CHAPTER 2 QUANTUM NUMBERS

What are Quantum Numbers?

The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an atom are called quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers, namely, principal, azimuthal, magnetic and spin
quantum numbers.
The values of the conserved quantities of a quantum system are given by quantum numbers. Electronic quantum numbers (the quantum numbers describing electrons) can be defined as a group of
numerical values which provide solutions that are acceptable by the Schrodinger wave equation for hydrogen atoms.

Four quantum numbers can be used to completely describe all the attributes of a given electron belonging to an atom, these ar e:

• Principal quantum number, denoted by n.

• Orbital angular momentum quantum number (or azimuthal quantum number), denoted by l.
• Magnetic quantum number, denoted by ml.
• The electron spin quantum number, denoted by ms.

Principal Quantum Number

• Principal quantum numbers are denoted by the symbol ‘n’. They designate the principal electron shell of the atom. Since the most probable distance between the nucleus and
the electrons is described by it, a larger value of the principal quantum number implies a greater distance between the electron and the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic
size).
• The value of the principal quantum number can be any integer with a positive value that is equal to or greater than one. The value n=1 denotes the innermost electron shell of an atom,
which corresponds to the lowest energy state (or the ground state) of an electron.
• Thus, it can be understood that the principal quantum number, n, cannot have a negative value or be equal to zero because it is not possible for an atom to have a negative value or no
value for a principal shell.
• When a given electron is infused with energy (excited state), it can be observed that the electron jumps from one principle shell to a higher shell, causing an increase in the value of n.
Similarly, when electrons lose energy, they jump back into lower shells and the value of n also decreases.
• The increase in the value of n for an electron is called absorption, emphasizing the photons or energy being absorbed by the electron. Similarly, the decrease in the value of n for an
electron is called emission, where the electrons emit their energy.

Azimuthal Quantum Number (Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number)

• The azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number describes the shape of a given orbital. It is denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and its value is equal to the total number of angular
nodes in the orbital.
• A value of the azimuthal quantum number can indicate either an s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in shape. This value depends on (and is capped by) the value of the principal quantum
number, i.e. the value of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
• For example, if n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following values – 0,1, and 2. When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell. Similarly, when l=1 and l=2, the resulting
subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells (respectively). Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s, 3p, and 3d.
• In another example where the value of n is 5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. If l = 3, then there are a total of three angular nodes in the atom.

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The allowed subshells under different combinations of ‘n’ and ‘l’ are listed above. It can be understood that the ‘2d’ orbita l cannot exist since the value of ‘l’ is always less than that of ‘n’.

Magnetic Quantum Number

The total number of orbitals in a subshell and the orientation of these orbitals are determined by the magnetic quantum numbe r. It is denoted by the symbol ‘ml’. This number yields the
projection of the angular momentum corresponding to the orbital along a given axis.

The value of the magnetic quantum number is dependent on the value of the azimuthal (or orbital angular momentum) quantum number. For a given value of l, the value of ml ranges
between the interval -l to +l. Therefore, it indirectly depends on the value of n.

For example, if n = 4 and l = 3 in an atom, the possible values of the magnetic quantum number are -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, and +3.

The total number of orbitals in a given subshell is a function of the ‘l’ value of that orbital. It is given by the formula ( 2l + 1). For example, the ‘3d’ subshell (n=3, l=2) contains 5 orbitals (2*2 + 1). Each orbital
can accommodate 2 electrons. Therefore, the 3d subshell can hold a total of 10 electrons.

Electron Spin Quantum Number

• The electron spin quantum number is independent of the values of n, l, and ml. The value of this number gives insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning,
and is denoted by the symbol ms.
• The value of ms offers insight into the direction in which the electron is spinning. The possible values of the electron spin quantum number are +½ and -½.
• The positive value of ms implies an upward spin on the electron which is also called ‘spin up’ and is denoted by the symbol ↑. If ms has a negative value, the electron in
question is said to have a downward spin, or a ‘spin down’, which is given by the symbol ↓.
• The value of the electron spin quantum number determines whether the atom in question has the ability to produce a magnetic f ield. The value of ms can be generalized to
±½.

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CHAPTER 2 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
30 January 2024 21:29

What are Electron Configurations?

The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms
follow a standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript)
are placed in a sequence. For example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s 22s22p63s1.

However, the standard notation often yields lengthy electron configurations (especially for elements having a relatively large atomic
number). In such cases, an abbreviated or condensed notation may be used instead of the standard notation. In the abbreviated notation,
the sequence of completely filled subshells that correspond to the electronic configuration of a noble gas is replaced with the symbol of
that noble gas in square brackets. Therefore, the abbreviated electron configuration of sodium is [Ne]3s 1 (the electron configuration of
neon is 1s22s22p6, which can be abbreviated to [He]2s22p6).

Electron Configurations are useful for:

• Determining the valency of an element.

• Predicting the properties of a group of elements (elements with similar electron configurations tend to exhibit similar properties).
• Interpreting atomic spectra.
This notation for the distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of atoms came into practice shortly after the Bohr model of the
atom was presented by Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr in the year 1913.

Also Read ⇒ Interactive Periodic Table

Writing Electron Configurations

Shells
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is based on the principal quantum number (n). It is repre sented
by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the shell number. The shells, values of n, and the total number of electrons that can be accommodated
are tabulated below.

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Shell and ‘n’ value Maximum electrons present in the shell
K shell, n=1 2*12 = 2
L shell, n=2 2*22 = 8
M shell, n=3 2*32 = 18
N shell, n=4 2*42 = 32

Subshells
• The subshells into which electrons are distributed are based on the azimuthal quantum number (denoted by ‘l’).
• This quantum number is dependent on the value of the principal quantum number, n. Therefore, when n has a value of 4, four different subshells are
possible.
• When n=4. The subshells correspond to l=0, l=1, l=2, and l=3 and are named the s, p, d, and f subshells, respectively.
• The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated by a subshell is given by the formula 2*(2l + 1).
• Therefore, the s, p, d, and f subshells can accommodate a maximum of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively.
All the possible subshells for values of n up to 4 are tabulated below.

Principle Quantum Number Value Value of Azimuthal Quantum Number Resulting Subshell in the Electron Configuration
n=1 l=0 1s
n=2 l=0 2s
l=1 2p
n=3 l=0 3s
l=1 3p
l=2 3d
n=4 l=0 4s
l=1 4p
l=2 4d
l=3 4f

Thus, it can be understood that the 1p, 2d, and 3f orbitals do not exist because the value of the azimuthal quantum number is always less
than that of the principal quantum number.

Notation
• The electron configuration of an atom is written with the help of subshell labels.
• These labels contain the shell number (given by the principal quantum number), the subshell name (given by the azimuthal quantum number) and the
total number of electrons in the subshell in superscript.
• For example, if two electrons are filled in the ‘s’ subshell of the first shell, the resulting notation is ‘1s2’.
• With the help of these subshell labels, the electron configuration of magnesium (atomic number 12) can be written as 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2.

Filling of Atomic Orbitals

Aufbau Principle
• This principle is named after the German word ‘Aufbeen’ which means ‘build up’.
• The Aufbau principle dictates that electrons will occupy the orbitals having lower energies before occupying higher energy orbitals.
• The energy of an orbital is calculated by the sum of the principal and the azimuthal quantum numbers.
• According to this principle, electrons are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…

The order in which electrons are filled in atomic orbitals as per the Aufbau principle is illustrated below.

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It is important to note that there exist many exceptions to the Aufbau principle such as chromium and copper. These exceptions can
sometimes be explained by the stability provided by half-filled or completely filled subshells.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

• The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two electrons, each having opposite spins, can fit in an orbital.
• This principle can also be stated as “no two electrons in the same atom have the same values for all four quantum numbers”.
• Therefore, if the principal, azimuthal, and magnetic numbers are the same for two electrons, they must have opposite spins.

Hund’s Rule
• This rule describes the order in which electrons are filled in all the orbitals belonging to a subshell.
• It states that every orbital in a given subshell is singly occupied by electrons before a second electron is filled in an orbital.
• In order to maximize the total spin, the electrons in the orbitals that only contain one electron all have the same spin (or the same values of the spin
quantum number).

An illustration detailing the manner in which electrons are filled in compliance with Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity is provided above.

Representation of electronic Configuration of Atom

The electron configurations of a few elements are provided with illustrations in this subsection.

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The electron configurations of a few elements are provided with illustrations in this subsection.

Electron Configuration of Hydrogen

The atomic number of hydrogen is 1. Therefore, a hydrogen atom contains 1 electron, which will be placed in the s subshell of the first
shell/orbit. The electron configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, as illustrated below.

Electron Configuration of Oxygen

The atomic number of oxygen is 8, implying that an oxygen atom holds 8 electrons. Its electrons are filled in the following order:

K shell – 2 electrons

L shell – 6 electrons

Therefore, the electron configuration of oxygen is 1s2 2s2 2p4, as shown in the illustration provided below.

Chlorine Electronic Configuration

Chlorine has an atomic number of 17. Therefore, its 17 electrons are distributed in the following manner:

K shell – 2 electrons

L shell – 8 electrons

M shell – 7 electrons

The electron configuration of chlorine is illustrated below. It can be written as 1s22s22p63s23p5 or as [Ne]3s23p5

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Thus, a brief introduction to electron configurations is provided in this article. To learn more about this topic and other related topics, such
as Lewis dot structures, register with BYJU’S and download the mobile application on your smartphone.

List the electron configurations of all the noble gases

The electronic configurations of the noble gases are listed below.
• Helium (He) – 1s2
• Neon (Ne) – [He]2s22p6
• Argon (Ar) – [Ne]3s23p6
• Krypton (Kr) – [Ar]3d104s24p6
• Xenon (Xe) – [Kr]4d105s25p6
• Radon (Rn) – [Xe]4f145d106s26p6

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