Online Games Characters, Identity Construction

Avatars, and Identity As children grow up, an important task is to

develop a sense of identity, a process that culmi-
JAN VAN LOOY nates in their teen years when they experience
iMinds-MICT-Ghent University, Belgium
hormonal changes, become sexually aware, and
are faced with increased cognitive and socio-
emotional challenges at school and changing
While characters play an important role in most
relationships with their parents and siblings at
narrative media, they have a special status in
home. hese developments lead to insecurity and
digital games in that they can be controlled
emotional conlict in the adolescent, encouraging
by the player and the latter’s in-game identity
them to position themselves in relation to their
is developed through the interplay of game
environment, their peers, and society at large.
attributes and player decisions. In online mul-
his is largely an unconscious process of identity
tiplayer games, a social layer is added in that
formation involving personal experimentation
the avatar or player controlled character can
and trial and error – typical characteristics of
engage in complex social relationships with other
adolescent behavior – but developing an identity
player-characters, blending in and out of game
entirely based on personal experience would be
communication and signiication processes and
too cumbersome and time-consuming. Hence,
social ties.
there are other mechanisms at work where social
Online games constitute a highly diverse
context plays an important role and teens adopt
phenomenon, from simple, single-player
opinions and behavior of important others in
puzzle games presented on a webpage, to mas-
their lives – irst, their parents, but also peers
sively multiplayer online role playing games and other inluential igures who are known
(MMORPGs) in which the player creates and either personally or through representations in
develops a multidimensional avatar over months the media or elsewhere. It is therefore important
in a three-dimensional online world populated by which groups they choose to associate themselves
thousands of other player-characters. hus, there with, and how they choose to relate to their
is a broad range of diferent types of identities members and to what extent they adopt their
that can be engendered through gameplay. hese meanings and symbols.
range from low-identity game forms in which he notion of social self, referring to the fact
the game is largely an instrument manipulated that a person’s identity is not an organically
by the player from the outside, to high-identity grown, unitary entity, but a dynamic, multi-
instances in which the action depends on the dimensional construct, was popular with social
player assuming and developing a complex and psychologists when the irst communication
oten unique in-game role. Much of this entry theories were developed in the early twentieth
will deal with the higher-end identity game gen- century. Typically, the social self is seen as that
res, but many of the principles apply to other part of one’s identity that is developed through
types of digital games and several mechanisms imitation of the behavior of others. Whereas
that are discussed are also relevant to other many of the early theories of self were inspired by
forms of computer mediated communication, psychoanalysis, today’s most inluential frame-
particularly those in which the user is repre- works are rooted in cognitive theories such as
sented symbolically by a visual identiier and/or social learning theory (Bandura, 1971). his
pseudonym. theory states that people, especially children

he International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society, First Edition.

Edited by Robin Mansell and Peng Hwa Ang.
© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118290743.wbiedcs106
2 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY

and teenagers, learn from their social context occurs whereby the media user willingly sus-
by identifying with certain role models and by pends disbelief and pretends to see the world
internalizing and imitating their behavior. Play- through the eyes of the character, experienc-
ing is therefore seen as a means through which ing narrative events as if they were happening
children can explore certain behavior without to themselves. However, other scholars such
having to bear the consequences. In this way as Zillmann (1994) argue against experiential
they can try out certain personal characteristics, merger as a concept for understanding the rela-
select those elements they deem appropriate, and tion between audience and media character;
incorporate them into their identity. hus, play is they suggest that this hardly ever occurs. Zill-
an important mechanism through which children mann observes that audience members tend to
practice behavior, explore their emotions, and maintain a distance between themselves and
prepare themselves for later life. the characters to which they relate, judging
their actions and developing positive or negative
feelings toward them without necessarily fully
Identity and Media assuming their perspective. Hence, for Zillmann,
empathy is a more accurate description of the
Media play an important role in the formation of emotional and cognitive link between a media
a self-identity in that they provide role models user and a character to which they relate. Iden-
with whom the user can identify, whose views tiication, as Cohen describes it, is then merely
and opinions they can internalize, and whose an extreme case of empathy. Hence, Cohen
behavior they can imitate. Moreover, this process and Zillmann’s positions need not be mutually
has been found to be one of the main attrac- exclusive since diferent types and degrees of
tions of media use and one of the key drivers of mental association can occur depending on
media experiences. Television research (see, for personal characteristics, type of content, and
example, Wilson, 1993) has shown that media medium.
use plays an important role in the socialization When identifying with a media character,
process and that it mediates both positive and audience members associate themselves with the
negative learning efects. It can be argued that the character’s thoughts and actions and are thus able
media efects tradition in mass communication to experience and learn vicariously from situ-
research rests on the implicit assumption that ations without being directly exposed to them.
media can inluence our self-concept. Media provide an opportunity to experience
While it is oten used, both within and out- from a safe distance events that are not acceptable
side academic contexts, there is no generally either socially, morally, or both (e.g., crime, vio-
accepted deinition or even conceptualization of lence, adultery), unreachable to most (e.g., being
identiication. Most descriptions have a num- president, space travel), or undesirable (e.g.,
ber of elements in common in that they see loss, defeat), but attractive to explore cognitively
identiication as a mental process where one and/or emotionally. In so doing, people are able
takes a character’s perspective and imaginarily to extend their emotional horizons, learn about
experiences their emotions and cognitions. An situations outside their familiar surroundings,
oten cited, yet not uncontested, deinition of and explore solutions to challenging problems
identiication is provided by Cohen (2001), who without having to face their consequences. By
describes it as “an imaginative process through temporarily imagining being someone else,
which an audience member assumes the identity, media allow audience members to practice difer-
goals and perspective of a character” (p. 261). ent social roles and explore or develop otherwise
Cohen does not see identiication as merely unengaged aspects of their identity. his notion is
an emotional response to the character, but as related to the idea of catharsis and media use as a
a process where the media consumer imagi- way of relieving psychological tension. Catharsis
narily takes a character’s perspective and feels theory (see, e.g., Jansz, 2005) states that engaging
with it, rather than toward it. For Cohen, when with ictional content dealing with themes that
identiication takes place, a temporary shit in are morally or socially disrespectable allows
perception and perceived emotion and cognition individuals to come to terms with suppressed
 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY 3

urges and thus feel better about themselves (see do not possess a single perceived identity but
also self-discrepancy theory below). his argu- shit between a multitude of partially overlap-
ment is oten put forward in opposition to the ping self-images based on social context and
claim that violent media must automatically desired outcome. A theory that is oten used in
cause violent behavior by suggesting that it can media research to explain the gratiications of
also allow people to cope with inherent urges. wishful identiication is that of self-discrepancy
Particularly for teenagers experiencing strong (Higgins, 1987). Self-discrepancy theory distin-
and sudden physical and social transformations, guishes between three types of self-image: the
stirring new and previously unknown emo- actual self or how one sees oneself, the ideal self
tions, oten absent the opportunity or power or how one wishes to be, and the ought self or
to act upon them, media are seen as important how one thinks one should be (the ought self is
outlets. not addressed further in this entry). his theory
In audience reception research, a distinction makes a distinction between one’s own per-
generally is made between two types of identiica- spective on these three selves and the perceived
tion difering both in terms of type of relation and perspective of a signiicant other, which may be
of involvement, namely, similarity identiication an individual, a group, or society at large. his
(sometimes also referred to as perceived similar- results in a number of distinct self-images which
ity) and wishful identiication (Konijn & Hoorn, display commonalities, but which may difer
2005). Similarity identiication refers to the expe- in important respects. Self-discrepancy theory
rience of mental association during the period of then postulates that higher amounts of difer-
media exposure when one takes the perspective ence or discrepancy between these selves lead to
of a character and vicariously participates in its
psychological tension in the individual. his psy-
experiences. hus, similarity identiication is
chological tension may then translate into certain
primarily concerned with experiential merger
emotions such as stress or anxiety, depending on
and has been found to be triggered by perceived
the types of selves involved. Media can be used
similarity between audience member and char-
to alleviate the psychological tension related to
acter. An audience member typically will more
self-discrepancy in that they allow the audience
easily identify in this fashion with a character that
member to identify with a ictional character pos-
can be related to in terms of physical appearance,
sessing or developing characteristics speciic to
personality, social situation, moral stance, life
history, or any other salient characteristic. How- an ideal self: Peter Parker becoming Spider-Man
ever, while this type of association is immediate and protecting New York from rampant crime,
and may be intense, it is frequently short term for example. hus media enable audiences to
and usually does not support a lasting relation- vicariously experience a (partial) merger of the
ship between audience member and character. actual and ideal self, raising personal self-esteem
Wishful identiication, in contrast, concerns a and evoking enjoyment.
process that oten extends beyond the viewing It should also be noted that similarity and
situation and involves a desire of the audience wishful identiication are not mutually exclusive,
member to be (more like) the media character. but can co-occur such that similarity identiica-
Desired characteristics can be related similarly tion can function as an intermediary stage in a
to outer appearance and personality, but also to longer-term mental relationship driven by wish-
success and social status. Wishful identiication fulness. Hence, frequently in popular culture,
is closely related to fandom, except that, in the future heroes will initially be presented as fallible,
case of ictional characters, the entity to which ordinary human beings, stressing commonality
one relates is not an actual person and may with the audience only then to develop wishful
even be played by diferent actors such as James characteristics, gain success, and acquire social
Bond or transgress media, for example Harry status, for example. hus similarity and wishful
Potter. identiication, although they do not necessarily
he human desire for wishful identiication is co-occur, can be seen as diferent dimensions of
oten explained by referring to social psycholog- the same psychological phenomenon, namely,
ical theories of identity, which posit that people character identiication.
4 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY

Identity and Digital Games assimilate the game role’s attributes into their
self-images.
One of the distinctive characteristics of digital Another way of looking at it is that, temporarily,
play vis-à-vis traditional media use is that the a mental image of a new, ictional self is generated
former reserves an active role for the player in incorporating certain attributes of the player,
the representation (Van Looy, 2009). Whereas in while being constrained by the role foreseen by
traditional media, the reader or viewer is primar- the game. his in-game role may be limited in
ily a witness, an invisible and innocent bystander, scope or highly detailed and these details may
in digital games, he or she assumes an in-game be customizable by the player or ixed by the
identity, actively taking part in the virtual action. game. In either case, players are forced to assume
One of the consequences is that a diferent type a role that is distinct from themselves but that
of mental association occurs between (agentic) could not exist without them. hus, identiica-
players and their character than, for example, tion in games is not so much determined by a
between a ilm viewer and a main protagonist. shit in self-perception overall, as Klimmt and
his relation is much closer to Cohen’s per- colleagues propose, but by the temporary cre-
spective on identiication as experiential merger ation of an additional self. his nicely accords
than to Zillmann’s empathy argument, which with self-discrepancy theory, as discussed above,
is oten illustrated by the fact that gamers refer and the way it is used to explain popular media
to their character using a irst-person pronoun, enjoyment. he “game self” can then be seen as
as in “I am going in now,” and to its direct sur- one of many selves alongside the actual, the ideal,
roundings as “here,” indicating that they actually and the ought self. How the in-game identity
feel that they, at least partly, are the character. relates to the player’s other self-images may then
A reader of a novel, even when it is written be analyzed by measuring the discrepancies
in the irst person, or a ilm spectator viewing between them. his type of research has shown
footage from a shoulder cam, will not generally that MMORPG players’ game selves generally lie
refer to the main character in the irst person closer to their ideal than to their actual selves,
or claim to have personally taken part in the indicating that players tend to create charac-
action. ters as idealized versions of themselves (Van
Along these lines, Klimmt, Hefner, and Looy, Courtois, & De Vocht, 2014). In terms
Vorderer (2009) propose a distinction between of personality traits, for example, players create
dyadic audience–character relationships which their characters as more conscientious, more
occur in the case of traditional, noninteractive extraverted, and less neurotic than how they see
media use, and monadic relationships in digital themselves. In terms of physical qualities, they
game play. In their view, theoretical models for create characters that are more attractive, thinner,
understanding audience–character relation- and more physically it. he degree of idealization
ships in traditional, noninteractive media are is related to well-being, with those players who
inadequate for describing the mental associa- show higher levels of depression or who have
tion between player and game character. Based lower self-esteem rating their characters more
on social-psychological research into identity positively and displaying stronger attachment
construction and identiication processes, they to them.
propose a new theoretical framework. Here, iden- One possible interpretation of these results is
tiication in games is regarded as a psychological that self-discrepancy reduction serves to sub-
merger between the players’ selves and their due feelings of frustration about one’s actual
in-game identity, where the player temporar- self, presenting an escape route for those who
ily adopts a number of salient attributes of the are dissatisied with their physical appearance,
character thereby altering their self-perception. personality, or social status in real life. here is
Dimensions involved in this process may be another possible explanation, however, namely,
cognition based such as goals, attitudes, and that games provide the opportunity to explore
evaluations, or social, such as attractiveness or desired characteristics and thus more idealized
status. he game role should therefore be seen as versions of the self – not to escape reality, but
a priming agent triggering players to imaginarily to learn about one’s dreams and desires. From
 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY 5

this perspective, games should not be seen as an psychological tension, and games can provide a
escape route but as a virtual laboratory in which way of dealing with the male teenager’s urge to
the player can carry out identity experiments with take on a more masculine role in society by ofer-
alternative selves in a safe and controlled context ing a fantasy environment in which to explore its
(Jansz, 2005). In an MMORPG, for example, a implications. hus, highly competitive and vio-
player is typically transported to a fantasy land lent online games such as shooters and real-time
of opportunity and invited to create a character strategy are oten seen as allowing players to take
by choosing a name, appearance, and personal on strongly masculine roles without having to
characteristics. In the course of the game, the face the real-world consequences of aggressive
player is faced with ever greater challenges but behavior and without being morally judged by
these are matched by personal growth, as indi- parents or peers.
cated by character stats. Moreover, the player will
be invited to join groups of peers such as guilds
so as to be able to face even greater challenges, Group Identity and Digital Games
providing the opportunity to explore diferent
social roles such as that of leader or support. Online games generally ofer the possibility of
hus, players are able to work toward their ideal social interaction either through communication,
self-image in an environment that ofers a broader which can be textual or verbal, and/or by allowing
toolset than the real world. Interestingly, research players to play together. Apart from character
by McDonald and Kim (2001) has shown that identiication, online games aford an additional
more likable characters do not just trigger layer of identity construction in that they permit
stronger identiication, but that they also lead to players to participate in and associate themselves
increased modeling and imitation of the charac- with in-game groups. Many online games, most
ter aterward in the real world. For example, in a notably MMORPGs, require the player to seek
health promotion game, players who identiied the company of other players in order to be able
more strongly with their character were more to reach higher levels in the game. Typically,
inclined to adopt a healthy diet aterward; and one particular character will be more specialized
residents of Second Life, an online 3D virtual in certain actions, such as ighting, magic, or
environment, who showed stronger identiication healing, than in others and will have to seek the
with their character, more oten reported that assistance of other complementary characters in
they started exercising or dieting because of their order to inish a task. Such a party may be ad
online experiences (Van Looy et al., 2012). hey hoc, temporary, and purely pragmatic or it may
also indicated more oten that their character be more persistent and generate social bonds,
had inluenced their real-world stylistic choices with players regularly meeting up for certain
and appearance. Other studies demonstrate that challenges. In many MMORPGs, top-level quests
the dimensions according to which a character’s require even larger groups of players, sometimes
progress is measured in a game, oten represented up to 40, who support one another in raids that
as stats, can be adopted by players for themselves can last for hours. In order to successfully gather
and used to compare with other people in the real these kinds of groups, more persistent social
world and in later life. structures are set up, such as guilds, which can
he “games as virtual laboratory” hypothesis consist of a mere handful of people up to sev-
also provides an explanation for the popularity of eral hundreds. hese can be loose associations
strong competition and violent themes in games, or highly organized, goal driven organizations.
particularly those targeted at a male teenage Other types of online games present diferent
audience. As discussed earlier, this demographic possibilities for group formations, such as clans
group of players goes through signiicant hor- in online irst-person shooters (FPS), which may
monal and social changes in their adolescence vary in nature and size. What joins them together,
whereby they are gradually drawn toward taking however, is the fact that they facilitate play while,
up the role of an adult male while not yet being at the same time, fulilling socialization needs
able to physically and/or socially. his discrep- whereby they function as online third places
ancy between actual and desired self creates where like-minded people meet outside their
6 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY

home and work. Finally, surrounding these more supported by other group members, receiving
clearly denominated group structures, there is the practical beneits and social support, and they
general community linked with a game or plat- can beneit from the social status of the group.
form in which a player may participate by taking hus group membership can be an important
part in discussions, creating documentation or factor, not only for how players behave socially
fan art, or developing tools or modiications, within the game but also for how they see their
which can have an inluence on how players see character, organize their play, and build their
themselves both within and outside the game. in-game identity (Van Looy et al., 2012).
Group identiication is generally thought to
encompass both a cognitive and an emotional
dimension (Tajfel, 1978). Belonging to a group Avatar Creation
implies that one sees and categorizes oneself as a
member of that group. Oten this has implications he term “avatar” is derived from Sanskrit
in terms of possibilities for other memberships. avatāra, literally meaning “he crosses over,”
Normally, one is expected to be a supporter which is used in the Hindu religion to refer to
of only one football team, for example, in one the descent of deities such as Vishnu in earthly
league. Most types of group membership imply (animal or human) form. First used in the 1980s
more than just self-categorization, however; they to refer to the player-character in online games,
also require emotional commitment. his can “avatar” has come to mean any graphical repre-
take many forms, from accepting certain beliefs sentation of the user in an interactive computer
to displaying outward signs or symbols. his environment. Avatar appearances may range
emotional dimension is what binds the group and from a simple two-dimensional picture and
creates its social identity in relation to other social nickname to sophisticated three-dimensional
structures. Reasons for joining a group may be characters shaped to display certain characteris-
the need for social bonding or belonging or may tics and having a name, personal history, abilities,
be practical in that group membership provides and virtual belongings. Contexts in which the
the opportunity to tap its resources and carries term “avatar” is used today include online and
beneits in terms of social status. When people oline games, virtual worlds such as Second
identify with an organization or group that is per- Life, discussion forums, educational platforms,
ceived as attractive, this can enhance self-esteem and chat applications. Interestingly, the term
through a more positive self-evaluation. generally is not used to refer to a direct visual
Identiication with in-game groups is simi- representation of a user, such as a picture, and
larly composed of a cognitive and an emotional more oten than not it will be associated with
component. Becoming a member of a guild or a pseudonym. hus, an avatar is not meant to
clan implies that one is expected to categorize refer to the user directly, contrary to identity
oneself as a member of the group. In some cases, representations in many social media, but implies
this denies the player the possibility to become a a degree of otherness. An avatar cannot be seen
member of another in-game group, which may as completely separate from the user control-
lead to bartering or multiple accounts being set ling it, but it is not meant to refer to the user
up. Apart from this cognitive dimension, group as a name or a picture would either. An avatar
membership generally also requires emotional oten functions as a mask or cloaking device
commitment in that members are expected to from behind which users or players can avoid
accept the group’s values and symbols and to taking full responsibility for their standpoints
support it and its members. his may mean that or (virtual) deeds while, nonetheless, still being
the player will be expected to develop qualities able to claim them. Avatars allow for the creation
that are beneicial to the group rather than to the of an anonymous online presence that relects
individual. Typically, in large skirmishes, various certain aspects of the owner’s identity, provides
types of units with diferent roles are required continuity between online interventions, and
such as that of damage dealer (melée or ranged allows for the development of a social network
attack), tank (diversion), or healer (regeneration), and the acquisition of social status within an
and so on. In exchange, players can expect to be online community.
 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY 7

Using the term “avatar” to refer to any type worlds generally implement few restrictions since
of representation of the player in games is not they are not so constrained by a need for balanced
unproblematic, however, due to the connotation game mechanics and narrative coherence. here-
of direct control over a clearly deined entity fore, they oten aim to provide as many options
and the strong association with the idea of a to their residents as possible so as to increase
character and embodiment. his does not pose their emotional attachment. Online games such
a problem for some of the more popular online as MMORPGs, however, tend to meticulously
game genres such as MMORPGs and FPSs, in quantify and control character abilities. In World
which the player is typically represented by a of Warcrat, for example, there are three main
single, anthropomorphic entity. It becomes more roles a player may aspire to: tank or damage
problematic when dealing with team sports, for receiver, DPS (damage per second) or damage
example a soccer game. he player is then not so dealer, and healer. Choosing a certain class,
much represented by one member of the team such as warrior, mage, or rogue, will determine
as by the team as a whole, and player control how initial character attributes (strength, agility,
continuously switches between team members stamina, intellect, spirit) are laid out and how they
throughout a match. Simulator games present develop in the course of the game. Other games
another problematic category. While one could provide diferent options but the principles are
argue that the player controls the pilot in a space- similar in that these attributes are related to the
ship simulator and, thus, some sort of character, actions a character can take in a game – and there
a more accurate description would be that the are trade-ofs, so that specialization is needed.
player’s identity consists of the ship, its crew, or Finally, most customization systems require
both. In strategy games it is even more diicult to
players to choose a name for their avatar, which
refer to an avatar since the players’ identities are
may be subject to certain restrictions related to
determined by the parts of the map and the units
uniqueness, intellectual property, and suitability
they control. Again, the player might be seen as
for the type of game world.
being represented as the commander, but this is
Research indicates that players frequently take
diicult to reconcile with the notion of avatar as
great care in assembling their online avatars, cre-
a clearly delineated, visual representation. Most
ating unique combinations of attributes, despite
current research into online identity creation and
ready-made options being available. his is the
customization deals with avatars in the traditional
sense and the discussion below mainly refers to case even when the creation process takes signif-
this type of representation. icant amounts of time. Many players also create
Avatar creation systems can difer widely in multiple avatars in a game in order to explore
terms of the game’s visual features that can be diferent combinations of strengths and playing
customized and to what degree. Simple, more scenarios or to engage in various types of iden-
casual games may ofer just enough choice to give tity play such as gender swapping (see below).
a character a distinctive look, whereas fantasy However, players generally have a limited set of
role playing games, such as World of Warcrat, main characters (or mains) and a higher num-
ofer more choice based on the faction (horde or ber of additional characters (or alts) to explore
alliance), race (e.g., night elf, dwarf, human), and more speciic aspects of the game. Players will
gender the player chooses. Features that can then generally focus on one main for certain periods
be customized include face, skin color, hairstyle, of time, leaving the others temporarily aside.
and hair color. Online virtual worlds, which Experimental research has shown that players
oten have socializing and identity exploration who are allowed to customize their avatar expe-
as their main goals, go even further in ofering rience higher physiological arousal during play
customization options to users. Second Life allows than those who are not and that this efect is
the player to adapt a broad range of facial features stronger in third-person view, where the camera
and also character height and width. It allows loats behind the character and the player has
players to develop their own character features constant visual access to their appearance, than
and attributes which can be distributed or sold to in irst-person view when the player’s viewpoint
other players. When it comes to abilities, virtual coincides with the character’s.
8 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY

Instrumental versus Identity Driven Avatar improves. hus, instrumental decision-making

Creation may lead to diferent choices by diferent players
or by the same players at various points in their
A distinction can be drawn between two princi- “career.”
ples guiding avatar creation: identiication and Some choices may at irst sight seem identity
instrumentality. In the case of identity driven based while actually being inspired by practical
avatar creation, players will opt for certain advantage. Gender swapping is an example, as
characteristics because they can relate to them many players develop characters of the opposite
personally, recognizing available or desired traits gender in order to explore its social implications
(see next section). Identity driven avatar creation and perform identity play. Reported identity-
is more strongly associated with emotion, may driven motives for gender swapping may be
largely be unconscious (where players may fail self-focused – for example, allowing experimen-
to explicate their motives), and the avatar func- tation with aspects of one’s personality which
tions as an extension, or even a representative, cannot easily be explored in real life – or they
of the player in the game world. Instrumental may be more outward oriented, as an expression
avatar creation, in contrast, is primarily driven of interest in the life and universe of the opposite
by knowledge of the in-game performance gender. Gender swapping may also be motivated
related advantages that certain choices aford and by more worldly, instrumental objectives since
how they relate to the envisaged playing style. avatar gender can have an inluence on other
Instrumental avatar creation seems to be more players’ attitudes and behaviors toward a player.
rational, driven by conscious decisions, and the Female players may develop male characters in
avatar is primarily seen as an instrument, a tool order to be taken more seriously, for example,
for gaining advantage in the game. Projected and male players may create female characters in
advantages may be related to individual goals or order to attract more assistance, and even gits,
inspired by context, which may be environment from other male players who, in most cases, con-
related – type of game or within one game when stitute a large majority of players in an MMORPG.
playing on a player versus player (PvP) server, as he proportion of players who engage in gender
opposed to a player versus environment (PvE) swapping difers according to playing context and
server where other players cannot kill you, for between (real-world) genders, with a majority
example – or social, when a peer group is in of MMORPG players sometimes playing with
need of a character with a speciic composition. a character of the opposite gender – female
Moreover, they may be more immediate because even more than male players – and only a small
some races may have greater strength, or they can minority of virtual world residents playing with a
be informed by greater in-depth knowledge of main character of the opposite gender, with male
the game or the narrative space – when choos- players swapping gender signiicantly more oten
ing a halling in order to more easily develop than female players. his may be due to the fact
lock-picking skills, for example. Information that MMORPGs are more performance oriented
on which attribute is advantageous for which and therefore favor instrumental avatar creation
playing style or group role may not always be strategies, whereas virtual worlds focus on social-
readily available in the game interface itself. For izing and “virtual tourism” and primarily cater to
most popular games, however, there are ample a need for identiication. Gender swapping in an
community-based online resources providing MMORPG is then primarily motivated by instru-
detailed descriptions and stats reporting on the mental considerations, whereas in a virtual world
implications of diferent choices. it is likely to be related to identity outcomes.
his does not mean that instrumentality as Moreover, it appears that gender swapping is a
a principle underlying avatar creation is either fairly common phenomenon but that it is mainly
uniform or clear-cut. Desired outcomes may performed with alternative rather than main
difer between players and may evolve over time characters.
as experience is gained. he social context may Finally, when a player’s main goal is identity
change as players are free to switch between in- related, as is oten the case in online virtual
game groups and take up new roles as their skill worlds, instrumental and identity motives may
 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY 9

coincide in that practical advantage is then related Wishful identiication is a psychological process
to higher potential for identity play. When aiming whereby audience members associate themselves
to explore social identity, for example, creating with a media character because it possesses cer-
an attractive outgoing avatar may be an advan- tain desired attributes which may be related to
tageous strategy because it will make it easier outward appearance, personality, abilities, status,
to meet people and socialize, which, in turn, is or other qualities related to lifestyle. Research has
supportive of identity-related desired outcomes. shown that players project desired life changes
and self-improvements onto their avatar: for
example, by giving them a pet they would like to
Avatar Creation and (Dis)similarity own or by expressing certain choices in lifestyle,
such as a carefree attitude or a desire to travel.
Identity related avatar creation strategies can be Moreover, comparative research has shown that
inspired by a desire for similarity between player avatar creation strategies difer signiicantly
and character, by a desire to possess certain between virtual worlds due to available tech-
highly valued qualities, or by a mixture of both. nological options, narrative setting, and type
As discussed earlier, similarity identiication with of audience. While there is a small minority of
media characters is a process driven by (partial) residents of Second Life who have avatars with
self-recognition whereby audience members realistic features, broadly speaking two types of
temporarily associate themselves with a character idealized virtual bodies prevail: normative and
based on a number of shared qualities. Regarding fantastic ones. he normative group bases its pref-
digital games, motives expressed for creating erence for certain features on real-world norms
avatars similar to oneself include a desire for and ideals. Avatars are generally younger, leaner,
being honest with other players and the belief and more attractive than the general population,
that identity is carried over into the online world. oten with speciic bodily features accentuated
Research into the determinants of online avatar such as a slim waist, large breasts, or broad shoul-
creation has shown that players tend to copy ders. Residents with fantastic avatars, in contrast,
stable aspects of their real self into their avatar. do not so much project real-world ideals onto
Attributes that are reproduced may be related to the virtual as import attractive characters or
gender roles, outward appearance, personality, or character types from other narrative universes
background. Which aspects are relected in the which may be related to a science iction – Star
avatar, and to what extent, depend on the player’s Wars, for example – or fantasy franchise, such
desired outcomes for play. Overall, players who as Lord of the Rings, or to a certain subculture.
are more oriented toward identity than instru- One community that is strongly represented
mental play will create more similar avatars, and in Second Life, for example, is that of furries, a
players who are more satisied with their real-life group which feels connected with real or fantastic
selves have also been found to create characters animals. Furry avatars, sometimes referred to
that relect more of their real-world self. It should as fursonas, generally represent animals with
be noted, however, that the very selection of human-like characteristics such as intelligence,
attributes to be relected in the avatar and the speech, posture, and facial expressions and are
decision to minimize others is a process driven by oten perceived by the owner as an alter ego with
wishfulness as well as similarity, indicating that a distinct identity.
both motives can be strongly intertwined. Finally, It therefore appears that avatars allow the player
virtual worlds primarily aimed at identity play to escape their real-life conines temporarily
and socialization generally ofer more options into an alternative identity more to their liking.
to customize the appearance of avatars, rela- Virtual bodies generally more closely resem-
tively unhindered by instrumental constraints. ble the body and personality of players’ ideal
MMORPGs, however, which are more oriented selves (Van Looy, Courtois, & De Vocht, 2014).
toward competitive play, generally ofer fewer With regard to physical appearance, research has
options to alter the avatar’s identity, and those shown that older players especially and those
that are available are frequently more directly with weight issues create more attractive avatars
related to in-game performance outcomes. and are more strongly attached to their virtual
10 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY

alter egos. Regarding psychological attributes, it only 25% allowed for skin colors of the darkest
has been observed that players with lower self- category. Some 65% did not ofer the option of
esteem, higher depressive afect, or who are more natural “African hair,” and most of those that did
introverted tend to create more idealized avatars ofered only one option as compared to many
in terms of personality – for example, on the styles for other ethnic groups. In another study,
dimensions of neuroticism and extraversion. his Shaw (2012) found that sexual minorities such as
accords with self-discrepancy theory (see above) lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender gamers felt
which suggests that people have mental access to underrepresented in game culture – even more
multiple self-images such that a larger distance so in Western games than in Japanese – and that
between perceived actual and ideal self can be they felt hampered in expressing their sexual
a cause of psychological tension. People with a identity. hus, the potential for members of these
lower self-image will experience greater distance minority groups to identify with their avatar in
and will thus be more inclined toward media use online game worlds is lower than for members
that permits them to reduce the distance between of the majority group, possibly leading them
perceived and ideal self temporarily and thus feel to feel excluded from the mainstream, or even
better (Trepte & Reinecke, 2010). While this may discriminated against. his leads to online games
be perceived as having positive implications such incorrectly representing the world as ethnically
as enjoyment and reduced stress, oten, implicitly, and sexually uniform, which can be regarded as
media use for self-discrepancy reduction is also problematic both from a societal and a moral
critically regarded as a form of self-deception point of view.
and, possibly, a reason for inaction and failure
to address certain personal problems. his may
be the case for some players of online games but
Conclusion
there is no conclusive evidence; some studies
even show efects in the opposite direction, with
With the availability of a sound theoretical basis
players identifying more strongly with their ide-
for identiication in digital games (Klimmt,
alized avatars displaying more determination to
Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009) and validated scales
change their lifestyle (for example, their eating
for measuring diferent dimensions of avatar
habits).
and group identiication (Van Looy et al., 2012),
With identiication playing an important role
in the player’s experience of an online game studies are increasingly turning to the role of
and with avatar customization being a deter- identiication in the playing experience at large
minant of identiication, it becomes clear that and its efects on the player. As expected, based
the available options in a customization system on theory, identiication has been found to be
can have a major impact on the player’s self- associated with higher engagement of the player
perception during and in between gameplay. in the game and a stronger sense of self-presence.
When certain attributes related to similarity Studies looking into the learning efects of edu-
identiication are unavailable this may lead the cational games have found that identiication is
player to feel excluded and to turn away. When associated with a higher level of enjoyment and
desired traits are unavailable, this can reduce the higher perceived learning. Research into games
potential for wishful identiication, leading to for strategic communication such as advergames
lower motivation and engagement. Moreover, if and serious games, inally, inds that identiica-
one assumes that the online world should have tion can lead to increased brand recognition and
the potential for presenting an accurate relection buying intention, greater awareness of societal
of society, it is important that all societal groups issues, higher civic engagement, and stronger
are represented or representable. In a detailed intention to change behavior, for example in
content analysis of 65 online games, Dietrich health or environment related issues. Further
(2013) observes strong underrepresentation research in these areas will enhance understand-
of certain ethnic minorities. Some 40% of the ing of identiication as one of the major factors
games did not allow a change in the skin color driving game experience and one of its principal
of the avatar, ofering white as the default, and motivators.
 O N L I N E G A M E S C H A R A C T E R S, A VATA R S, AND IDENTITY 11

SEE ALSO: Online Games; Online Games, Trepte, S., & Reinecke, L. (2010). Avatar creation and
Community Aspects of; Online Games, Gender video game enjoyment: Efects of life-satisfaction,
and Feminism in; Online Games and Racism, game competitiveness, and identiication with the
avatar. Journal of Media Psychology: heories, Meth-
Sexism, and Homophobia; Online Games and
ods, and Applications, 22(4), 171. doi:10.1027/1864-
Role Playing 1105/a000022
Van Looy, J. (2009). Games and self-imagining, a com-
parative media perspective. Eludamos: Journal for
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