GEN 006: ETHICS

LESSON 1: ETHICS VS MORAL

Ethics – “specific”. Fundamental issues of practical decision making, and is concerned with knowing what is right and
wrong.
BRANCHES OF ETHICS
1. Descriptive Ethics – goal of describing the phenomenon
2. Normative Ethics – the guidelines we use to live our lives
3. Meta Ethics – the study of moral thought and moral language
4. Applied Ethics – real-world actions and their moral considerations in the areas of private and public life
Moral – “not dynamic”. Encourage wanted or beneficial behavior in society.
Non-moral – “dynamic”. Refers to norms that are unrelated to moral or ethical considerations such as etiquettes, fashion
standards, rules in the game, house rules and legal statutes.
BASIS OF COMPARISON
Ethics Morality
What is it? Response to a specific situation General principal asset by group
Root word Ethos means character Mos means custom
Governed by Legal and professional norms Social and cultural norms
Expression Ethics is abstract General rules and statements
Consistency Ethics is uniform Morals may differ from society to society

LESSON 2: MORAL DILEMMAS AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Moral experience – An experience of moral value such that one’s moral consciousness comes to work as one is called to
make a moral response.
Moral principles – Associated with a fixed set of rules that ignores the complexities of the situation and fails to adapt
one’s behavior to changing circumstances. It is a general sense of what ought to be done.
DILEMMA (choosing between two situations)
1. Personal Dilemma. An extremely difficult situation for someone to handle. It can be moral or non-moral.
Example:
o A child choosing where to live when parents are separated, with his/her mother or father. (non-moral)
o A member of the family deciding to steal bread or starve to death. (moral)
2. Moral Dilemma. Any difficult moral problems that raise hard moral questions. It occurs when one moral reason
conflicts with another, nor normally conflict with religious or aesthetic reasons. A moral reason is a requirement just in
case it would be morally wrong not to act on it without an adequate justification.
Moral actions − For an action to be morally good, all three determinates must be complete. A lack, in any of them, will,
at least in a qualified way, make the morality of the act to be bad.
Moral development – it is an important part of the socialization process
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Level 1: pre-conventional (birth – 9 years old) – Authority figures give reinforcement (punishment or reward) and are
obeyed for self-preservation.
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation – The child obeys to avoid punishment
Stage 2: Instrumentalist Relativist Orientation – acts that is acceptable and approved by the self, and that satisfies one’s
needs or best interest
Level 2: conventional (9-13 years old) – ensure positive interpersonal relationships and society order. Approval of
society/others is sought through actions.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance (Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation) – approved by others/society.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation – conforms with the rules set by society
Level 3: post-conventional (13 years old-onwards) – abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws
are unjust and should be changed.
Stage 5: Social-Contract – It is ‘wrong’ to violate the rights of other people. – Laws are regarded as social contracts that
should promote the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

LESSON 3: ETHICAL FRAMEWORKS: VIRTUAL ETHICS (AQUINAS AND ARISTOTLE)

Virtue ethics – believes in pursuing virtues or ideal character traits. Focusing on being a good person.
I. THOMAS AQUINAS’ THEORY OF VIRTUE
Believes that people need to identify meaningful goals before they can act which involves two concepts:
1. Principles – rules about how to act
2. Virtues – traits which are taken to be good or moral to have
*The purpose of these concepts is to direct people towards the goal of human fulfilment
FOUR VIRTUES
1. Prudence. Doing the right thing at the right time, in the right place, and in the right manner.
2. Temperance. Denotes moderation of desires and physical pleasures such as eating, drinking, and sex.
3. Courage. The desire to do actions that are difficult to attain or avoid, and the act of restraining fear to do actions
rightly.
4. Justice. A disposition to give other what they are entitled to (rights) which serves as a guide in interacting with other
people and developing relationships.
II. ARISTOTLE’S THEORY OF VIRTUE ETHICS
Believes that virtues are dispositions that act to effectively perform one’s proper function in similar situations creating
habits
of behaving in certain ways.
1. Eudaemonia – supreme happiness
2. Phronesis – practical wisdom or arête

LESSON 4: ETHICAL FRAMEWORK: DEONTOLOGY (IMMANUEL KANT)

Believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws (Ex: Don’t cheat. Don’t lie. Don’t steal) which all human beings
must honor and be obligated to do for it is their duty as moral agents.
Deontology (duty ethics). Concerned with the adherence to certain rules or duties which means that the morality of an
action should be based on whether that action is right or wrong under a series of rules.
Categorical imperative – determines what moral duties are.
1.Universalizability Principle. Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action should become a universal law
(Ex: ‘Do not break promises’ implies a universal judgement for anybody in the identical situation should have not
broken their promises).
2.The Formula of Humanity. Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another (Ex: ‘Lying
to your friend about their birthday party so it would be a surprise’ is considered morally wrong).
3.Perfect Duties. These are duties that do not allow exceptions and are universal which means that they apply to all
rational beings despite the consequences of the actions. (Ex: Lying considered universal wrong)
4.Imperfect Duties. There are duties that do not always need to be followed in one way or all the time for this is
dependent on the rationality and autonomy of an individual. (Ex: Giving to charity)

Quote by Immanuel Kant, “We should aim to live a good life by doing what we love, being active and having a sense of
purpose.”

LESSON 5: CONSEQUENTIALISM (JEREMY BENTHAM AND JOHN STUART MILL)

Teleological ethics (consequentialism). Derives moral obligation from what is good or desirable as an end to be
achieved. Morality of an action is contingent on the action’s outcome which means that the rightness or wrongness.
1. Ethical Egoism. Moral duty is exclusive for the self which means that one ought to do/pursue whatever is in one’s own
best interest (e.g., developing a career).
2. Utilitarianism. Consequences of actions are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone which means that one ought
to perform actions which tend to produce the greatest overall happiness for the greatest number.
I. JEREMY BENTHAM’S PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY
Believes that human actions and social institutions should be judged right or wrong depending upon their tendency to
promote the greatest amount of pleasure or least amount of pain.
II. JOHN STUART MILL’S GREATEST HAPPINESS PRINCIPLE
It is not the quantity of pleasure but the quality of happiness that is central to utilitarianism. An action should be judged
right or wrong if it has the tendency to achieve happiness for the greatest number of people.
Rule Utilitarianism. We ought to live by rules which lead to the greatest good in general. Avoid short-time utility,
instead focus on achieving long-term utility (e.g., equality for women).

LESSON 6: MORAL PHILOSOPHIES

Yin and yang. Two halves that together completes wholeness.
o Yin signifies softness, darkness, passivity, femininity, etc.
o Yang signifies hardness, brightness, activity, masculinity.
1. Taoism (Daoism). Philosophical and political text purportedly written by Laozi (Lao Tzu).
o Tao or Dao. A Chinese word signifying way, path, route, road or doctrine, principle or holistic beliefs.
2. Buddhism. Siddhartha Gautama who lived around 500 BCE. Eventually he succeeded, becoming the Buddha, “The
Enlightened One”.
 o He spent the remaining 45 years of his life teaching the dharma (the path to liberation from suffering) and
establishing the sangha (a community of monks).
o For a Buddhist, taking refuge (meditation) is the first step on the path to enlightenment.
3. Eightfold path
a.Right View or Right Understanding. Insight into the true nature of reality.
b.Right Intention. The unselfish desire to realize enlightenment.
c.Right Speech. Use speech compassionately.
d.Right Action. Using ethical conduct to manifest compassion.
e.Right Livelihood. Making a living through ethical and non-harmful means.
f. Right Effort. Cultivating wholesome qualities and releasing unwholesome qualities.
g.Right Mindfulness. Body-mind awareness.
h.Right Concentration. Meditation as a dedicated, concentrated practice.
4. Confucianism. The way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese
people for more than two millennia. Although transformed over time, it is still the substance of learning, the source of
values, and the social code of the Chinese.
5. Islam. Derived from the word “salam” which means peace or surrender whereas “Islam” means the perfect peace out
of total surrender to Allah (God).
o Prophet Muhammad dedicated the remainder of his life to spreading a message of monotheism.
6. Pillars
a.Shahada. Obligation to profess the faith.
b.Salah. Obligation to pray.
c.Zakat. Obligation to give alms.
d.Saum. Obligation to fast.
e.Hajj. Obligation to do pilgrimage to Mecca.
7. Hinduism. The world's oldest religion. The third-largest religion behind Christianity and Islam.
o Hinduism is not a homogeneous, organized system.
o Caste System. The system which divides Hindus into rigid hierarchical groups based on their karma (work) and
dharma (duty) is generally accepted to be more than 3,000 years old.
8. Atman. The soul’s state of suffering because of its attachments to the senses or to the pleasures of the flesh. This makes
the Atman a slave of Maya (magic or illusion).
o Upanishads are teachings that would relinquish the Atman from its enslavement for it allows the unification with the
Universal Essence (Brahman).
9. Upanishads. Means, "sitting down near" or "sitting close to" and implies listening closely to the mystic doctrines of
a guru or a spiritual teacher, who has cognized the fundamental truths of the universe.

NOTES:
1. In ethics, use the higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
2. Ethics is formal or for professionalism.
3. Morality – Refers to the extent to which an action is considered right or wrong
4. Theological ethics (consequentialism) – “narrative progress”
5. John Stuart Mill – “quality over quantity”
6. Jeremy Bentham – “quantity over quality”