Section 1.

3 Ordered Structures
Tuples: Have order and can have repetitions. For example, (6, 7, 6) is a 3-tuple and ( ) is
the empty tuple. We write (x1, …, xn) = (y1, …, yn) to mean xi = yi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Cartesian Product: A ¥ B = {(x, y) | x Œ A and y Œ B}. The definition extends to more than
two sets. For example, A ¥ B ¥ C = {(x, y, z) | x Œ A, y Œ B, z Œ C}.
• Notation: A0 = {( )}, A1 = {(x) | x Œ A}, and in general, An = {(x1, …, xn) | xi Œ A}.
Quiz (1 minute). Does (A ¥ B) ¥ C = A ¥ (B ¥ C)?
Lists: Are like tuples but there is no random access. For example, ·a, b, a, cÒ is a list with 4
elements and · Ò is the empty list.
• The operations on lists are head, tail, and cons. For example,
head(·a, b, a, cÒ) = a, tail(·a, b, a, cÒ) = ·b, a, cÒ, cons(a, ·b, a, cÒ) = ·a, b, a, cÒ.
• The set of lists whose elements are in A is denoted by lists(A).
Quiz (1 minute). For L = · ·aÒ, b, ·c, dÒ Ò, find head(L) and tail(L).
Strings: Are like lists, but are represented as juxtaposed elements from a given alphabet.
For example, if A = {a, b}, then some strings over A are: a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, bbb.
• The empty string is denoted by L.
• The concatenation of two strings is their juxtaposition. For example, the concatenation of
ab and bab is abbab.
• For any string s we have sL = Ls = s.
• If s is a string, sn denotes the concatenation of s with itself n times. Also s0 = L. For
1
example, (ab)3 = ababab.
Languages
A language is a set of strings, usually taken over some alphabet.
Notation: If A is an alphabet, then the set of all strings over A is denoted by A*.
Example. Some languages over A are: ∅, {L}, A, and A*.
Example. {abna | n Œ N} = {aa, aba, abba, abbba, … } is a language over {a, b}.
Language Operations
Let L and M be languages. The product of L and M, denoted LM, is the language
LM = {st | s ΠL and t ΠM}.
• Notation: L0 = {L}; and Ln = {s1…sn | si Œ L}.
Quiz (1 minute). What are the products L∅ and L{L}?
Quiz (1 minute). Solve for L in the equation {L, a, b}L = {L, a, b, aa, ba, aba, bba}.
• The closure L* is the set of all possible concatenations of strings in L. So
L* = L0 » L1 » … » Ln » …
Quiz (1 minute). What are {L}* and ∅*?
Example. Examine the structure of an arbitrary string x ΠL*(ML)*.
A solution: Use the definitions to write x in terms of strings in L and M.
1. Since x ΠL*(ML)*, it follows that x = uv where u ΠL* and v Π(ML)*.
2. Since u Œ L*, either u = L or u = s1…sn for some n where si Œ L.
3. Since v Œ (ML)*, either v = L or v = r1t1 …rktk for some k where ri Œ M and ti Œ L.
So x has one of four forms: L, s1…sn, r1t1 …rktk, or s1…snr1t1 …rktk. 2
Relations.
A relation is a set of tuples. If R is a relation and (x1, …, xn) Œ R, we write R(x1, …, xn).
We can usually represent a relation as a subset of some cartesian product.
Example. Let R = {(0, 0), (1, 1), (4, 2), (9, 3), …, (n2, n), …} = {(n2, n) | n Œ N}. We might
call R the “is square of” relation on N. Notice also that R Ã N ¥ N.
Notation: If R is binary, we can use infix to represent pairs in R. For example, from the
previous example, we have (9, 3) ΠR. So we can also write
R(9, 3) or 9 R 3 or 9 is square of 3.
Relational Databases
A relational database is a relation where the indexes of a tuple have associated names
called attributes.
Example. Let Students = {(x, y, z) | x is a Name, y is a Major, and z is Credits}.
Who are the people majoring in CS?
{x | (x, CS, z) ΠStudents, for some z}.
Note: We need “for some z” to indicate that z is a variable.
How many math majors are upper division students?
| {x | (x, math, z) Œ Students and z ≥ 90} |.
What is the major of AbeLincoln?
{y | (AbeLincoln, y, z) ΠStudents, for some z}.
What is the history department database of names and their credits?
3
{(x, z) | (x, history, z) ΠStudents}.
Counting Tuples (or strings or lists)
Product Rule: | A ¥ B | = | A | | B | and | An | = | A |n.
Example. If A = {a, b} and B = {1, 2, 3}, then
A ¥ B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}.
So | A ¥ B | = 6 = (2)(3) = | A | | B |.
Example. Count the number of strings of length 8 over A = {a, b, c} that begin with either
a or c and have at least one b.
A Solution: Split the problem up into easier problems and combine
U–B U
the results (divide and conquer). Let U be the universe consisting
of the strings over A of length 8 that begin with either a or c. Let B
be the subset of U consisting of strings with no b’s. Then the set of B
strings to count is U – B, as pictured.
It is easy to calculate the cardinality of U – B:
| U – B | = | U | – | U « B | = | U | – | B | (since B is a subset of U)
It is also easy to count U because it has the same cardinality as the set {a, c} ¥ A7, which is
| {a, c} ¥ A7 | = | {a, c} | | A7 | = | {a, c} | | A |7 = (2)37.
It is also easy to count B because it has the same cardinality as the set {a, c}8, which is
| {a, c}8 | = | {a, c} |8 = 28.
So we have the answer:
4
| U – B | = | U | – | U « B | = | U | – | B | = (2)37 – 28, which is 4118.