10.31 x A oe) Suitable diameter for rod so that 946mm 6.5 The tensile test Gauge tongth (L) Diameter (a) Ends 10 suit machine grip-holde Figure 6.5 A tensile test pi terial is carried out on a tensile testing machine g. 6.5), is generally machined to comply A tensile test on a m The test piece, or specimen (F with British Standard Specifications (refer to BS 18). The diameter of the ends and the overall length of the test piece are made to suit the testing machine. The reduced centre portion is joined to the enlarged ends by a smooth radius, so that the stress is not concentrated at the change of sectiop. The extremities of the gauge length (note that the working length of the test piece is called the ‘gauge length’) are marked on the centre portion along the axis with centre punch dots so that, when the test piece is pulled to destruction, the broken: parts are placed together and the final distance between the dots is measured, The value of the test piece diameter d is chosen such that the resulting calcula tions are made easier. For example, a diameter of 11.28 mm will give a cross-sectional area of 100 mm? If recordings of load and extension are taken during a tensile test to destruction, i.e. up to fracture, a graph of load against extension (or stress against strain) can be plotted for the material. A typical load extension graph for low carbon steels (e.g. mild steel) is shown in Fig. 6.6. Limit of proportionality From point O to point A the graph is linear, indicating that during this Stage the material obeys Hooke’s law, i.e. the extension is directly o\a Ni OA: Hooke's law / O8 : Elastic stage BF : Plastic stage | ° Extension Figure 6.6 Typical load—extension graph for low carbon steels proportional to the load (or the strain is directly proportional to the stress). Hence, point A denotes the limit of proportionality. The slope of line OA is used when determining Young’s modulus of elasticity (see Section 6.3), that is, E = (L/A) x Slope of load—extension graph. Elastic limit At some load just beyond point A, a point B is reached called the elastic limit. The stress in the material at this point is the greatest stress that can be induced without producing permanent extension. Hence, up to point B the test piece returns to its original unstretched length when the load is removed. In practice, the points A and B are so close together that is is virtually impossible to distinguish between them. Permanent set Beyond B, the Material is said to be Plastic; if the test Piece is loaded beyond this point and then unloaded, a permanent extension remains, called the permanent set. * Yield stress As the load is further increased, a point is reached when the material begins to ‘yield’; the test piece undergoes a sudden increase in length without any corresponding increase in load. This is represented by the portion CD on the graph. The point C at which this occurs is known as the wield point, the corresponding stress being termed the yield stress. This phenomenon of yielding is not found in all ductile materials (see iaiue si» Du cart Ter AU wil ma strbad 6.8 Stross Nimum load teache n as the fers ile strer he tensile streng al area can with: has taken pla jength of the test piece Maximum load : Tensile stenth = Original cross-sectional area i Necking a After point B, the extension is localized at a ‘neck’ or ‘waist’ wh tion of the test piece (see Fig. 6.7 ‘at the central por area at the neck ding the test piec decreases rapidly and the load ¢ also decreases until fract starts (9 form cross-sectional to continue exten at point P. Nock or waist == —4 Figure 6.7 Necking Duetility A materi i aa Suaeaneeee a be ductile if it can be drawn out and undergo ® in coral Ta stretch before breaking. Ductility is important formed to shape, ae processes where material is to be bent oF mild stee isthe roar ductile good example of a ductile material A {Wo ways: by the oe of the carbon steels. Ductility is mes fracture, and by the rae elongation of the gauge length after um section at he point of facture referred to the e. % Elongation = Fin ation = Final length ~ Original length , 499 (67! Original length (ot %o Reduction ji oO 101 igi nin area = Original area — Final area | 199 Seo x ‘dl Original area84 6.6 Stress—strain graphs for various materials Not all materials have a clearly defined y 6.8, Soft metals, stich as copper and alun a tensile test of these mai form shown fo point, as is shown in Fig. jum, are very ductile and a Is would give a stress~strain curve of the annealed copper. It ean be seen that aluminium alloy is stronger than annealed copper but is less ductile, whereas hard-drawn brass is both strong and ductile. Hard alloy steel a ee Cast iron Hard-drawn brass Stress —— Aluminium alloy Annealed copper ee easy «Strain Figure 6.8 Stress—strain graphs for various materials Also shown in Fig. 6.8 is the stress—strain curve for cast iron, which has little plasticity or ductility and does not neck down before fracture. A metal such as this is said to be brittle, and is particularly liable to break under shock loads (suddenly applied loads). Brittle _ _ materials fracture suddenly straight across the test piece (see Fig. 6.9) and the cup-and-cone fracture of ductile materials (see Fig. 6.10) does _ hot occur. The first mentioned type of fracture is also characteristic of - hard alloy steels, | ie e although these are very strong and carry a much _ higher breaking load than cast iron.Figure 6.10 Test piece of ductile material after fracture Example 6.10 Tne folowing results were obtained during a tensile test on a mild steel est piece of 11.28 mm diameter and SO mm gauge length. Load (KN) 4 Bem iat 16 20: 240 * 28 Extension (mm) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.08 Draw the load~extension graph, and from this graph, determine: (a) the stress at the elastic limit (0) the modulus of elasticity for mild steel Solution The load~extension graph is drawn using the data given, and is shown in Fig. 6.11 woh Elastic _ 26 20 dl Load at Y = 26kN z 1 3g 5 I XZ = 20kN we I OZ = 0.05 mm 1 pies te 01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08 Extension (mm) Figure 6.11 Example 6.10 (a) The elastic limit occurs at point Y on the graph. This has a load value of about 26 KN. Since the diameter of the specimen is 11.28 mm, this gives a cross-sectional area of 100 mm’, Thus: