brain (such as dopamine and noradrenaline), alertness and activity levels have also been
described as ultradian rhythms that occur less frequently than heartbeat and respiration. Sleep is the best-known
example of this.

Infradian rhythms
Some rhythmic activities occur in cycles which extend longer than one day. An example of this is the menstrual cycle.

NREM and REM sleep

NREM (Non-rapid eye movement) and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep periods alternate throughout the night in a
cyclical way, with one following the other. The biological purpose or function of the alternations between NREM and
REM sleep is not yet understood, but irregular cycling and absence of either sleep state are associated with sleep
disturbances and disorders.
 A complete sleep cycle consists of a period of NREM
sleep (but not necessarily all four stages) and a period
of REM sleep. An ideal case for a young adult would
consist of each cycle is repeating about five or six
times each night, depending on the duration of the
sleep. The lengths of individual cycles show
considerable variability during an entire sleep episode.
The average length of each NREM–REM sleep cycle
is commonly described as ‘about 90 minutes’.

NREM Sleep
NREM sleep is traditionally subdivided into four
stages. Approximately 75–80% of our total sleep time is spent in NREM sleep. Overall, NREM sleep is characterised
by a reduction in physiological activity. Each successive stage of NREM sleep is indicative of a deeper sleep. As sleep
gets deeper, the brain waves get slower and bigger, breathing and heart rate slow down, and blood pressure
drops. Sleep onset (transition period from being awake to being asleep) is often called a hypnagogic state because of
the unusual hallucinatory type perceptual experiences that may occur. The length of time it takes to transition from
being awake to being asleep is called sleep latency. Dreams in this stage are known as ‘dream imagery’ and are
characterised by abstract shapes and colours rather than a storyline like REM.

Stage 1
Stage 1 occurs as we drift into and out of a true sleep state (low arousal threshold). Stage 1 is hard to distinguish
however it is characterised by a lower level of bodily arousal (decrease in heart rate, respiration, body temperature and
muscle tension). There is an overall slowdown in the brain wave patterns (irregular theta waves turn into rhythmic
alpha waves). For a ‘normal’ young adult, stage 1 lasts for about 5 minutes after falling asleep depending on the
person.

Stage 2
Light sleep and has a higher arousal threshold. Stage 2 lasts for about 10 to 25 minutes. It is characterised by body
movements lessening, breathing becomes more regular, blood pressure and temperature continue to fall, heart rate is
slower and eye movements stop. The brain wave pattern is slower (predominantly theta waves). Brief bursts of rapid
brain waves (called sleep spindles) periodically appear.

Stage 3
Moderately deep sleep, stage 3 is a transitionary stage between stage 2 and stage 4. It lasts for up to 10 minutes and it
is characterised by the same characteristics as stage 2 and the individual is extremely relaxed and less responsive to
external stimuli. The arousal threshold is higher than stage 2. EEG activity is noticeably different from the earlier
NREM stages, brain waves slowly further, with delta waves becoming increasingly prominent and making up about
20-50% of brain wave patterns.

Stage 4
Deepest stage of sleep with the highest arousal threshold. Muscles are deeply relaxed and we can barely move. No
eye movements. Heart rate, blood pressure and body temperature are at their lowest and most regular. Delta waves
occur 50% of the time (signals commencement of stage). Sleep inertia may occur for those woken in this stage and it
is characterised by feeling groggy. Stage 4 makes up about 10 to 15% of total sleep time.

REM sleep – paradoxical sleep

Approx 20-25% of sleep in spent in REM. The body’s internal functioning is more active during REM. The heart rate
is faster and more irregular, blood pressure rises, however, the sleeper looks completely relaxed. Dreams are much
more vivid and regular during REM than N-REM. People that have been blind since birth still experience REM. REM
is sometimes split into ‘sub-states’ called tonic REM and phasic REM. The tonic-phasic distinction is primarily used
for research purposes.
Theories of the Purpose and Function of Sleep
Restoration Theory (recovery theory/repair theory) proposes that sleep provides ‘time out’ to help us recover from
depleting activities during waking time that uses up the body’s physical and mental resources. Sleep provides an
opportunity for the body to recover by replenishing resources that has been used up – including neurotransmitters,
allowing damaged cells to be repaired, muscles to be detoxified or rid themselves of waste products. Research
suggests it assists in recovering from an illness also.

It is suggested NREM and REM has different restorative effects. NREM important for restoring and repairing the
body and REM has a restorative role throughout the lifespan by providing stimulation that is essential for developing
the brain. REM may also assist in the consolidation of new memories – consolidation of procedural, implicit
memories. There is no evidence suggesting that sleep is detrimental to memory formation.

Evolutionary (circadian) theory (adaptive theory/survival theory) proposes that sleep evolved to enhance survival by
protecting an organism through making it inactive during the part of the day when it is most dangerous to move about.
Once an organism has fulfilled all its survival functions (eating, drinking, caring for its young and reproducing) it
must spend the rest of its time conserving energy. Large animals vulnerable to being attacked tend to sleep much
shorter than large animal who are not considered ‘vulnerable’. This theory does not explain why we need sleep, nor
does it account for the loss of awareness during sleep.

Difference in Sleep Patterns across the Lifespan

The total amount of time we spend sleeping gradually decreases as we get older, the proportion of time spent in REM
sleep decreases markedly during the first two years and then remains relatively stable through to old age.

Newborns and Infants

From birth to about two months of age, sleep onset may occur at any time of the day or night, with no regular rhythm.
Sleep duration tends to be irregular, with one episode lasting from 30 minutes to 3 or 4 hours. The cyclic alternation
between REM and NREM is present from birth, but there are fewer sleep cycles. More than half of an infant’s sleep is
active, replicating or being in REM. Sleep onset also occurs through the REM sleep, not NREM stage 1. The irregular
sleep patterns occur as the infant has not yet gained consistency within its circadian rhythm and by 2 to 3 months, the
circadian rhythm begins to exert its influence – particularly the cyclical production of melatonin, causing the infant to
have longer periods of wakefulness throughout the day and greater influence of environmental cues such as night and
day. By 3 months of age, REM and NREM stages of sleep become more regular and sleep onset begins in NREM 1.
By 6 months, continuous sleep episodes last for about 5 to 8 hours at night. By 12 months, the infant sleeps 14 to 15
hours per day.

Young Children
Total sleep time continues to decrease as the child gets older, from about 13 to 11 hours between 2 to 5 years of age.
This has been attributed to maturation and other biological factors, as well as social factors such as decreased daytime
napping. The proportion of REM sleep continues to decrease.

Adolescents
The total time spent sleeping decreases, as does the amount of REM sleep. By mid-adolescence, the first REM period
is unlikely to be skipped, and a sleep episode resembles that of young adults. Within NREM sleep, the amount of
stages 3 and 4 sleep progressively declines and the time spent in stage 2 increases. By late adolescence, the amount of
slow wave deep sleep has decreased by nearly 40% since early childhood. Research findings indicate that adolescents
tend to get less sleep than they need to function at their best

Adults
Individuals vary in their sleep needs, particularly as they get older, but most people sleep appreciably less as they age.
By adulthood, we average about 8 hours of sleep a night, 20–25% of which is REM sleep. Eventually, stages 3 and 4
disappear altogether, particularly in males. Females appear to maintain slow wave deep sleep later into life than men.
Sleep also tends to become more fragmented as we age, with more night-time awakenings among older adults.
Advanced sleep phase syndrome refers to how people tend to become sleepier in the early evening and wake earlier in
the morning compared to younger adults. As people age, they tend to have a harder time falling asleep and more
trouble staying asleep than when they were younger. The prevalence of sleep disorders also tends to increase with age.

Sleep Disorders | Overview https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2yfUL8uct0

Research shows sleep is vital for mental and physical health. Fatigue can cause heart disease, diabetes, dementia,
obesity and depression. Sleep disorders are described as any that affects a person’s ability to fall asleep or stay asleep,
or stay awake during the day. There is almost 100 different types of sleep disorders.

Circadian Rhythm and Brain Clock | Scishow https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UbQ0RxQu2gM

Our internal clock is synced to day and night – circadian means approximately a day. The circadian rhythm originates
in the hypothalamus – a small area at the base of the brain that’s responsible for connecting the nervous system to the
indecorum system. Our biological clock is directed by a group of nerve cells within the hypothalamus called the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SMN). It is connected to our optic nerves allowing the SMN cells to respond to light and
dark. When it senses light in the morning, it raises our temperature, heart rate, blood pressure and delays the release of
hormones like melatonin.

Characteristics of NREM and REM for a young adult

NREM REM
- NREM-1 (4-5%), NREM-2 (45-55%), NREM-3 - Phasic and Tonic
(8%) NREM-4 (10-15%) - Meaningful, vivid, structured dreams (80%)
- Abstract dreams (20%) - REM becomes longer throughout the sleep
- Less likely to remember dreams - More likely to remember dreams
- Stages 3 and 4 get shorter as sleep progresses - Rapid eye movement
- Non-rapid eye movement - Beta brain waves
- Theta, alpha and delta brain waves - 20-25% of sleep spent in REM
- 75-80% of sleep spend in the NREM stage - Heart rate faster and more irregular
- Characterized by a reduction in physiological - Blood pressure rises
activity - Body movements slow
- Breathing and heart rate slow - Variable arousal threshold
- Body movements decrease as the sleep gets
deeper
- Blood pressure drops
- Brain waves gets slower and bigger
- NREM-1 (low arousal threshold), NREM-2
(low/medium arousal threshold),, NREM-3
 (medium/high arousal threshold),, NREM-4
(high arousal threshold),
- Sleep gets deeper through each stages

Learning Activity 9.1

1. Sleep is defined as a reversible behavioral state of perceptual disengagement from and unresponsiveness to
the environment
2. Sleep is considered to be an altered state of consciousness as it distinctly different from normal waking
consciousness.
3. Describe three key characteristics that best distinguish sleep from other states of consciousness. Explain with
reference to an animal in a hibernating ASC.
4. Comment on the suitability of a definition of sleep that mainly refers to a naturally occurring, temporary loss
of consciousness.
5. Define the term biological rhythm. (a) Describe the relationship between a biological rhythm and a biological
clock. (b) Is a biological clock the same as a circadian rhythm? If so, why? If not, how are they related? (c)
6. List three criteria that could be used to assess whether a biological rhythm could be called a circadian rhythm.
7. Distinguish between circadian and ultradian rhythms? (a) Why can sleep be described as an ultradian rhythm?
(b)
8. Explain the meaning of entrainment in relation to a circadian sleep–wake cycle.
9. Explain the roles of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), pineal gland, melatonin, light and other
environmental cues in regulating the human sleep–wake cycle. You may use a diagram to support your
explanation.
10. Explain from a biological perspective why digital media use for a prolonged period when in bed just before
sleep can adversely impact on the onset of sleep.

Learning Activity 9.4

1. Copy and complete the table below to summarize distinguishing characteristics of NREM and REM sleep.
Type of Duration per cycle Arousal threshold Dreams Percentage of time spent
Sleep in stage
NREM-1 1-8 minutes Low Opposite to REM 4-5%
and much more
abstract
NREM-2 10-25 minutes Still low and easily woken Opposite to REM 45-55%
however higher than and much more
NREM-1 abstract
NREM-3 Up to 10 minutes Higher than NREM-2 Opposite to REM 20-50%
and much more
abstract
NREM-4 20-40 minutes Highest arousal threshold Opposite to REM 10-15%
of all the stages and much more
abstract
REM Lengthen as sleep It varies during the period Occur more 20-25%
episodes progress, starts of REM. Usually similar to frequently, more
off for around 1-5 NREM 2 or 4 vivid, more
minutes, 12 -15 minutes structured, more
and then 20-25 minutes likely to
remember

2. Refer to the table and list three characteristics that best distinguish NREM and REM sleep. Explain why
NREM and REM sleep are considered to be two different states of sleep.
3. Explain whether the NREM stages are four different states of consciousness.
 4. Why are NREM stages 3 and 4 commonly referred to as slow wave sleep?
5. Why REM sleep is sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep?
6. Explain whether REM sleep is best described as deep sleep or light sleep. (a) Distinguish between a sleep
cycle and a sleep episode. (b) Explain whether sleep cycles and sleep episodes may occur voluntarily,
involuntary or both.
7. Outline the pattern and proportions of NREM and REM sleep in a typical night’s sleep by a young adult. You
may use a diagram (such as a chart or Hypnogram) to support your description. (c)
8. When could you experience a hypnagogic state? (a) Explain whether this is an ASC distinguishable from
sleep or dreaming. (b)
9. In which half of a sleep episode is a person: more easily awakened? More likely to be harder to awaken?
Likely to be dreaming? Explain each answer.
10. If you wanted to wake up mid-dream as soon as possible after falling asleep, how would you calculate when
to set up your alarm?

Learning Activity 9.7

Identify the sleep cycles, how much time spent in REM, how much time spent time spent in NREM-4, note where
REM is marked on each and why, age of sleepers, any identifiable problems, what happens to REM during the night
for each sleeper and what happens to NREM-3 and NREM-4 during the night?

Hypnogram 1

Graph is showing sleep of a young adult, 11pm-6am. Just after 11 they fall into NREM-1 and fall into NREM-4 at
roughly 11:30. They spend roughly half an hour in this stage.

Hypnogram 2

Hypnogram 3
Learning Activity 9.8

Analysis of data on physiological responses during sleep

A researcher obtained sleep data on three participants observed in a sleep laboratory. Extracts from the data are
summarised below. Consider the data for each participant and identify the NREM stage during which the data were
obtained or whether the data indicate REM sleep.

Participant 1
EOG pattern: no eye movement
EMG pattern: little muscle tension and movement
EEG pattern: brain wave activity quite slow (mainly medium amplitude, medium frequency theta waves)
Other physiological responses: breathing has settled into a more regular pattern; slight drop in blood pressure,
temperature and heart rate
Observations:
Participant reported that they were ‘just dozing’ during this time.
Participant reported hearing something smash on the floor in the sleep researcher’s office (low arousal threshold).

Participant 2
EOG pattern: frequent eye movements under closed eyelids
EMG pattern: no muscle tension or movement apart from occasional facial twitches
EEG pattern: irregular high-frequency brain wave activity (periods of low amplitude beta-type brain waves and
occasionally some alpha-type waves)
Other physiological responses: fast and irregular heart rate and breathing; relatively high blood pressure
Observations:
Participant was difficult to awaken (high arousal threshold).
Participant reported they had been dreaming and could describe the dream in vivid detail.

Participant 3
EOG pattern: no eye movement
EMG pattern: almost no muscle tension or movement
EEG pattern: only very slow brain waves (low frequency, high amplitude delta)
Other physiological responses: heart rate, blood pressure and temperature all low; slow and steady breathing
Observations:
Participant was very difficult to awaken (high arousal threshold).
Participant was disoriented on awakening.
Participant reported they had been dreaming but had limited recall of the dream.

Learning Activity 9.9

1. Briefly describe the purpose and function of sleep with reference to restoration theory (a). Outline the
differing restorative effects of NREM and REM sleep. Explain the meaning of REM rebound and why it
occurs. (b)
2. Outline empirical research in support of restoration theory.
3. Briefly describe the purpose and function of sleep with reference to evolutionary (circadian) theory.
4. Outline empirical research in support of evolutionary (circadian) theory.
 5. What are the main limitations of each of the theories?

Learning Activity 9.11

1. Construct a table to summarise sleep–wake patterns of newborn infants, infants, adolescents, adults and
elderly people with reference to two distinguishing features of each lifespan stage.
2. Briefly describe five general trends in the pattern and proportions of NREM and REM sleep across the
lifespan. (a) Explain age-related changes in sleep in three lifespan stages with reference to circadian rhythm
changes. (b) Give two examples of psychological or social factors that may influence age-related changes. (c)

Arousal threshold level of sleep from which a sleeping person can be awakened
Biological rhythm a naturally occurring pattern of cyclic changes in a bodily function or state that repeats itself over time; see
also circadian rhythm and ultradian rhythm
Circadian rhythm a biological rhythm involving changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle with a
duration of about 24 hours; compare with ultradian rhythm
Circadian rhythm phase disorder a sleep disorder involving sleep disruption that is primarily due to a mismatch between an
individual's sleep-wake pattern and the pattern that is desired or required
Entrain resetting and matching a clock to an environmental cycle or changes through the influence of a zeitgeber
Evolutionary (circadian) theory a theory on the purpose and function of sleep proposing that sleep evolved to enhance survival
by protecting an organism through making it inactive during the part of the day when it is most risky or dangerous to move about;
also called circadian theory
Hypnogram 'sleep graph'
Melatonin a hormone secreted by the pineal gland in relation to the amount of light that is detected; influences alertness and
drowsiness and timing of the sleep-wake cycle
NREM sleep non-rapid eye movement sleep conventionally subdivided into four stages involving increasingly deeper sleep and
constituting about 75-80% of a typical night's sleep
Perceptual disengagement state in which a sleeper has no awareness of sensory stimuli in their external environment of which
they are usually conscious in the waking state
REM rebound following a period of lost REM sleep, spending more time than usual in REM sleep when next asleep
REM sleep rapid-eye movement sleep during which the eyeballs rapidly move beneath closed eyelids; constitutes about 20-25%
of a typical night's sleep and is the period in which most dreaming occurs
Restoration theory a theory on the purpose and function of sleep proposing that sleep provides 'time out' to help us recover from
depleting activities during waking time that use up the body's physical and mental resources
Reversibility a sleeper can always be awoken with a strong enough stimulus and therefore 'reverse back' to the waking state quite
quickly
Sleep a reversible behavioural state of perceptual disengagement from and unresponsiveness to the environment
Sleep-wake cycle a change in the timing of the major sleep episode, either through forward or backward movement
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) an area of the brains hypothalamus that regulates the timing and activity of the sleep-wake cycle
(and other biological rhythms)
Ultradian rhythm changes in bodily functions or activities that occur as part of a cycle shorter than 24 hours; compare with
circadian rhythm