Received: 25 September 2017 | Revised: 19 November 2017 | Accepted: 21 November 2017

DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.570

ORIGINAL RESEARCH

Effect of Boiling and roasting on lipid quality, proximate

composition, and mineral content of walnut seeds
(Tetracarpidium conophorum) produced and commercialized in
Kumba, South-­West Region Cameroon

Fabrice Tonfack Djikeng1,2 | Edem Selle1 | Azia Theresia Morfor1 |

Bernard Tiencheu3 | Blaise Arnaud Hako Touko1 | Gires Teboukeu Boungo2 |
Serges Ndomou Houketchang2 | Mallampalli Sri Lakshmi Karuna4 | Michel Linder5 |
François Zambou Ngoufack2 | Hilaire Macaire Womeni2

1
School of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Catholic University Institute of Abstract
Buea, Buea, Cameroon The effect of boiling and roasting on the lipid quality, proximate composition, and
2
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of
mineral content of African walnut seeds (Tetracarpidium conophorum) was assessed.
Science, University of Dschang, Dschang,
Cameroon Results indicated that the quality of walnut oil significantly (p < .05) reduces with the
3
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of treatments. Oils extracted from DBWN 60 min (Dried and boiled walnuts 60 min) and
Science, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
FBWN 60 min (Boiled fresh walnuts 60 min) were the most altered. The proximate
4
Centre for Lipid Research, CSIR-Indian
Institute of Chemical Technology, Tarnaka, composition and mineral content of walnut seeds was also significantly affected
Hyderabad, India (p < .05) by the treatments. This study reveals that, thermal processing has significant
5
Biomolecular Engineering Laboratory effects on the nutrients and quality of lipids of walnut oil. DTRWN 60 min (Dried and
(LIBio), University of Lorraine, ENSAIA,
Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France traditionally roasted walnuts 60 min), DORWN 60 min (Dried and oven roasted wal-
nuts 60 min), and TRFWN 30 min (traditionally roasted fresh nuts 30 min) are the best
Correspondence
Fabrice Tonfack Djikeng, School of Agriculture methods for cooking walnut because they preserve the quality of its lipids and some
and Natural Resources, Catholic University of the nutrients.
Institute of Buea, Buea, Cameroon
and
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of KEYWORDS
Science, University of Dschang, Dschang, African walnut, boiling, oil quality, proximate composition, roasting
Cameroon.
Emails: [email protected]; fdjikeng@cuib-
cameroon.net

1 | INTRODUCTION taste is usually observed upon drinking water immediately after eating
the nuts, due to the presence of antinutrients. The leaves, barks, and
African walnut (Tetracarpidium conophorum) is a popular Central and nuts of T. conophorum have also been demonstrated as good sources
Western Africa plant where it is planted mainly for its nuts, which are of phenolic antioxidants with various biological properties. Food mate-
usually eaten as snacks when the unshelled nuts are boiled and cracked rials are usually processed in order to improve palatability and reduce
(Babalola, 2011). The proximate composition of T. conophorum revealed toxicity, and as a means of preservation (Kanu, Kalu, & Okorie, 2015).
that it is rich in protein (29.14%), fat (54.14%), carbohydrate (4.17%), Walnuts seeds are generally consumed after several processing tech-
ash (3.32%), and several vitamins (Arinola & Adesina, 2014). A bitter niques. General method of processing of walnut prior to consumption

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2017 The Authors. Food Science & Nutrition published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Food Sci Nutr. 2017;1–7. 

www.foodscience-nutrition.com | 1
2 | TONFACK DJIKENG et al.

involves prolonged cooking of the seeds by boiling and roasting with (a) (b)
or without the shell. These processing methods usually improve the
organoleptic properties of the nuts, reduce their antinutrients content,
and prolong their shelf life (Ayankunbi, Keshinro, & Egele, 1991).
Thermal or heat processing is one of the most important meth-
ods developed by humans. During thermal processing, eventhough
antinutritional components are reduced or eliminated; heat has a det-
rimental effect on the nutritional and functional properties of foods
(Kanu et al., 2015). Then, the thermal treatment of walnuts can lead
to chemical changes that can affect its nutritional value and the qual-
FIGURE 1 (a) Fresh walnut fruit; (b) Dried and unshelled walnut
ity of its lipids. During boiling and roasting of the seeds, high tem-
seeds
peratures can facilitate lipid oxidation and nonenzymatic browning
reactions, which can reduce the nutritional value of foods, causing the
loss of essential fatty acids, essential aminoacids and carbohydrates. second (G2) was dried to constant weight in an electric air-­dried oven
The amount of vitamins can also be reduced as well as the proteins at 50°C for 7 days before processing.
digestibility (Cuvelier & Maillard, 2012). Additionally, these chemical Group 1 samples (600 g) were divided into 03 identical subgroups
alteration reactions may generate toxic compounds in edible seeds of 200 g each, coded FBWN 60 min, TRFWN 30 min, and FWN. FBWN
and the derived products, which can be harmful for the consumers 60 min was boiled in 2 L of water at about 100°C for a period of
(Djikeng et al., 2017). 60 min. TRFWN 30 min was traditionally roasted in a cooking pot at
Tetracarpidium conophorum is cultivated in littoral and western 200–220°C by continous stirring for 30 min and FWN served as fresh
Cameroon, where it is, respectively, known as “kaso” or “ngak.” The control.
seeds are boiled and roasted for commercialization, consumption, Group 2 samples (800 g) were divided into 04 identical subgroups
and biscuit-­like snack food production (Babalola, 2011). Many studies of 200 g each, coded DBWN 60 min, DTRWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min,
have reported the effect of processing temperature on the nutritional, and DWN. DBWN 60 min was boiled in 2 L of water at about 100°C
antinutritional values, and antioxidant properties, and African walnut for a peroid of 60 min, DTRWN 60 min was traditionally roasted by
seeds in some countries. These include: effect of boiling and tradi- continous stirring in a cooking pot at 200–220°C for 60 min, DORWN
tional roasting on the nutritional, antinutritional, and antioxidant prop- 60 min was also roasted for 60 min, but in the oven at 180°C, and
erties of African walnuts seeds (Arinola & Adesina, 2014); impact of DWN served as dry control.
processing on the nutrient content, vitamin, and mineral composition
of African walnuts (Okonkwo & Ozoude, 2014); effect of cooking on
2.3 | Oil extraction
phenolic content and antioxidant properties of African walnuts seeds
Ademiluyi, Oboh, Aragbaiye, Oyeleye, and Ogunsuyi (2015). Though
2.3.1 | Maceration method
considerable attention had been given to the study of African walnut
seeds, there is, however, very limited reports on the effects of pro- This method was used for oil extraction from dried samples (DTRWN
cessing on the walnut seeds grown in Cameroon, and especially on 60 min, DORWN 60 min, and DWN) as described by Womeni et al.
the quality of their lipids. Therefore, the objective of this study was to (2016). The nuts were separately grinded to pass 1 mm sieve. A quan-
evaluate the effect of boiling and different roasting methods on lipid tity of 80 g of each power was separately macerated in 400 ml of hex-
quality and proximate composition of walnut seeds. ane at room temperature for 24 hr with constant shaking. After that,
the mixture was filtered using the whatman paper N1, and the filtrate
was concentrated on a rotatory evaporator at 40°C. The extracted oils
2 | MATERIAL AND METHODS
were stored in the refrigerator at 4°C for further analysis.

2.1 | Material
2.3.2 | Bligh and dyer method
The fresh walnut seeds (Tetracarpidium cornophorum) (Figure 1) were har-
vested in the forest at Kumba, South-­West region, Cameroon in July 2017. Oils were extracted from samples containing water (FBWN 60 min,
All the chemicals and reagents used were of analytical reagent grade. TRFWN 30 min, FWN, and DBWN 60 min) using the method described
by Bligh and Dyer (1959). About 80 g of nuts were introduced in a
grinding machine (Moulinex) to which 100 ml of chloroform and 200 ml
2.2 | Methods
of methanol were subsequently added. The mixture was grinded for
3 min; follow by the addition of 100 ml of chloroform and 100 ml of
2.2.1 | Sample preparation and processing
water. The mixture was again grinded for 1 min, and filtered. The final
The walnut seeds (all with the shells) were first cleaned and divided extraction was ensured by the addition of chloroform, this in order to
into 02 groups. The first group (G1) was processed fresh, and the respect the following proportion: 2:2:1.8 for chloroform, methanol, and
TONFACK DJIKENG et al. | 3

T A B L E 1 Changes in peroxide, TBA,

Peroxide value TBA value Iodine value Acid value (mg
Iodine, and Acid values of walnut seed oil
Samples (meq O2/Kg) (ppm) (g I2/100 g) KOH/g)
samples during processing
FWN 4.77 ± 0.00d 2.03 ± 0.54e 121.81 ± 0.02ab 1.17 ± 0.00b
c e d
DWN 5.42 ± 0.59 2.17 ± 0.31 120.49 ± 0.22 0.92 ± 0.03cde
DBWN 60 min 19.10 ± 0.10a 10.16 ± 0.26a 118.97 ± 0.06f 2.19 ± 0.10a
b c e
FBWN 60 min 9.02 ± 0.61 6.17 ± 0.11 120.04 ± 0.00 1.11 ± 0.02b
DTRWN 60 min 8.00 ± 1.65b 7.49 ± 0.52b 120.78 ± 0.05d 1.04 ± 0.04b,d
b c b,c
DORWN 60 min 7.44 ± 1.86 5.21 ± 1.08 121.68 ± 0.10 1.07 ± 0.25b,c
TRFWN 30 min 7.48 ± 1.22b 3.42 ± 0.37d 121.52 ± 0.01c 1.12 ± 0.06b

Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3).

FWN , Fresh walnuts; DWN , Dried walnuts; DBWN 60 min , Dried and boiled walnuts (60 min); FBWN
60 min , Boiled fresh walnuts (60 min); DTRWN 60 min , Dried and traditionally roasted walnuts
(60 min); DORWN 60 min , Dried and oven roasted walnuts (60 min); TRFWN 30 min , traditionally
roasted fresh nuts (30 min).
a-f
Means within each column for parameter with different superscripts are significantly (p < 0,05)
different.

water, respectively. After separating the different phases in a funnel,

2.3.5 | Effect of processing on the mineral
the organic phase was collected and dried using sodium anhydrous.
composition of walnut
The organic solvent was then eliminated by evaporation on a rotatory
evaporator at 45°C under reduced pressure. The extracted oils were For the determination of minerals, walnut seeds were ashed at 550°C
stored in the refrigerator at 4°C for further analysis. and the ash boiled with 10 ml of 20% HCl in a beaker and then fil-
tered into a 100 ml standard flask to determine the mineral content.
Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and iron
2.3.3 | Effect of processing on the quality of
(Fe) were determined by atomic absorption spectrometer (Varian
walnut oil
220FS Spectra AA, Les Ulis, France). Phosphorus (P) was determined
The determination of the peroxide value of walnut oil samples was colorimetrically using the vanado molybdate, according to AOAC pro-
made following the spectrophotometrical IDF standard method, 74A: cedure 965.17 (AOAC, 1999). Mineral contents of the samples were
1991 (IDF, 1991). Its iodine and acid values were determined accord- determined from calibration curves of standards minerals. All samples
ing to the procedure of AOCS Official Method CD 1-­25 and CD 3d-­63 were analyzed in triplicate.
respectively (AOCS, 2003). Finally, its thiobarbituric acid value was
evaluated as described by Draper and Hadley (1990).
2.4 | Statistical analysis
Results obtained in this study were subjected to one-­way analy-
2.3.4 | Effect of different processing methods on the
sis of variance (ANOVA) with Student–Newman–Keuls tests using
proximate composition of walnut
Graphpad-­InStat version 3.05, to evaluate the statistical significance
Moisture, fat, ash, and protein content of all the samples were de- of the data. A probability value at p < .05 was considered statistically
termined using standard analytical methods described by AOAC significant.
procedures (AOAC, 1990). Moisture content was determined by
drying walnut seeds in oven at 103°C until a constant weight was
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
achieved according to the AOAC procedures 925.40 (AOAC, 1990).
Ash content was determined by incineration of walnut seeds at 550°C
3.1 | Effect of processing on the quality of Walnut oil
­according to the AOAC procedures 942.05 (AOAC, 1990). Nitrogen
(N) content was determined using micro-­Kjeldahl method, according
3.1.1 | Peroxide value
to AOAC procedures 984.13 (AOAC, 1990), the protein content was
calculated as N × 6.25. Lipid content was determined using Soxhlet Peroxide value (PV) is commonly used to determine the magnitude
apparatus with hexane, following AOAC 963.15 methodology (AOAC, of primary oxidation products (mainly hydroperoxides) in oils (Shahidi
1990). The total percentage carbohydrate content was determined & Wanasundara, 2008). The changes in PV of walnut oil samples are
by the difference method as reported by Onyeike et al. (2015). This presented in Table 1. The peroxide values of all the processed samples
method involved adding the total values of crude protein, crude fat, (DWN, DBWN 60 min, FBWN 60 min, DTRWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min,
moisture and ash constituents of the sample and subtracting it from and TRFWN 30 min) have significantly increased (p < .05) compared to
100. All samples were analyzed in triplicate. that of the control (FWN). The highest PV was registered in DBWN
4 | TONFACK DJIKENG et al.

60 min, and was 19.10 meq O2/Kg, which was significantly higher the free radicals formed during processing. The fact that the decrease
than 10 meq O2/Kg, which is the recommended peroxide value of was mostly pronounced in DBWN 60 min indicates a serious altera-
oils and fats (FAO/WHO, 2009). However, the PV of control and the tion of the unsaturations of its fatty acids compared to the other pro-
other processed samples were lower than the recommended value, cessed samples. It is important to note that, the iodine values obtained
meaning that these treatments were better in preserving walnut oil in almost all the samples were not far from the range 120 to 155 g
than DBWN 60 min. No significant difference (p > .05) was observed I2/100 g which is the recommended range of iodine value of walnut
between the PV of FBWN 60 min, DTRWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min, oil (Soap Dish, 2002). As previously observed with the TBA and PV
and TRFWN 30 min. The increase in peroxide value in the processed values, DBWN 60 min was the most affected sample. This means that,
samples compared to the control (FWN) can be attributed to the ac- drying + boiling is not suitable for the preservation of the quality of
cumulation of hydroperoxides as a result of free radicals attacking walnut oil. These results are not in accordance with those of Tenyang
the unsaturated fatty acids of oil (Nyam, Wong, Long, & Tan, 2013; et al. (2017) who demonstrated that, the iodine value sesame oil sig-
Womeni et al., 2016). These results are in accordance with those of nificantly decreases when the seeds are roasted at 120°C for 30 min.
Tenyang et al. (2017) who demonstrated that, the peroxide values of
sesame oil increases with the thermal treatment of sesame seeds.
3.1.4 | Acid value
The increase in acid value (AV) of oils might be an important measure
3.1.2 | TBA value
of rancidity of foods. Free fatty acids are formed due to hydrolysis of
Thiobarbituric acid value (TBA) value measures secondary oxidation triglycerides and may get promoted by reaction of oil with moisture
production mainly malonaldehyde, which may contribute off-­flavor (Frega, Mozzon, & Lercker, 1999). The changes in acidity of walnut
to oxidized oil (Djikeng et al., 2017). The effect of different process- oil during processing are shown in Table 1. No significant difference
ing methods on the TBA value of walnut oil is shown in Table 1. No (p > .05) was registered between the control (FWN) and the following
significant difference (p > .05) was registered between the TBA val- processed samples (FBWN 60 min, DTRWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min,
ues of FWN and DWN. However, a significant increase (p < .05) in this and TRFWN 30 min). However, there was a significant increase
parameter was observed in the boiled and roasted samples compared (p < .05) in acid value of DBWN 60 min; and a significant decrease in
to FWN and DWN. DBWN 60 min who previously exhibited the high- AV of DWN compared to the control (FWN) and the other processed
est peroxide value, also presented the highest TBA value. This indi- samples. The significant increase in acid value registered in DBWN
cates that, the rate of primary and secondary oxidation in this sample 60 min might be attributed to the rapid hydrolysis of its triglycerides,
was significantly higher (p < .05). This is the confirmation that, dry- leading to the accumulation of free fatty acids. It has been proven
ing + boiling 60 min (DBWN 60 min) has significantly alters the quality that, free fatty acids easily undergo oxidation than esterified ones.
of walnut oil compared to other treatments. The increase in TBA value This can explain the fact that the lipids of this same sample were the
registered in the cooked samples is the consequence of the formation most altered as previously observed with the PV, TBA, and IV. Also,
of malonaldehyde, which is a secondary oxidation product obtained its AV was lower than 4 mg KOH/g which is the recommended acid
from the decomposition of hydroperoxides (Womeni et al., 2016). The value of crude oils (FAO, WHO, 2009). The decrease in AV observed
fact that the cooking processes can increase the rate of production of in DWN compared to FWN can be related to the rapid transformation
secondary oxidation products in edible seeds has already been dem- of the free fatty acids present into hydroperoxides. Moreover, dry-
onstrated. Tenyang et al. (2017) showed that the p-­anisidine value of ing + boiling (60 min) significantly increase the acidity of walnut oil.
sesame oil significantly increase with roasting and boiling tempera- This result is in accordance with those of Tenyang et al. (2017) who
tures and times. showed that the acid value of sesame oil significantly increases during
boiling and roasting at different temperature and time.

3.1.3 | Iodine value

3.2 | Effect of processing on the proximate
The iodine value (IV) generally determines the degree of unsaturation
composition of walnut seeds
of edible oils and fats. A decrease in this parameter is generally at-
tributed to the destruction of the double bonds of polyunsaturated The effect of boiling and roasting on the proximate composition of
fatty acids by free radicals (Tynek, Hazuka, Pawlowicz, & Dudek, walnut seeds is presented in Table 2. Results showed that, the mois-
2001). The changes in IV of walnut oil samples during processing are ture content of control (DWN) and processed walnut samples falls
presented in Table 1. Generally, the treatments have significantly de- between 0.47 and 4.81%. DTRWN 60 min and DORWN 60 min have
creased (p < .05) the iodine value of walnut oil compared to the con- presented significantly lower (p < .05) amounts of moisture compared
trol (FWN). The most affected sample was DBWN 60 min, because, its to the control (DWN) and the other processed samples. However, the
iodine value decreased from 121.81 (iodine value of the control) to moisture content of those other processed samples (DBWN 60 min,
118.97 g I2/100 g. The significant decrease in iodine value of all the FBWN 60 min, and TRFWN 30 min was significantly higher (p < .05)
processed samples can be attributed as previously mentioned to the than that of DWN. It has been demonstrated that, low moisture con-
destruction of the double bonds of their unsaturated fatty acids by tent of food samples increase their shelf-­lives by reducing the microbial
TONFACK DJIKENG et al. | 5

TABLE 2 Changes in proximate composition of walnut seeds during processing

Samples Moisture% Ash% Lipid% Protein% Carbohydrate%

c b c a
DWN 1.79 ± 0.08 7.35 ± 0.35 52.75 ± 0.20 24.18 ± 0.83 13.09 ± 0.06b
DBWN 60 min 3.78 ± 0.00b 7.65 ± 0.63ba 52.98 ± 0.00c 21.96 ± 0.06b 12.67 ± 0.21c
b b b a
FBWN 60 min 3.67 ± 1.69 7.70 ± 0.28 56.89 ± 0.08 23.26 ± 0.08 9.21 ± 0.09f
DTRWN 60 min 0.49 ± 0.00d 9.03 ± 0.36a 56.14 ± 0.12b 20.16 ± 0.12c 14.18 ± 0.11a
d b b b
DORWN 60 min 0.47 ± 0.00 7.95 ± 0.35 56.27 ± 0.55 22.69 ± 0.01 12.23 ± 0.05d
TRFWN 30 min 4.81 ± 0.00a 7.30 ± 0.46b 54.29 ± 0.03b 23.16 ± 0.12a 11.44 ± 0.03e

Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3).

DWN, Dried walnuts; DBWN 60 min, Dried and boiled walnuts (60 min); FBWN 60 min, Boiled fresh walnuts (60 min); DTRWN 60 min, Dried and tradi-
tionally roasted walnuts (60 min); DORWN 60 min, Dried and oven roasted walnuts (60 min); TRFWN 30 min, traditionally roasted fresh nuts (30 min).
a-f
Means within each column with different superscripts are significantly (p < .05) different.

and enzymatic activities (Oyenga, 2013). Concerning the changes in (2014), who showed that the amount of protein of walnut seed was
ash content, it was ranged between 7.30 and 9.03%. No significant decreasing during boiling and roasting. However, no difference was
difference (p > .05) was observed between the amount of ash of DWN registered between the amount of protein of FBWN 60 min, TRFWN
(control) and those of DBWN 60 min, FBWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min, 30 min, and DWN (Control). The total carbohydrate content of pro-
and TRFWN 60 min. However, a significantly higher (p < .05) ash con- cessed and raw walnut sample also presented in Table 2 showed
tent (9.03%) was registered with DTRWN 60 min, but that amount of that, the amount of sugar varies significantly (p < .05) with the pro-
ash was similar (p > .05) to that of DBWN 60 min (7.65%). This result cessing method. The amount of carbohydrate of DBWN 60 min,
suggests that drying + traditional roasting increases the amount of ash FBWN 60 min, DORWN 60 min, and TRFWN 30 min has significantly
in walnut. The concentration of ash detected in this study is higher (p < .05) decreased during the treatments compared to the control
than those reported by Arinola and Adesina (2014). These authors (DWN). As previously mentioned, this can be related to the Maillard
reported that the amount of ash in raw, boiled and roasted walnut reaction, as carbohydrates (reducing sugars) are also substrates of
was ranged between 2 and 4%, and was decreasing with the treat- nonenzymatic browning (Tenyang et al., 2017). These results are in
ments. However, our findings were not far from those of Onyeike, accordance with those of Onyeike et al. (2015) who demonstrated
Anyalogbu, and Monanu (2015) who demonstrated that ash content that the total carbohydrate content of walnut seeds was decreasing
of cooked and raw walnut seeds of 5.45%–6.05%. They also find no during processing.
significant difference between the amount of ash in cooked and raw
walnut.
3.3 | Effect of processing on the mineral content of
Results also showed that walnut seeds are rich in macronutri-
walnut seeds
ents: 52.75%–56.89% of lipids, 21.96%–24.18% of proteins and
9.21%–14.18% of carbohydrates (digestibles and undigestibles). The changes in mineral composition of walnut seeds during processing
This composition is closed to that previously reported by Arinola are presented in Table 3. It can be observed that the nuts contain im-
and Adesina (2014) with the same nuts. These authors showed that portant amount of macrominerals, among which calcium, magnesium,
the total lipids, proteins and carbohydrates content of cooked and and potassium are the most represented. Sodium and phosphorus
raw walnut varied between 54.14 and 62.65%, 22.47 and 29.14%, were also present, but at low concentration compared to the previous
and 11.41 and 13.4%, respectively. It is also observed in Table 2 minerals. The importance of these mineral elements in human health
that the amounts of lipid of FBWN 60 min, DTRWN 60 min, DORWN has already been proven. They are implicated in several body func-
60 min, and TRFWN 30 min were significantly higher (p < .05) com- tions such as enzymatic reactions, energy production, transmission of
pared to that of DWN (control) and DBWN 60 min. This might be nerve impulses, and multiple biological reactions (Steinberg, Bearden,
due to the loss of water, which facilitate lipids extraction. However, & Keen, 2003). The data of calcium shows that its amount has sig-
no significant difference (p > .05) was registered between the lipid nificantly decreased (p < .05) during cooking compared to the control
content of DWN and DBWN 60 min. Similar trend has been obtained (DWN). The lowest amounts of calcium were found in DBWN 60 min
by Onyeike et al. (2015) when evaluating the effect of heat pro- and FBWN 60 min, and were 569.00 and 671.50 mg/100 g, respec-
cessing on the proximate composition and energy value of African tively. Globally, the concentration of calcium obtained in this study
walnut seeds. Talking about the total protein content, a significant is higher than 433.5 mg/100 g as reported by Ayoola, Onawumi, and
decrease (p < .05) in its concentration was registered with DBWN Faboya (2011). This mineral, together with the phosphorus are very
60 min, DTRWN 60 min, and DORWN 60 min compared to the con- essential for bone metabolism (Nwaoguikpe, Ujowundu, & Wesley,
trol (DWN). This reduction can be attributed to the Maillard reac- 2012).
tion, as proteins are substrates of nonenzymatic browning (Tenyang Concerning the magnesium content, its concentration sig-
et al., 2017). Similar result has been reported by Arinola and Adesina nificantly decreased (p < .05) in DBWN 60 min, FBWN 60 min,
6 | TONFACK DJIKENG et al.

TABLE 3 Changes in mineral composition of walnut during processing

Samples Fe (mg/100 g) Ca (mg/100 g) Mg (mg/100 g) K (mg/100 g) Na (mg/100 g) p (mg/100 g)

d a c a a
DWN 18.54 ± 0.74 1969.00 ± 12.72 1119.35 ± 3.04 951.72 ± 8.16 76.75 ± 2.47 21.34 ± 0.33ab
DBWN 60 min 24.81 ± 0.40b 568.00 ± 11.31e 172.85 ± 3.88f 543.02 ± 3.50c 54.00 ± 5.65b 18.92 ± 0.04ac
c d e b b
FBWN 60 min 20.84 ± 0.32 671.50 ± 4.94 203.34 ± 2.34 744.52 ± 1.80 53.90 ± 5.51 22.38 ± 0.22a
DTRWN 60 min 16.09 ± 0.96e 1566.25 ± 8.83b 1539.05 ± 6.29b 744.87 ± 2.29b 53.50 ± 4.94b 16,78 ± 0.16c
a c a b b
DORWN 60 min 43.32 ± 0.80 1427.25 ± 10.25 1691.35 ± 20.71 747.02 ± 5.33 53.00 ± 4.24 16.87 ± 0.29c
TRFWN 30 min 14.64 ± 0.36e 1411.50 ± 16.26c 416.05 ± 4.17d 544.02 ± 4.91c 54.25 ± 6.01b 16.86 ± 0.27c

Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3).

DWN, Dried walnuts; DBWN 60 min, Dried and boiled walnuts (60 min); FBWN 60 min, Boiled fresh walnuts (60 min); DTRWN 60 min, Dried and tradi-
tionally roasted walnuts (60 min); DORWN 60 min, Dried and oven roasted walnuts (60 min); TRFWN 30 min, traditionally roasted fresh nuts (30 min).
a-f
Means within each column with different superscripts are significantly (p < .05) different.

and TRFWN 30 min (172.75, 203.34, and 416.05 mg/100 g, re- 4 | CONCLUSION
spectively) compared to DWN (1119.35 mg/100 g), while those
of DTRWN 60 min and DORWN 60 min were significantly higher The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of boiling
(1539.05 and 1691.35 mg/100 g, respectively). This indicates that, and roasting on lipid quality and nutritional value of walnut seeds.
oven and traditional roasting for 10 min is suitable for the eleva- Results show that the quality of walnut oil was significantly affected
tion of the amount of magnesium in walnut seeds. The decrease in by boiling and roasting. However DBWN 60 min and FBWN 60 min
magnesium content registered in DBWN 60 min, FBWN 60 min, and were the most altered samples. These treatments are not suitable
TRFWN 30 min can be attributed to the loss of this mineral in water for the preservation of walnut oil quality. The proximate composi-
during processing through the diffusion process. However, its ele- tion of walnut seeds was also significantly affected by the treat-
vation in DTRWN 60 min and DORWN 60 min can be due to the fact ments. Almost all the cooking methods have significantly increased
that, the antinutritional present in the nuts and which were com- the lipid content of the nuts, while their protein and carbohydrate
plexed to the mineral were significantly destroyed by heat, lead- concentrations decreased. Traditional roasting for 60 min increases
ing to the increase in its concentration (Makinde & Akinoso, 2013). the ash content of walnut seeds. The minerals of the nuts were also
The amount of magnesium obtained in this study was higher than significantly modified during cooking. Both boiling and roasting
171.12 mg/100 g as previously reported by Ayoola et al. (2011) in have significantly decreased the K, Ca, Na, and P content of walnut.
the same nuts. Traditional and oven roasting for 60 min considerably increase the
From Table 3, we can also see that the amount of potassium and amount of magnesium, while the other treatments decrease its con-
sodium has significantly decreased (p < .05) during cooking compared centration. All processing technique including boiling leads to a sig-
to the control (DWN). However, their concentrations were significantly nificant loss of calcium and magnesium. Traditional roasting ­reduces
higher than 625 mg/100 g and 26 mg/100 g as reported by Ayoola the concentration of iron of walnut seeds.
et al. (2011) and Nwaoguikpe et al. (2012), respectively. The presence
of these minerals in African walnut is also beneficial, due to their direct
CO NFL I C T O F I NT ER ES T
relationship with hypertension in humans. This may be the reason why
the plant is used to prevent and control high blood pressure (James, None declared.
2000). The phosphorus content of walnut was also reducing in almost
all the cooked samples. Its concentration was ranged between 16.86
O RC I D
and 22.38 mg/100 g, which is lower than 35 mg/100 g as previously
reported by (Nwaoguikpe et al., 2012). Fabrice Tonfack Djikeng http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4813-5759
Concerning the single micronutrient analyzed, (iron) its concen-
tration has significantly increased (p < .05) in DBWN 60 min, FBWN
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