Fluid Mechanics

Introduction
 Fluid
 A fluid is defined as:
“A substance that continually deforms (flows)
under an applied shear stress regardless of the
magnitude of the applied stress”.
 It is a subset of the phases of matter and includes
liquids, gases, plasmas and, to some extent, plastic
solids.
 Fluid Vs Solid Mechanics
 Fluid mechanics:
“The study of the physics of materials which take the shape of their
container.” Or
“Branch of Engg. science that studies fluids and forces on them.”
 Solid Mechanics:
“The study of the physics of materials with a defined rest shape.”
 Fluid Mechanics can be further subdivided into fluid statics, the study of
fluids at rest, and kinematics, the study of fluids in motion and fluid
dynamics, the study of effect of forces on fluid motion.
 In the modern discipline called Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD),
computational approach is used to develop solutions to fluid mechanics
problems.
 Hydrostatics
 Hydrostatics is a Branch of physics that deals with the
characteristics of fluids at rest, particularly with the
pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) on
an immersed body.

 In applications, the principles of hydrostatics are used for

problems relating to pressure in deep water (pressure
increases with depth) and high in the atmosphere
(pressure lessens with altitude).
 Hydrodynamics
 A branch of physics that deals with the motion of fluids and
the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids and in
motion relative to them.

 Hydrodynamics is the study of liquids in motion.

 Examples of applications include: determining the mass flow
rate of fluids through pipelines, measuring flows around
bridge pylons and off shore rigs, ship hull designing, and
measuring liquid metal flows.
 Reduced drag on structures, minimizing noise and vibration
and mitigating unwanted effects, like fouling.
 Fluid Kinematics
 Fluid kinematics is a field of physics and mechanics
concerned with the movement of fluids.
 Fluids tend to flow easily, which causes a net motion of
molecules from one point in space to another point as a
function of time.
 Using the continuum hypothesis, fluids are classified into fluid
particles, which are composed of numerous fluid molecules.
 These particles interact with one another and with the
surroundings they are in.
 Fluid motion can be described in terms of acceleration or
velocity.
 Hydraulics
 Hydraulics deals with the mechanical properties of liquids,
which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties.

 Hydraulic applications are pipe flow, dam design, pumps,

turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow
measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.

 Other applications are; heart-valve functions, blood flows,

wave dynamics, sedimentation transport, coastal engineering
and river hydrology.
 Distinction between a Solid and a Fluid

Solid Fluid
 Definite Shape and definite  Indefinite Shape and Indefinite
volume. volume & it assumes the shape
 Does not flow easily. of t h e c on t a in e r w h ic h it
occupies.
 Molecules are closer.
 Flow Easily.
 Attractive forces between the
molecules are large enough to  Molecules are far apart.
retain its shape.  Attractive forces between the
 An ideal Elastic Solid deform molecules are smaller.
under load and comes back to  Intermolecular cohesive forces
original position upon removal of in a fluid are not great enough to
load. hold the various elements of
 Plastic Solid does not comes back fluid together. Hence Fluid will
to original position upon removal flow under the action of applied
of load, means permanent stress. The flow will be
deformation takes place. continuous as long as stress is
applied.
 Distinction between a Gas and Liquid

 The molecules of a gas are  A liquid is relatively

much farther apart than incompressible.
those of a liquid.  If all pressure, except that
 Hence a gas is very of its own vapor pressure,
compressible, and when is removed, the cohesion
all external pressure is between molecules holds
removed, it tends to them together, so that the
expand indefinitely. liquid does not expand
 A gas is therefore in indefinitely.
equilibrium only when it is  Therefore a liquid may
completely enclosed. have a free surface.
SI Units
FPS Units
 Important Terms
 Density ():
Mass per unit volume of a substance.
kg/m3 in SI units m
slug/ft3 in FPS system of units 
V
 Specific weight ():
Weight per unit volume of substance.
N/m3 in SI units w
lbs/ft3 in FPS units 
V
 Density and Specific Weight of a fluid are related as:

  g
 Where g is the gravitational constant having value 9.8m/s2 or
32.2 ft/s2.
 Important Terms
 Specific Volume (v):
Volume occupied by unit mass of fluid.

 It is commonly applied to gases, and is usually expressed in

cubic feet per slug (m3/kg in SI units).
 Specific volume is the reciprocal of density.

SpecificVo lume  v 1 /
 Important Terms
 Specific gravity:
It can be defined in either of two ways:
a. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water at 4°C.
b. Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a
substance to the specific weight of water at 4°C.

 l l
s liquid  
 w w
 Example
The specific wt. of water at ordinary temperature and
pressure is 62.4lb/ft3. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.56.
Compute density of water, Specific wt. of mercury, and
density of mercury.
Solution:

1.  water   water /g  62.4/32.2  1.938 slugs/ft

3

2.  mercury  s mercury  water  13 . 56 x 62 . 4  846 lb / ft

3

3.  mercury  s mercury  water  13 . 56 x1 . 938  26 . 3 slugs / ft

3

(Where Slug = lb.sec2/ ft)

 Example
A certain gas weighs 16.0 N/m3 at a certain temperature and
pressure. What are the values of its density, specific volume, and
specific gravity relative to air weighing 12.0 N/m3
Solution:

1. Density ρ  γ /g
ρ  16/9.81  16.631 kg/m
3

2. Specific volume υ  1/ ρ
u  1/1.631  0.613 3
m /kg

3. Specific gravity s  γ f /γ air

s  16/12  1.333
 Example
The specific weight of glycerin is 78.6 lb/ft3. compute its density
and specific gravity. What is its specific weight in kN/m3
Solution:

1. Density   / g
  78.6/32.2  2.44 slugs/ft
3

2. Specific gravity s l /  w

s  78.6/62.4  1.260
so   1.260x1000 kg/m
3

  1260 Kg/m 3

3
3. Specific weight in kN/m
 x g
  9.81x1260  12.36 kN/m
3
 Example
Calculate the specific weight, density, specific volume and
specific gravity of 1litre of petrol weights 7 N.
Solution:
Given Volume = 1 litre = 10-3 m3
Weight = 7 N
1. Specific weight,
w = Weight of Liquid/volume of Liquid
w = 7/ 10-3 = 7000 N/m3
2. Density,  =  /g
 = 7000/9.81 = 713.56 kg/m3
Solution (Cont.):
3. Specific Volume = 1/ 
 1/713.56
=1.4x10-3 m3/kg
4. Specific Gravity = s =
Specific Weight of Liquid/Specific Weight of Water
= Density of Liquid/Density of Water
s = 713.56/1000 = 0.7136
 Example
If the specific gravity of petrol is 0.70.Calculate its Density, Specific
Volume and Specific Weight.
Solution:
Given
Specific gravity = s = 0.70
Specific Gravity
s = Specific Weight of Liquid/Specific Weight of Water
= Density of Liquid/Density of Water
Solution (Cont.):

1. Density of Liquid,   s x density of water

= 0.70x1000
= 700 kg/m3
2. Specific Volume = 1/ 
 
  x -3
3. Specific Weight, = 700x9.81 = 6867 N/m3
Properties of Fluids
 Compressibility
 It is defined as:
“Change in Volume due to change in Pressure.”
 The compressibility of a liquid is inversely proportional to
Bulk Modulus (volume modulus of elasticity).
 Bulk modulus of a substance measures resistance of a
substance to uniform compression.  dp
E  v
( dv / v )

 v 
Ev   dp
 dv 
 Where; v is the specific volume and p is the pressure.
 Units: Psi, MPa , As v/dv is a dimensionless ratio, the units of
E and p are identical.
 Example
At a depth of 8km in the ocean the pressure is 81.8Mpa. Assume
that the specific weight of sea water at the surface is 10.05 kN/m3
and that the average volume modulus is 2.34 x 103 Mpa for that
pressure range.
(a) What will be the change in specific volume between that at the
surface and at that depth?
(b) What will be the specific volume at that depth?
(c) What will be the specific weight at that depth?
Solution:

(a ) v 1 1 / p1  g /1
 9 . 81 /10050  0 . 000976 3
m / kg Us ing Equation :

v  0 . 000976 6
 0 ) /( 2 . 34 x10 9  p
( 81 . 8 x10 ) Ev 
( v / v )
 -34.1x10 -6 3
m / kg
dv p

v Ev
(b ) v 2  v 1  v  0.000942 3
m / kg
v2  v1 p2 p1

v1 E
(c) 2  g / v2  9 . 81 / 0 . 000942  10410 N /m
3 v
 Viscosity
 Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to deform
under shear stress.

 It is commonly perceived as thickness, or resistance to flow.

 Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and

may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction.

 Thus, water is "thin", having a lower viscosity, while

vegetable oil is "thick" having a higher viscosity.
 Viscosity
 The friction forces in flowing fluid result from the cohesion
and momentum interchange between molecules.

 All real fluids have some resistance to shear stress, but a

fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an
ideal fluid.

 It is also known as Absolute Viscosity or Dynamic

Viscosity.
Viscosity
 Dynamic Viscosity
 As a fluid moves, a shear stress is developed
in it, the magnitude of which depends on the
viscosity of the fluid.
 Shear stress , denoted by the Greek letter

(tau), τ, can be defined as the force required

to slide one unit area layer of a substance
over another.
 Thus, τ is a force divided by an area and can

be measured in the units of N/m 2 (Pa) or

lb/ft2.
 Dynamic Viscosity
 Figure shows the velocity gradient in a moving fluid.
U
F, U

 Experiments have shown that: F

AU
Y
 Dynamic Viscosity
 The fact that the shear stress in the fluid is directly
proportional to the v elocity gradient can be stated
mathematically as F U du
   
A Y dy
 where the constant of proportionality  (the Greek letter
miu) is called the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The term
absolute viscosity is sometimes used.
 Kinematic Viscosity
 The kinematic viscosity ν is defined as:
“Ratio of absolute viscosity to density.”



 Newtonian Fluid
 A Newtonian fluid; where stress is directly proportional
to rate of strain, and (named for Isaac Newton) is a fluid
that flows like water, its stress versus rate of strain
curve is linear and passes through the origin. The
constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity.
 A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behavior
is

du
 
dy
 Where  = absolute viscosity/Dynamic viscosity or
simply viscosity
 = shear stress
 Example
Find the kinematic viscosity of liquid in stokes whose specific
gravity is 0.85 and dynamic viscosity is 0.015 poise.
Solution:
Given S = 0.85
 = 0.015 poise
= 0.015 x 0.1 Ns/m2 =  x -3 Ns/m2
We know that S = density of liquid/density of water
density of liquid = S x density of water
  0.85 x 1000   kg/m3
Kinematic Viscosity ,
      x -3
  x -6 m2/s =  x 10-6 x 4cm2/s
=  x 10-2 stokes.
 Example
A 1 in wide space between two horizontal plane surface is
filled with SAE 30 Western lubricating oil at 68 F. What force
is required to drag a very thin plate of 4 sq.ft area through
the oil at a velocity of 20 ft/min if the plate is 0.33 in from
one surface.
Solution:

  0.0092 lb.sec/ft
2
( From  A. 4 )
F U du
  
A Y dy

  0 . 0092 * ( 20 / 60 ) /( 0 . 33 /12 )  ? lb / ft
1
2

  0 . 0092 * ( 20 / 60 ) /( 0 . 67 /12 )  ? lb / ft
2
2

F   A  ?* 4  ? lb
1 1

F   A  ?* 4  ? lb
2 2

Force  F 1  F 2  ? lb
 Ideal Fluid

 An ideal fluid may be defined as:

“A fluid in which there is no friction i.e Zero viscosity.”

 Although such a fluid does not exist in reality, many fluids

approximate frictionless flow at sufficient distances, and so
their behaviors can often be conveniently analyzed by
assuming an ideal fluid.
 Real Fluid
 In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or
shearing forces always come into being whenever
motion relative to a body takes place, thus giving
rise to fluid friction, because these forces oppose
the motion of one particle past another.

 These friction forces give rise to a fluid property

called viscosity.
 Surface Tension
 Cohesion: “Attraction between molecules of same surface”
It enables a liquid to resist tensile stresses.
 Adhesion: “Attraction between molecules of different
surface” It enables to adhere to another body.
 “Surface Tension is the property of a liquid, which enables it
to resist tensile stress”.
 At the interface between liquid and a gas i.e at the liquid
surface, and at the interface between two immiscible (not
mixable) liquids, the attraction force between molecules
form an imaginary surface film which exerts a tension force
in the surface. This liquid property is known as Surface
Tension.
 Surface Tension
 As a result of surface tension, the liquid surface has a
tendency to reduce its surface as small as possible. That is
why the water droplets assume a nearly spherical shape.

 This property of surface tension is utilized in manufacturing

of lead shots.

 Capillary Rise: The phenomenon of rising water in the tube of

smaller diameter is called capillary rise.
Metric to U.S. System Conversions, Calculations,
Equations, and Formulas

Millimeters (mm) x 0.03937 = inches (")(in)

Centimeters (cm) x 0.3937 = inches (")(in)
Meters (m) x 39.37 = inches (")(in)
Meters (m) x 3.281 = feet (')(ft)
Meters (m) x 1.094 = yards (yds)
Kilometers (km) x 0.62137 = miles (mi)
Kilometers (km) x 3280.87 = feet (')(ft)
Liters (l) x 0.2642 = gallons (U.S.)(gals)
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

Bars x 14.5038 = pounds per square inch (PSI)

Kilograms (kg) x 2.205 = Pounds (P)
Kilometers (km) x 1093.62 = yards (yds)
Square centimeters x 0.155 = square inches
Liters (l) x 0.0353 = cubic feet
Square meters x 10.76 = square feet
Square kilometers x 0.386 = square miles
Cubic centimeters x 0.06102 = cubic inches
Cubic meters x 35.315 = cubic feet
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

Inches (")(in) x 25.4 = millimeters (mm)

Inches (")(in) x 2.54 = centimeters (cm)
Inches (")(in) x 0.0254 = meters (m)
Feet (')(ft) x 0.3048 = meters (m)
Yards (yds) x 0.9144 = meters (m)
Miles (mi) x 1.6093 = kilometers (km)
Feet (')(ft) x 0.0003048 = kilometers (km)
 Calculations, Equations & Formulas

 Gallons (gals) x 3.78 = liters (l)

 Cubic feet x 28.316 = liters (l)
 Pounds (P) x 0.4536 = kilograms (kg)
 Square inches x 6.452 = square centimeters
 Square feet x 0.0929 = square meters
 Square miles x 2.59 = square kilometers
 Acres x 4046.85 = square meters
 Cubic inches x 16.39 = cubic centimeters
 Cubic feet x 0.0283 = cubic meters