Computer Awareness

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Contents

Introduction to Computers ................................................................................................................................ 2

History of Computer .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Basic Computer Organization and Data processing Cycle ............................................................................... 25
Types of Computers ......................................................................................................................................... 35
Input and Output device .................................................................................................................................. 37
Computer Architecture and Components ....................................................................................................... 55
Types of Operating system and its functions .................................................................................................. 57
Database management system ....................................................................................................................... 84
Transmission modes ...................................................................................................................................... 102
Microsoft Office ............................................................................................................................................. 118
Microsoft Excel............................................................................................................................................... 123
Microsoft PowerPoint .................................................................................................................................... 127
Definitions and Terminologies ....................................................................................................................... 131

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Introduction to Computers
• A Computer is an electronic device that performs calculations and operations based on
instructions provided by a software or hardware program.

• In general, a machine which has capability to store large data value in its memory. It works using
input (like keyboard) and output (like printer) devices. It allows us to make changes in the already
stored data as well as store new data.
• Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner,
which should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic
machine.
• Data is represented with the help of characters such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or special
characters (+,- ,/,*,<,>,= etc.)
• Information is organized or classified data, which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
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For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristic
• Timely − Information should be available when required.
• Accuracy − Information should be accurate.
• Completeness − Information should be complete.

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• Input− In this step, the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form
will depend on the processing machine.
• Processing − In this step, the input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form.
• Output − At this stage, the result of the proceeding processing step is collected. The particular form
of the output data depends on the use of the data. Full form of computer: COMPUTER stands for
Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological and Educational Research.

Characteristics of Computers:
1. Speed – A computer can process millions of calculations per second. The speed of computation is
very high.
2. Accuracy - As computers work on inbuilt software programs, there is no scope for human errors
and highly accurate.
3. Diligence – Computers are highly reliable. They can perform complex and long calculations with the
same speed and accuracy.
4. Versatility - Computers are versatile in Nature. They can perform various operations at the same
time.
5. Storage - Computers can store a large amount of data or instructions in its memory which can be
retrieved at any point of time.

History of Computer
The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones and bones as counting
tools. As human mind and technology improved with time more computing devices were developed. Some
of the popular computing devices starting with the first to recent ones are described below

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the first computer. It is
said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

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It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier (1550-1617) of
Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips or bones marked with numbers to
multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the
decimal point

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented between 1642 and
1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is believed that it was the first mechanical
and automatic calculator.
It could only perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels.
When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A series of windows is given on
the top of the wheels to read the totals.

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It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz in 1673. He

improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a digital mechanical calculator which was
called the stepped reckoner as instead of gears it was made of fluted drums.

In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of Modern Computer". It
was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations. It was a steam driven calculating
machine designed to solve tables of numbers like logarithm tables.

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This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a mechanical computer
that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing
information as a permanent memory.

It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a mechanical tabulator
based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or sort data or information. This machine was
used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith also started the Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine Company which
later became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924

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It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an analog device
invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to switch electrical signals to perform
calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few minutes.

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard Aiken planned to develop
a machine that could perform calculations involving large numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as
a partnership between IBM and Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.

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Generation of Computer:

1) Hardware:
The hardware used in the first generation of computers were:
1. Vacuum Tubes
2. Punch Cards.

2) Features:
Following are the features of first generation computers −
• It supported machine language.
• It had slow performance
• It occupied large size due to the use of vacuum tubes.
• It had a poor storage capacity.
• It consumed a lot of electricity and generated a lot of heat.

3) Memory:
• The memory was of 4000 bits.

4) Data Input
• The input was only provided through hard-wired programs in the computer, mostly through
punched cards and paper tapes.
5) Examples
• The examples of first generation computers are −
a. ENIAC
b. UNIVACTBM 701
c. IBM-701
d. IBM-650

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Several advancements in the first-gen computers led to the development of second generation computers.
Following are various changes in features and components of second generation computers −

1) Hardware:
The hardware used in the second generation of computers were:
• Transistors
• Magnetic Tapes

2) Features
It had features like −
• Batch operating system
• Faster and smaller in size
• Reliable and energy efficient than the previous generation
• Less costly than the previous generation

3) Memory
• The capacity of the memory was 32,000 bits.

4) Data Input
• The input was provided through punched cards.

5) Examples
• The examples of second generation computers are −
a. Honeywell 400
b. CDC 1604
c. IBM 7030

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Following are the various components and features of the third generation computers −

1) Hardware:
The hardware used in the third generation of computers were
• Integrated Circuits made from semi-conductor materials
• Large capacity disks and magnetic tapes

2) Features
The features of the third generation computers are −
• Supports time-sharing OS
• Faster, smaller, more reliable and cheaper than the previous generations
• Easy to access

3) Memory
The capacity of the memory was 128,000 bits.

4) Data Input
The input was provided through keyboards and monitors.

5) Examples
The examples of third generation computers are −
a. IBM 360/370
b. CDC 6600
c. PDP 8/11

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Fourth generation computers have the following components and features −

1) Hardware
The Hardware used in the fourth generation of computers were −
• ICs with Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
• Semiconductor memory
• Magnetic tapes and Floppy

2) Features
It supports features like −
• Multiprocessing & distributed OS
• Object-oriented high level programs supported
• Small & easy to use; hand-held computers have evolved
• No external cooling required & affordable
• This generation saw the development of networks and the internet
• It saw the development of new trends in GUIs and mouse

3) Memory
The capacity of the memory was 100 million bits.

4) Data Input
The input was provided through improved hand held devices, keyboard and mouse.

5) Examples
The examples of fourth generation computers are −
a. Apple II
b. VAX 9000
c. CRAY 1 (super computers)
d. CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

These are the modern and advanced computers. Significant changes in the components and operations
have made
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fifth generation computers handy and more reliable than the previous generations.

1) Hardware
The Hardware used in the fifth generation of computers are −
• Integrated Circuits with VLSI and Nano technology
• Large capacity hard disk with RAID support
• Powerful servers, Internet, Cluster computing

2) Features
It supports features like −
• Powerful, cheap, reliable and easy to use.
• Portable and faster due to use of parallel processors and Super Large Scale Integrated Circuits.
• Rapid software development is possible.

3) Memory
• The capacity of the memory is unlimited.

4)Data Input
• The input is provided through CDROM, Optical Disk and other touch and voice sensitive input
devices.

5) Examples
The examples of fifth generation computers are −
a. IBM
b. Pentium
c. PARAM

Types of Computers

Based on Operation

1) Analog Computer –
• An Analog computer stores data continuously in the form of physical quantities and perform
calculations with the help of measures.
• It produces output in the form of a graph. They are used in the calculation of physical variables
such as voltage, pressure,temperature, speed, etc.

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2) Digital Computer –
• A Digital computer is the most commonly used type of computer and is working with data
represented in digital form, usually binary 0s and 1s.
• It can perform faster and give more accurate results.
• They are extensively used for solving complex problems in the field of engineering & technology,
design, research and data processing.

3) Hybrid Computer –
• A Hybrid computer is a combined feature of Analog and Digital computers.
• In large industries and businesses, a hybrid computer can be used for logical operations as well
asefficient processing of differential equations.

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Based on Configuration

1) Micro Computer –
• Microcomputers are small, inexpensive computer for personal use.
• They are popularly used at homes for playing games and surfing the Internet.

2) Mini Computer –
• Minicomputers possess most of the features and capabilities of a large computer but are smaller in
physical size.

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• They are used as small or mid-range operating business and scientific applications.

3) Mainframe Computer –
• Mainframe computers are expensive and large size computers and they are capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.
• They are used for specific largescale applications.

4) Super Computer –
• Supercomputers are powerful, expensive and the fastest computers.
• They have architectural and operational principles from parallel and grid processing for performing
billions and trillions of calculations per second.
• They are used for applications that require large amounts of mathematical computations like
weather forecasting, fluid dynamics, graphic design etc.

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India launched ‘Mihir’ supercomputer recently to improve India’s weather forecasting.

Particulars and Name of the Computer

1. First Super Computer in the world- Cray CDC 6600
2. Fastest Super Computer in the world - Summit by the USA
3. First Super Computer of India - PARAM 8000
4. Fastest Super Computer in India - Pratyush

Based on Utility

1) General Purpose Computer –

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• A general purpose computer can perform an extensive variety of operations.

• It can store and execute different programs in its internal storage.
• All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop computers, smartphones and tablets are general-
purpose devices.

2) Special Purpose Computer –

• Special purpose computers are designed to solve specific problems.
• The instructions are pre-programmed permanently in the computer.
• It completely controlled by automated manufacturing processes.
• Example – Aircraft control system, Electronic voting machines etc

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Based on Mode of Use

1. Palmtop Computer – Palmtop computers are small which can fit in the palm of a hand. The
electronic pen is used to give an input. They have small disk storage and can be connected to a
wireless network.

2. Laptop Computer – Laptop computers are portable with less weight. It can be transported easily
and used in temporary space such as Airplane, Meetings etc. They are designed for low power
consumption and have an attached keyboard and a touchpad.

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3. Personal Computer (PC) - A personal computer is a cost-effective computer that is designed for a
single end-user. PC is dependent on microprocessor technology, which allows PC makers to set the
entire central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip.

4. Workstation - Workstation (WS) is faster than Personal Computer. It is designed for a user or group
of users with better multitasking capability, additional Random-Access Memory, Higherspeed
graphics adapters and drive capacity.

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5. Client and Server – The server is a device that manages the sharing of network resources to the
users. An application server, File server, Virtual server, Mail server are some types of server. A
client is the receiving end of the service which made by the server. It requests the server and gains
access with the server.

Fundamentals of Computer:

A computer system has four basic components.

Parts of a computer system

1. Hardware - It represents the physical and tangible components of the computer (keyboard, mouse,
monitor etc.)
2. Software – It is a set of electronic instructions called programs that make the computer perform
tasks.
3. Data – It is a set of facts, which the computer stores and reads in the form of numbers.
4. Users - Users are the people who make use of a computer to obtain certain results/ outcomes.

Mother Board – It is the main printed circuit board of a computer that carries the central processing
unit (CPU) chip, Read Only Memory (ROM), Random Access Memory (RAM) and the basic input
output system (BIOS) chip.

Hardware:

Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes the computer
case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all the parts inside the computer case, such as the
hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.

The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. It connects
the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and expansion
cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Software:

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• Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. Opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a computer, software
is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a device.

Software is of two types : system software and application software.

System Software:
• System software is the main software that runs the computer. When you turn on the computer it
activates the hardware and controls and coordinates their functioning. The application programs
are also controlled by system software. It is also known as background software.

Four types of system software are the following.

1. Operating System
2. Utility Programs
3. Device drivers
4. Language translators.

Operating System –
• Operating system (OS) is the program that acts as an interface between the user and computer
hardware and application software. After the boot program, OS manages all the other programs in
a computer.
• Examples - Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows XP etc.

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Utility Programs –
• Utility Programs help to manage, maintain and control computer resources. They are also known as
service programs. Examples of utility programs are antivirus software, backup software, disk
defragment, backup, disk clean etc.

Device Drivers –

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• A device driver is designed to enable interaction with hardware devices. It controls a device that is
attached to your computer. Printers, Displays, CDROM readers, Disk drives etc are the examples
of the device driver.

Language Translator –
• Language Translator translates the high-level language program (input) into an equivalent machine
language program (output). It also detects and reports the error during translation. Assembler ,
Compiler, Interpreter are types of a Language Translator.

Assembler –
• It converts assembly language program into machine language.

Compiler –
• It converts the program in a high-level language into low-level language and reports all the errors of
the program along with the line numbers. C, C++ use compilers.

Interpreter –
• It converts the programs in a high-level language to low-level language. It translates line by line
and reports the error once after completing the translation process. It gives better error
diagnostics than a compiler. Python, BASIC, and Ruby use interpreters.

Application Software:
• Applications software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task. It does not control or
coordinate the working of computer. A computer can run without application software.
Application software can be easily installed or uninstalled as required. Microsoft Office Suite,
Adobe Photoshop and any other software like payroll software or income tax software are
application software.
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Basic Computer Organization and Data processing

Cycle
The Basic Diagram of the Computer consists of Input Unit, Output Unit and Central Processing Unit.

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Input Unit
• The input unit is used for giving instructions and data by using input devices.
• It converts these instructions and data to the computer acceptable format and it supplies the
converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.

Central Processing Unit

• The central processing unit (CPU) performs most of the processing inside a computer. CPUs have
been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor. It consists of the control
unit, the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and the memory unit.

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(1) Control Unit

• The control unit manages the computer's various components. It reads and interprets (decodes) the
program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the
computer.

(2) Arithmetic Logic Unit

• The ALU can perform arithmetic and logical operations. The set of arithmetic operations that an
ALU supports to addition, subtraction and more complex mathematical operations. Logic
• operations involve Boolean logic like AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating
• complicated conditional statements.

(3) Memory Unit

• Computer main memory consists of primary and secondary memory.

Computer Memory:
• Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can’t perform simple
tasks. The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU.
• Memory is internal storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized
into two types,
1. Main memory/ Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory

Primary Memory:
• Primary memory is computer memory that a processor or computer accesses first or directly. It
allows a processor to access running execution applications and services that are temporarily
stored in a specific memory location. Primary memory is also known as primary storage or main
memory.

The two types of primary memory are Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM).

1.Random Access Memory (Volatile Memory/RAM):

• It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently. It is read/write
memory which stores data till the machine is working.

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• When you switch on the computer and perform some task the data and instructions from the hard
disk are stored in RAM.
• CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the computer the
RAM loses all the data.

1. Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM) – Dynamic memory must be constantly refreshed, or it

loses its contents. This type of memory is more economical. Dynamic memory must be constantly
refreshed, or it loses its contents. This type of memory is more economical.

2. Static Random-Access Memory – SRAM is faster and less volatile than DRAM but requires more
power and is more expensive. It does not need to be refreshed like a DRAM. SRAM is faster and
less volatile than DRAM but requires more power and is more expensive. It does not need to be
refreshed like a DRAM

3. Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory - A type of DRAM that can run at much higher
clock speeds. A type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speeds.

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2.Read Only Memory (Non-volatile Memory/ROM):

• It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are written on it at
the time of manufacture.
• So, it is a permanent memory that contains all important data and instructions needed to perform
important tasks like the boot process.
• ROM stores data permanently on personal computers (PCs) and other electronic devices. It
performs major input/output tasks and holds programs or software instructions.

ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. Masked ROM (MROM) - The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-
programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which
are inexpensive. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but

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can’t offer the erase features in ROM. This type of RO maintains PROM chips to write data once
and read many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM can’t be erased by other programs.

2. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) - PROM can be modified only once by a user. The user
can buy a blank PROM and enter the desired contents using a PROM program. EPROM (Erasable
and Programmable Read Only Memory) - The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet
light. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the problems of PROM and
ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough pass on ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed.

3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROMs) have a Quartz window in the
package to expose the chip to UV light. They were widely used as the BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) chips in computer motherboards. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read
Only Memory) - The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10
milliseconds. They were also used as BIOS chips. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory similar to the EPROM but it uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM.

Secondary Memory:

• Secondary memory stores data on a long-term basis. It cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It
must first be copied into primary storage. Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like
hard drives and floppy disks, optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs, and magnetic tapes, USB
Flash drives.
• The storage devices in the computer or connected to the computer are known as secondary
memory of the computer. It is non-volatile in nature so permanently stores the data even when the
computer is turned off. The CPU can't directly access the secondary memory.
• First the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then CPU can access it.
Common secondary storage devices are the hard disk and optical disks. The hard disk has enormous
storage capacity compared to main memory.

There are three main types of secondary storage in a computer system:

1) Solid state storage devices(such as USB memory sticks): Solid state storage is also faster than
traditional hard disk drives because the data is stored electrically in silicon chips called cells. Within the
cells, the binary data is stored by holding an electrical current in a transistor with an on / off mode.

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2) Optical storage devices(such as CD, DVD and Blue-ray discs): Optical devices use a laser to scan the
surface of a spinning disc made from metal and plastic. The disc surface is divided into tracks, with each
track containing many flat areas and hollows. The flat areas are known as lands and the hollows as pits.

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3) Magnetic storage devices(such as hard disk drives): Magnetic devices such as hard disk drives use
magnetic fields to magnetise tiny individual sections of a metal spinning disk. Each tiny section represents
one bit. A magnetised section represents a binary '1' and a demagnetised section represents a binary '0'

Hard drive:
• It is a non-removable storage device containing magnetic disks or platters rotating at high speeds.
The hard drives store data in segments of concentric circles. It may spin at 5,400 to 15,000 RPM.

Optical disk:
• an electronic data storage medium that can be written to and read using a low-powered laser
beam.
1. CD-ROM: "Read Only" (used for distribution of commercial software, for example) Standard storage
capacity is 640MB.
2. CD-R (or CD-WORM): "Write Once, Read Many" times
3. CD-RW: rewritable multiple times
4. DVD: similar to CD, but with significantly larger storage capacity (4.7GB)
5. Write once read many (WORM) describes a data storage device in which information, once written,
cannot be modified.

Floppy Disk:
• Floppy disk is composed of a thin, flexible magnetic disk sealed in a square plastic carrier. Floppy
disks were widely used to distribute software, transfer files, and create backup copies of data.
• To read and write data from a floppy disk, a computer system must have a floppy disk drive (FDD).

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Magnetic Tape:
• Magnetic tape used in recording sound, pictures, or computer data.

Flash memory:
• a kind of memory that retains data in the absence of a power supply.

Digital Video Disc (DVD):

• A device currently used to store data in large amounts and accepts high-definition material. A
two-layered DVD can hold approximately 17 gigabytes of video, sound, or other data.

Blue-ray Disc:
• The upgraded version of CD and DVD discs and drives are the Blu-ray discs. It is commonly known
as BD-ROM. The Maximum capacity of BD disc is 25GB if single layer and 50 GB if dual layer.

Holographic Versatile Disc (HVD):

• It is a holographic storage format and has a maximum capacity of 3.9 terabytes. Flash Drives – Flash
drives are small, ultra-portable storage device.
• They connect to computers and other devices via a built-in USB plug. They are often referred to as
pen drives, thumb drives, or jump drives. Mostly they have a storage capacity from 8 GB to 64 GB.

Zip Disks:
• An advanced version of the floppy disk is known as Zip Disks.
• It was developed by Iomega. Zip disks are available in 100 and 250-MB and 750 MB capacities and
they are used to store, share and back up large amounts of data.

Some other memories are

1) Register Memory: Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is located in
the CPU in the form of registers. A register temporarily holds frequently used data, instructions and
memory address that can be quickly accessed by the CPU.

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2) Cache Memory: It is small in size but faster than the main memory. The CPU can access it more quickly
than the primary memory. It holds the data and programs frequently used by the CPU. So if the CPU finds
the required data or instructions in cache memory it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM).
Thus, it speeds up the system performance.

3) Semi-volatile memory: A third category of memory is "semi-volatile". The term is used to describe a
memory which has some limited non-volatile duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately
lost. A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is to provide high performance/durability/etc.
associated with volatile memories, while providing some benefits of a true non-volatile memory.

4) Virtual memory: Virtual memory is a system where all physical memory is controlled by the operating
system. When a program needs memory, it requests it from the operating system. The operating system
then decides in what physical location to place the program's code and data.

5) Protected memory: Protected memory is a system where each program is given an area of memory to
use and is not permitted to go outside that range. Use of protected memory greatly enhances both the
reliability and security of a computer system.

Memory unit

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity is
expressed in terms of Bytes.

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Types of Computers
We can categorize computer by three ways:
1. Based on data handling capabilities
2. Based on size.
3. Based on Utility

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

1. Analogue Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer:
• Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data
that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values such as speed, temperature, pressure
and current.
• The analogue computers measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render
output as a reading on a dial or scale.
• Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue
computers.

2) Digital Computer:

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• Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It accepts
the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce
output.
• All modern computers like laptops and desktops that we use at home or office are digital
computers.

3) Hybrid Computer
• Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer.
• It is fast like analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data.
• So it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is processed.
• For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of four types:

a) Microcomputer
b) Mini Computer
c) Mainframe computer
d) Supercomputer

Microcomputer
• Microcomputer is also known as personal computer.
• It is a general-purpose computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a
central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit.
• Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.

a) Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

b) Laptop Computer: a portable computer completes with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is
generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
c) Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no
keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device

Mini Computer:
• Minicomputers possess most of the features and capabilities of a large computer but are smaller in
physical size. They are used as small or midrange operating business and scientific applications.

Mainframe computer:
• Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously.
• These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and
telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data

Supercomputers:
• Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers.
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• They are designed to process huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of
instructions in a second.
• It has thousands of interconnected processors.
• Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. First supercomputer was developed
by Roger Cray in 1976.

Some other computers are:

Miniframe computer:
• It is a midsize multiprocessing computer.
• It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time.
• Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for the tasks such as billing,
accounting and inventory management.

Workstation:
• Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications.
• It has faster microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high-speed graphic adapters.
• It generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.

On the basis of Utility, the computer can be of two types:

General Purpose Computer:

• A general-purpose computer can perform an extensive variety of operations. It can store and
execute different programs in its internal storage.
• All mainframes, servers, laptop and desktop computers, smartphones and tablets are general-
purpose devices.

Special Purpose Computer:

• Special purpose computers are designed to solve specific problems. The instructions are pre-
programmed permanently in the computer.
• It completely controlled by automated manufacturing processes. Example – Aircraft control system,
electronic voting machines etc

Input and Output device

Input device:

• An input device is a piece of computer hardware equipment used to provide data and control signals
to an information processing system such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of input
devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras, joysticks, and microphones. Input devices
serve as a link between a user and the computer. It allows users to feed instructions and data to
computers for processing, display, storage and/or transmission.
• Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer –
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1) Keyboard: The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer or any other
electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for letters, numbers, characters, and
functions. Keyboards are connected to a computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless
communication. Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows –

• Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

• Numeric Keypad: It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of
a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines and
calculators.

• Function Keys: The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some specific
purpose. A key on a computer keyboard, distinct from the main alphanumeric keys, to which
software can assign a function. F1 - F12 keys are known as function keys and each key performs a
different function. It may be used as single key commands (e.g., F5) or combined with one or more
modifier keys (e.g., Alt+F4).

• Control keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl),
Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

• Special Purpose Keys: Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen

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• Toggle Keys - It is used to change the input mode of a group of keys on a keyboard. Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Scroll Lock are toggle keys.
1. Caps Lock – Capitalizes all letters.
2. Num Lock – Makes sure numbers are inputs from the keypad.
3. Scroll Lock - Allows the arrow keys to scroll through the contents of a window.

• Modifier Keys - It is a special key (key combination) that temporarily modifies the normal action of
another key when pressed together. Shift, Alt, Ctrl, Fn are modifier keys.
1. Shift - used for capitalizing letters and entering different types of symbols.
2. Function (Fn) - Other functions such as brightness and volume control.
3. Control (Ctrl) - used for entering keyboard shortcuts, such as Ctrl+S, Ctrl+P etc.
4. Alt - used in combination with the numeric keys and the Control key for entering keyboard
shortcuts

• Escape Key – It is located in the upper left corner of a computer keyboard. It is often used to quit,
cancel, or abort a process which is running on a computer.

2) Mouse –
• It is a pointing and cursor-control device. A round ball at its base senses the movement of a mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed. A mouse has two or
three buttons called Left, Right, and Middle button.
• The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or pointer across the screen.
It is designed to be used on a flat surface and generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel
between them. Laptop computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control
the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad. Some mouse comes
with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform different buttons.

• Common types of the mouse:

1) Trackball Mouse
2) Mechanical Mouse
3) Optical Mouse
4) Cordless
5) Wireless Mouse

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Joy Stick –
• It is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Design (CAD) and playing games on the computer.
• It can also be helpful as an input device for people with movement disabilities.
• A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick with a spherical base.
The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement of the stick. The movement of stick
controls the cursor or pointer on the screen

Track Ball –
• It is mostly used in notebooks or laptops. It is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on
the ball, the pointer can be moved.

3) Scanner –
• It captures images from printed material and converts it into a digital format that can be stored
within the PC. Flatbed Scanners, Hand Scanners, Sheetfed Scanner are some types of scanner.
• The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture or a document. The
scanned picture or document then converted into a digital format or file and is displayed on the
screen as an output. It uses optical character recognition techniques to convert images into digital
ones.

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• Some of the common types of scanners are as follows:

1) Flatbed Scanner
2) Handheld Scanner
3) Sheetfed Scanner
4) Drum Scanner
5) Photo Scanner

4) Barcode Reader –
• It is an electronic device for reading printed barcodes.
• A light sensor in the barcode reader can read the barcode and translates optical impulses into
electrical impulses to store the data into the computer. It is an important tool for warehouse
management and operations.
• Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

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5) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) –

• It is a character recognition system that uses special ink and characters. It is used to verify the
legitimacy or originality of paper documents, especially cheques. Information can be encoded in the
magnetic characters.
• It provides a secure, high-speed method of scanning and processing information.
• MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with magnetic ink. MICR is a
character recognition technology that makes use of special magnetized ink which is sensitive to
magnetic fields. It is widely used in banks to process the cheques and other organizations where
security is a major concern.

6) Optical Character Recognition (OCR) –

• It is a technology that recognizes text within a digital image. It converts the document to an
editable text file.
• OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of handwritten, typed or
printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices and libraries to convert documents and
books into electronic files.

7) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) –

• It is an electronic method that scans the document and reads the data from the marked fields and
results can be transmitted into the computer.
• OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

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8) Digitizer –
• It allows users to draw and manipulate graphics on the screen. It is also known as a graphics tablet.
These kinds of tablets typically designed for CAD/CAM professionals.
• Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes with a stylus. It
enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus as we draw on paper with a pencil.
The images or graphics drawn on the digitizer appear on the computer monitor or display screen.
The software converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to
typewritten words.

9) Touch Screen –
• It is a computer display screen that serves as an input device. A touchscreen can be touched by a
finger or stylus. Touchscreen records the event and sends it to a controller for processing.

10) Microphone –
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• Microphone translates sound vibrations in the air into electronic signals. It enables many types of
audio recording devices for purposes including communications, music and speech recording.
• The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It receives the sound
vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to a recording medium. The audio signals
are converted into digital data and stored in the computer.

11) Web Camera –

• It captures and stores images in digital form. The stored images can be can be archived on a
photographic compact disc or external hard disk.

12) Light Pen –

• It is a light-sensitive input device, used to select text, draw pictures and interact with user interface
elements on a computer screen or monitor.
• A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a
lightsensitive detector that enables the user to point to or select objects on the display screen. Its
light sensitive tip detects the object location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU.

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Output Devices:

• The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is entered in the computer
through an input device. There are a number of output devices that display output in different
ways such as text, images, hard copies, and audio or video.
• An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment which converts information into
human-readable form
• Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
1) Monitors
2) Graphic Plotter
3) Printer
4) Projector

1) Monitor:
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It
forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the
image depends upon the number of pixels. There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
1) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
2) Flat-Panel Display

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• The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better
the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole character,
such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
• A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a
series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
• There are some disadvantages of CRT –
1) Large in Size
2) High power consumption

• The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists.
• Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer,
and graphics display. The flat-panel display is divided into two categories –

1) Emissive Displays: Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

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2) Non-Emissive Displays: Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)

3) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor - LCD monitors use compact fluorescent tubes to illuminate
and brighten the image on the screen and produce good image quality, resolution and contrast
levels.

4) Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor - LED monitors use new backlighting technology to improve
picture quality. The LED monitor is more lifelike and accurate due to the improved contrast ratios
and colour saturation over LCD.

5) Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) Monitor – This type of monitor made up of some organic
material (containing carbon, like wood, plastic or polymers) that is used to convert the electric
current into light. They are directly used to produce the correct colour and there is no need for
backlight which saves power and space.

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2) Printer:
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or any
other information onto the paper. Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact
Printers and Non-impact Printers.

1) Impact Printers: They are of two types:

• Character Printers
✓ Dot Matrix printers

✓ Daisy Wheel printers

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• Line printers
✓ Drum printers

✓ Chain printers

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2) Non-impact printers: They are of two types:

✓ Laser printers

✓ Inkjet printers

Impact Printer:
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto the paper. The
hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper to print characters and images.
Impact printers are further divided into two types.
• Character Printers
• Line printers

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Character Printers: Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print
head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix printer and Daisy Wheel printer are
character printers.

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it are the patterns of dots.
These patterns are produced by striking the ink-soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head. The
print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual characters. The
speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-500 characters per second. It prints characters as a combination
of dots. They have a matrix of pins on the print head of the printer which form the character. They
generally have 9-24 pins. Their speed is measured in cps (Character per second).

It consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy, so it is named Daisy
Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal characters are mounted. To print a character the
printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the print location the hammer hits disk and
the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. the speed is very low around
25-50 characters per second

Line Printers:
Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed impact printer as it
can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain printer are examples of line printers. A line
printer is an impact printer which can print one line of text at a time. It is also known as a bar printer.

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Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print characters. The drum has circular
bands of characters on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of characters. When you print,
the drum rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink
ribbon against the paper to print characters.

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The characters are embossed on
the surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around a set of hammers, for each print location
one hammer is provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the total number of print positions.

Non-Impact Printer:
They print characters and images without direct physical contact between the paper and the printing
machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so they are also known as page printers.
The common types of non-impact printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

Laser Printer:

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A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the characters. The laser beam hits
the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the
drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then
printed on the paper using heat and pressure. A laser printer is a popular type of personal computer
printer that uses a non-impact photocopier technology. The type of ink used in a laser printer is dry. It
gives high-quality output. The resolution of laser printers is measured in dpi (dots-per-inch).

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by spraying fine, ionized drops
of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays
ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is fed through the printer. These drops pass through an electric
field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images and characters.
Inkjet printers work by spraying ink on a sheet of paper. The type of ink used in an inkjet printer is wet.

Other printers:

Solid Ink Printer:

It is a type of colour printer. It works by melting the solid ink that applies the images to the paper. It is non-
toxic and convenient to handle.

LED Printer:
This type of printer uses a light emitting diode instead of a laser. It starts by creating a line-by-line image of
the page.

3) Projector:
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A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface such as a
big screen or wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices to project their output onto a
screen. It uses light and lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an ideal output
device to give presentations or to teach a large number of people.
Projector is a device that connects with a computer and projects the output onto a white screen or wall.

4) Plotters:
A plotter is an output device used to produce hard copies of large graphs and designs on paper, such as
construction drawings, architectural plans, and business charts. Drum plotters and Flatbed plotters are the
types of plotters.

• Drum plotter – It is a pen plotter that wraps the paper around a drum with a pin feed attachment.
The drum then rotates the paper as pens move across it and draw the image. It is used to produce
continuous output, such as plotting of earthquake activity. It is also known as Roller Plotter.
• Flatbed plotter - It plots on paper that is spread and fixed over a rectangular flatbed table. It is
used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts, buildings, highways etc. It is also known as Table Plotter.

5) Speaker:
Speakers are one of the output devices used with computers. They are transducers that convert
electromagnetic waves into sound waves.

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Computer Architecture and Components

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic
operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

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Input Unit:
• This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates
a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit):

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features –
1) CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
2) CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
3) It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
4) It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
• CPU itself has the following three components –
1) ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
2) Memory Unit
3) Control Unit

Memory or Storage Unit:

• This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed.
• It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random
Access Memory (RAM). Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and
secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer.
• Functions of the memory unit are –
1) It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2) It stores intermediate results of processing.
3) It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
4) All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit
• This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
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• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
• It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

• This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1) Arithmetic Section
2) Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
• Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
• All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section
• Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.

Output Unit:
• The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

Types of Operating system and its functions

• An Operating System (OS) is an interface between computer user and computer hardware. An
operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices
such as disk drives and printers. Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System,
Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
• An Operating System (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. It performs all the basic tasks and controls the peripheral devices such as disk
drives and printers.

Examples – Linux (Ubuntu), Windows (Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10),
iOS, Chrome OS, DOS etc. Apple’s latest operating system, macOS Mojave, version 10.14.

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Layered Structure of Operating System

1) Kernel
2) Memory Management
3) Process management
4) Device management
5) File Management
6) Storage Management
7) User Interface

Functions of operating system:

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
1) Memory Management
2) Processor Management
3) Device Management
4) File Management
5) Security
6) Control over system performance
7) Job accounting
8) Error detecting aids

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9) Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management:

• Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory
is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address. Main memory
provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU.
• Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory, conveying
memory blocks to various running programs to enhance overall system performance.
• For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory.
• An Operating System does the following activities for memory management −
1. Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in
use.
2. In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much.
3. Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
4. De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.

Processor Management:
• In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for
how much time.
• Management allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor when a
process is no longer essential. It can save the tracks of the processor and the status of the process.
• This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for
processor management −
1. Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as
traffic controller.
2. Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
3. De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

Device Management:
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. Device Management
keeps track of all devices. This is called the Input/output controller and it decides which process gets the
device, when, and for how long. It does the following activities for device management −
1. Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller.
2. Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
3. Allocates the device in the efficient way.
4. De-allocates devices.

File Management:
• A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain files and other directions.
• File Management allocates and de-allocates the resources. It keeps track of information, location,
uses, status etc. The collective facilities are known as a file system.
• An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
1. Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are often known as file
system.
2. Decides who gets the resources.
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3. Allocates the resources.

4. De-allocates the resources.

Other Important Activities:

Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs –

Storage Management –
Storage Management provides secondary storage to backup main memory. It can store all data and
program permanently. Disk scheduling, Storage allocation, Free space management are the activities in
Storage Management.

Security –
Security controls the unauthorized access of programs, processes and data resources by means of
passwords etc. It can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, and other resources can be
operated only by authorized users. By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.

Job Accounting – It keeps track of time and resources used by various users and processes. Keeping track
of time and resources used by various jobs and users.

Control System Performance – Control System records delays between the request for a service and from
the system. Recording delays between request for a service and response from the system.

Error Detecting Aids – Error detecting Aids ensure the consistent delivery of data across the network.
Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging etc are techniques that enable reliable
delivery of digital data over unreliable communication channels. Production of dumps, traces, error
messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.

Coordination between other software and users - Operating System Coordinates and assigns compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems. Coordination
and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the
computer systems.

Types of Operating System:

Batch operating system:

• The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
• To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group.
• The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs
with similar requirements into batches.
• The users of the batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user
prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
Disadvantages
1) Lack of interaction between the user and the job
2) The speed of the process is slow. Hence Output is time taking
3) The CPU is in idle condition
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Time-sharing/Multi-sharing operating systems:

• Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a
particular computer system at the same time.
• Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
• Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
• Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming.
• It is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a computer
system at the same time. The CPU executes multiple programs by switching among the programs.
Unix is an example of timesharing OS
Disadvantages
1) Less Reliability
2) Problem of Data Communication

Multiprogramming Operating System:

• Multiprogramming is an extension to the batch processing where the CPU is kept always busy. Each
process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.
• In multiprogramming environment, for the time a process does its I/O, The CPU can start the
execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the efficiency of the system.
• The users of multiprogramming operating system can execute several programs simultaneously.
The CPU keeps on processing. The processes which are running exist in main memory at a time.
Disadvantages:
1) The waiting time for the job is high
2) Complicated schedule handling

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Multiprocessing Operating System:

• In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved.
• There are more than one processors present in the system which can execute more than one
process at the same time. This will increase the throughput of the system.

Distributed operating System:

• Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and
multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
• The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-
speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed
systems.
• Distributed Operating System allows multiple users on different computers or terminals to access a
single system with one Operating System on it. The processors communicate with one another
through various communication lines. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems.
Advantages
1) Potential Operation
2) Better service to the customers.
3) The load on the host computer is reduced
4) Delays in data processing are reduced

Single User Operating System:

• This type of operating system supports a single user at any given time.
• Single keyboard and Single monitor are used for interaction. Several programs can also run by a
single user in this operating system.
• Example – Windows 95, Windows XP etc

Network operating System:

• A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage
data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
• The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access
among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or
to other networks.

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Real Time operating System:

• A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
• The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is
termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to
online processing.
• It is a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is
small. It is always online whereas online system need not be real time. They are used in scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, etc.
• Examples – VRTX, RT Linux, Lynx etc

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems:

• Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems,
secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM.
• In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
• In this system, the critical tasks complete on time. Secondary storage is limited, and the data is
stored in ROM.
• Virtual memory is almost never found.
• Examples – Industrial control applications, Robots, etc

Soft real-time systems:

• Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and
retains the priority until it completes.
• Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia,
virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
• In this system, the time constraint is less strict.
• A critical real-time task gets priority and retains the priority until it completes. It has limited utility.
• Examples – Multimedia, Virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and
planetary rovers, etc.
Advantages
1) It can be used in an embedded system
2) Error-free
3) Better memory allocation
Disadvantages
1) Algorithm is complex

Android:
• Android is the name of the operating system used on many smartphones and tablets. It is owned
and maintained by Google.
• The recent version of Android is Android 11.

Batch processing:
• Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data
together in a batch before processing starts

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Multitasking:

• Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between
them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is
running. A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a
process.

Spooling:
• Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting
data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is
accessible to I/O devices.

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Booting: When the computer starts, the operating system is first loaded (as it is essential for running all
other programs), this process is known as booting.

Other Terms related to Operating System:

Booting:
• When the computer starts, the operating system is first loaded (as it is essential for running all
other programs), this process is known as booting.

Cold Boot:
• Turn ON the computer from an OFF position is called Cold Booting.

Warm Boot:
• A computer system starts up/reset from a complete powerless state is called Warm Booting.

Firmware:
• Firmware is a software program that is written to a hardware device. It allows the hardware to be
updated. The contents are saved when a hardware device is turned off or loses its external power
source.

Middleware:
• Middleware is a software layer situated between applications and operating systems. It enables
communication and data management for distributed applications.

Software:
The software is a group of instructions that instructing a computer to do specific tasks. It enables the user
to interact with a computer. System Software and Application Software are two types of software.

System Software:
• It serves as an interface between a computer user, computer hardware and application software. It
is also known as background software.
• Four types of system software are the following.
1) Operating System
2) Utility Programs
3) Device drivers
4) Language translators.

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Operating System - Operating system (OS) is the program that acts as an interface between the user
and computer hardware and application software. After the boot program, OS manages all the other
programs in a computer. Examples - Linux, Unix, Microsoft Windows XP etc.

Utility Programs - Utility Programs help to manage, maintain and control computer resources. They are
also known as service programs. Examples of utility programs are antivirus software, backup software,
disk defragment, backup, disk clean etc.

Device Drivers - A device driver is designed to enable interaction with hardware devices. It controls a
device that is attached to your computer. Printers, Displays, CD-ROM readers, Disk drives etc are the
examples of the device driver.

Language Translator – Language Translator translates the high-level language program (input) into an
equivalent machine language program (output). It also detects and reports the error during translation.
Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter are types of a Language Translator.

1) Assembler – It converts assembly language program into machine language.

2) Compiler – It converts the program in a high-level language into low-level language and reports all
the errors of the program along with the line numbers. C, C++ use compilers.
3) Interpreter – It converts the programs in a high-level language to low-level language. It translates
line by line and reports the error once after completing the translation process. It gives better error
diagnostics than a compiler. Python, BASIC, and Ruby use interpreters

Application Software
• Application software is a program or group of programs designed for end users. It enables the user
to complete tasks, such as creating documents, spreadsheets, databases, and publications, doing
online research, sending email, designing graphics etc.
• There are two types of application software.
1) Basic application software
2) Specialized application software

Basic application software - Basic application software is also known as general purpose applications
and productivity applications. These programs are widely used in every discipline and occupation. Word
processors, spreadsheets, database management systems, and presentation graphics are the common
types of basic application software. Example - Microsoft office 2016.

Specialized application software - Specialized application software is designed for a specific task rather for
a wide application area. Graphics programs, audio and video editors, multimedia creation programs, web
authoring, and virtual reality programs are common types of specialized software.

Computer Languages:
The different kinds of languages have been developed to perform various types of work on the
computer. The two major types of programming languages are Low-Level Languages and High-Level
Languages.

Low-Level languages:
• It is a programming language that deals with a computer's hardware and its configuration.
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• It is very close to the computer’s native language. It is further divided into Machine and Assembly
languages.
• Machine Language – It consists of binary digits or bits. It can directly understand by the computer
and does not need a translator program. It is also called the machine code. It is efficient but difficult
to learn.
Advantages
1) Programs run fast.
2) No translation program is required.
Disadvantages
1) Difficult to program
2) Debugging is also an issue

Assembly Language:
• A combination of letters and numbers forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is
required to translate to the machine language.
• The operation codes and operands are given in the form of alphanumeric symbols which are known
as mnemonic codes and can combine in a maximum of five-letter combinations e.g. ADD for
addition, SUB for subtraction etc.
• This is also known as Symbolic Programming Language.
Advantages
1) Easier to understand and minimizes effort.
2) Finding and correcting the errors are easy.
Disadvantages
1) It is machine dependent (program written for one computer might not run in other computerswith
different hardware configuration)
2) Writing of code is time-consuming.

High-Level languages
• A high-level language (HLL) is a programming language that enables a programmer to write
programs independently. Such languages are closer to human languages.
• Higher level languages are simple languages that use English and mathematical symbols like +, -, %,
/ for its program construction.
Example – BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL, PASCAL, PROLOG.
1) BASIC - Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code (BASIC) was developed for students to
write simple computer programs. It was designed by John Kemeney and Thomas Kurtz in 1963.
2) ALGOL - ALGOL is a short form of ALGOrithmic Language. It is a family of portable programming
languages for scientific computations.
3) PROLOG - Prolog is used widely for artificial intelligence applications, particularly expert systems.
4) PASCAL - It is used to teach programming techniques. It was developed by Niklaus Wirth.
5) FORTRAN - It is a programming language designed for numeric computation and scientific
computing. FORmula TRANslation is an acronym of FORTRAN.
6) COBOL - Common Business Oriented Language is the full form of COBOL. It is used for business and
administrative purposes. It can be read like regular English.
7) C – It is a general-purpose language which is used in many scientific programming situations.
8) C++ - C++ is an object-oriented programming language and incorporates all the features offered by
C.

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Advantages
1) Independent of machines and can run on any computer
2) Problem-oriented rather than machine oriented
3) User-friendly
Disadvantages
1) Need time for translating.

Object-Oriented Programming
• Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a software programming model built around objects. This
model classifies data into objects and describes object contents and performance through the
declaration of classes.
• Simula is the first object-oriented programming language. The examples of object-oriented
programming languages are Java, Python, JavaScript, C++, C#, PHP, Perl, .NET, Ruby Curl, Visual
Basic, Smalltalk, Delphi, and Eiffel.
1. Java - Java is used for developing Mobile, Desktop, web, server-side and dynamic web applications.
2. JavaScript – JavaScript is designed for styling HTML Pages, interactivity to HTML Pages, Server-Side
Scripting Operation, executing query related to DB on Serve.
3. Python - Python is a general-purpose programming language. It is used for developing complex
scientific, numeric applications, data analysis, and visualization.
4. C# - C# is a general-purpose language was designed by Microsoft to be used for developing apps on
the Microsoft platform.
5. PHP - PHP stands for Hypertext Pre-processor. It is a scripting language used for the development
of web applications.
6. .Net-.Net is a programming framework developed by Microsoft, which can be used to build
different types of applications such as Windows, Web application and Mobile based applications
etc.
7. Visual Basic - Visual Basic is an approachable language with a simple syntax for building type-safe,
object-oriented apps

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Other related terms

1. Language Processor – Language Processor is a software designed to perform tasks such as
processing program code to machine code. Language processors are found in languages such as
Fortran and COBOL.
2. Debugger - A debugger is a software utility that is designed to locate errors within a program's
source code.
3. Linker - Linker is a program that combines object modules to form an executable program.
4. Loader – Loader brings all program objects into the memory which is essential to run a program.
5. Spooling - Spooling is a process in which data is temporarily held to be used and executed by a
device, program or the system. Data is saved in storage until the program requests it for execution.

Memory Storage Units:

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Number System:
• The Number system is a technique to represent and work with numbers. The most widely adopted
number system is the Decimal number system which has 10 digits (0-9).
• Binary number system (0,1), Octal number system (0-7) and Hexadecimal number system (0-9, A, B,
C, D, E, F, G) are other number systems.
• The number of digits in a system is called ‘radix’ or ‘base’. The base of decimal, binary, octal
hexadecimal system is 10, 2, 8 and 16 respectively.
• When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system where there
are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.
• The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
1. The digit
2. The position of the digit in the number
3. The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits available in
the number system)

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Decimal Number System:

• The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
• In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units,
tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

Binary Number System:

Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
1. Uses two digits, 0 and 1
2. Also called as base 2 number system
3. Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
4. Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Octal Number System:

Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
1. Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
2. Also called as base 8 number system
3. Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
4. Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
represents the last position – 1

Hexadecimal Number System:

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
1. Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
2. Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
3. Also called as base 16 number system
4. Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160
5. Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16x where x
represents the last position – 1.

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Conversion with examples:

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Logic gates and Boolean operations:

Logic Gates:
The logic gates are the main structural part of a digital system.
1. Logic Gates are a block of hardware that produces signals of binary 1 or 0 when input logic
requirements are satisfied.
2. Each gate has a distinct graphic symbol, and its operation can be described by means of algebraic
expressions.
3. The seven basic logic gates includes: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
4. The relationship between the input-output binary variables for each gate can be represented in
tabular form by a truth table.
5. Each gate has one or two binary input variables designated by A and B and one binary output
variable designated by x.
6. These are the building blocks of any digital circuit that implement Boolean logic processes. It has
only one output. Arrays of logic gates are used in digital integrated circuits (ICs). The basic logic
gates and their functioning (truth table) are mentioned in the following figure.

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It is a digital logic gate with two or more inputs and one output which performs logical conjunction.

It is a logic gate that produces inclusive disjunction. It is used in Boolean algebra and electronic circuits like
transistor-transistor logic, and complementary metal-oxide semiconductors etc.

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NOT gate is a single input gate. It performs the inversion of given input. So, it is called Inverter.

It is the combination of AND & NOT gates. It is the opposite of AND logic gate.

It is the combination of NOT & OR gates. ‘neither this nor that’ is the principle of NOR gate.
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XOR gate is a special type of gate. It is used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor and controlled
inverter circuit. It is also used in the computers for implementing the binary addition.

It is a combination of the Exclusive-OR gate and the NOT gate. The EXOR gate has a high output only when
an odd number of inputs are high.

Boolean algebra
• Boolean algebra can be considered as an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic
operations. Boolean algebraic variables are designated by letters such as A, B, x, and y. The basic
operations performed are AND, OR, and complement.
• The Boolean algebraic functions are mostly expressed with binary variables, logic operation
symbols, parentheses, and equal sign. For a given value of variables, the Boolean function can be
either 1 or 0.

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Basics of Combinatorial Components

Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit, for example
encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer.

Half Adder
• Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The half adder circuit is
designed to add two single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building block for addition of two
single bit numbers. This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.

Full Adder
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• Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It can add two one-bit
numbers A and B, and carry c. The full adder is a three input and two output combinational circuit.

Multiplexers:
• Multiplexer is a special type of combinational circuit. There are n-data inputs, one output and m select
inputs with 2m = n. It is a digital circuit which selects one of the n data inputs and routes it to the
output.

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Demultiplexers
• A demultiplexer performs the reverse operation of a multiplexer i.e. it receives one input and
distributes it over several outputs. It has only one input, n outputs, m select input.

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Decoder
• A decoder is a combinational circuit. It has n input and to a maximum m = 2n outputs. Decoder is
identical to a demultiplexer without any data input. It performs operations which are exactly opposite
to those of an encoder.

Encoder
• Encoder is a combinational circuit which is designed to perform the inverse operation of the decoder.
An encoder has n number of input lines and m number of output lines.

Priority Encoder
• This is a special type of encoder. Priority is given to the input lines. If two or more input line are 1 at the
same time, then the input line with highest priority will be considered.

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Database management system

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the data
efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports, etc. For
example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students and faculty etc. Using
the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

• Database management system is software which is used to manage the database. For example: MySQL,
Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in different applications.
• DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing data in it,
updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
• A database management system (DBMS) is a computer program designed for creating and managing
the database. It provides a systematic way to run operations like creating, storing, retrieving, deleting
data from the database. It serves as an interface between the database and end users. It also provides
protection and security to the databases.
• MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, IBM DB2, PostgreSQL, Amazon Simple DB (cloud-based) are some popularly
used DBMS.
• It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also maintains data
consistency. DBMS allows users the following tasks:

1. Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that defines the
organization of data in the database.
2. Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data in the
database.
3. Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by applications
for various purposes.

Advantages of DBMS
✓ Reduced Data redundancy
✓ Data security and consistency
✓ Easily accessible
✓ Integrity constraints

Disadvantages of DBMS
✓ Larger in size
✓ Complexity
✓ Licensed DBMS are costly

Architecture (Levels of Data Abstraction in DBMS)

Database systems consist of complex data structures. The process of masking irrelevant information from
users is known as Data Abstraction. Data abstraction reduces the complexity of users with the database.
Three levels of data abstraction are Physical Level, Logical Level, and View level. The Architecture of
commercial DBMS is based on ANSI-SPARC database architecture.

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• Physical Level/Internal Level - It is the lowest level of abstraction. It describes how the data is
physically stored in detail. B+ tree, Hash file organization methods are used in this level.

• Logical Level/Conceptual Level - It is the next level of abstraction and describes what data is
stored and what is the relationship among that data. At the logical level, each record is described
by a type and the interrelationship of these record types. Database administrators work at this
level of abstraction. The changes which are done at this level will not affect the external or physical
levels of data.

• View Level/External Level - It is the highest level of abstraction and is viewed by the user in terms
of tables and relations. It describes only a part of the entire database and hides the details of the
logical level.

Keys in DBMS:

A key is a field in the database table which is used to retrieve and sort rows in the table. Keys are used to
speeding up the data accessing and creating links between different tables.

1. Super Key - It is a set of one or more attributes whose values uniquely determine each entity in the
database table. It is a subset of a candidate key.

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2. Candidate Key - It is a set of columns in the table from which primary key can be selected to identify
each record. Every database table may have one or more candidate keys.

3. Primary Key - It is a special key that uniquely identifies each record in the table. It has a unique
value for each row of data and it cannot contain null values.

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4. Composite Key - It is a combination of more than one column in the table that can be used to
uniquely identify each record. It is also known as a Compound key.

5. Alternate Key - All keys except primary key are known as Alternate. Alternate keys are also called
Secondary Keys.

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6. Foreign Key - Foreign key points to the primary key of another table. It acts as a reference between
tables. It can accept the null and duplicate value.

Users
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for different purposes. Some
users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a DBMS can be broadly categorized as follows –

Administrators –
• Administrators maintain the DBMS and are responsible for administrating the database. They are
responsible to look after its usage and by whom it should be used.
• They create access profiles for users and apply limitations to maintain isolation and force security.
Administrators also look after DBMS resources like system license, required tools, and other
software and hardware related maintenance.

Designers –
• Designers are the group of people who actually work on the designing part of the database. They
keep a close watch on what data should be kept and in what format.
• They identify and design the whole set of entities, relations, constraints, and views.

End Users –
• End users are those who actually reap the benefits of having a DBMS. End users can range from
simple viewers who pay attention to the logs or market rates to sophisticated users such as
business analysts

3-tier:

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• Architecture 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity of the
users and how they use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used architecture to
design a DBMS.

1. Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing languages.
We also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this level.

2. Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application server and the programs that access
the database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. End-
users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the application. At the other end, the
database tier is not aware of any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the application
layer sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user and the database.

3. User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any
existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be
provided by the application. All views are generated by applications that reside in the application
tier.

Data Models
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are fundamental
entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is connected to each other and
how they are processed and stored inside the system.

Entity-Relationship Model:
ER Model is based on −
1. Entities and their attributes.
2. Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below

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Entity –
• An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes. Every attribute is
defined by its set of values called domain.

Relationship –
• The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships are mapped with
entitiesin various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of association between two
entities.

Mapping cardinalities −
1. One to one
2. One to many
3. Many to one
4. Many to many

Relational Model-
• The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model than
others. This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.

The main highlights of this model are −

1. Data is stored in tables called relations.
2. Relations can be normalized.
3. In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
4. Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
5. Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

Computer Network:

• Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through wires, optical fibres
or optical links so that various devices can interact with each other through a network.
• The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
• In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that vary from
simple to complex level.
• A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows computers to
exchange data using a data link. The connections between nodes (computers on networks called
nodes) are established using either cable media or wireless media. Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn are
known as fathers of the Internet.

The five components of a computer network are:

• Sender (Device)
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• Sender Equipment (Encoder)

• Communication Channel (Cables, Wireless)
• Receiver Equipment (Decoder)
• Receiver (Device)

• Sender - Sender is a device that sends a message which can consist of text, numbers, pictures etc. It
is also called source or transmitter.
• Sender Equipment - The encoder is a device that converts digital signals in a form that can pass
through a transmission medium.
• Communication Channel - It is the physical path that connects the sender and the receiver. It is
used to transmit data. It is also called Medium. The channel can be a copper wire, a fiber optic
cable, microwaves etc
• Receiving Equipment - The decoder is a device that converts the encoded signals into digital form.
The receiver can understand the digital form of message.
• Receiver – Receiver is a device that receives the message. It is also called a sink. It must be capable
of accepting the message.

Computer Network Architecture:

• Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software,
hardware, protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers
are organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer.
• The two types of network architectures are used:
1. Peer-To-Peer network
2. Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network:
• Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data.
• Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
• Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
• Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a
problem if the computer with the resource is down.

Client/Server Network:

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• Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
• The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called
clients.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send
some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server
sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Components of Computer Network:

• Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
• Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be
removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

NIC:
• NIC stands for network interface card.
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• NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
• It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
• The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the
IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable
read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.
1. Wireless NIC:The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
2. Wired NIC:The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.

Hub:
• Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple devices. When computer
requests for information from a computer, it sends the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this
request to all the interconnected computers.

Switches:
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• Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to transfer the data to
another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the message over the network,
i.e., it sends the message to the device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch
sends the message directly from source to the destination.

Cables and connectors:

Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There are three types of cables:
• Twisted pair cable: It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.
• Coaxial cable: Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more expensive
than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission speed.
• Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the data using light beams.
• It provides high data transmission speed as compared to other cables. It is more expensive as
compared to other cables, so it is installed at the government level.

Router:
• A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is used
to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
• A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
• A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
• It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.

Modem:
• Modem connects the computer to the internet over the existing telephone line. A modem is not
integrated with the computer motherboard.
• A modem is a separate part on the PC slot found on the motherboard.It stands for
Modulator/Demodulator.
• It converts the digital data into an analog signal over the telephone lines.

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Some important Uses Of Computer Network:

1. Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs, printers, and data
among the users on the network without the requirement of the physical location of the resource
and user.
2. Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A server is a central
computer used to store the information and maintained by the system administrator. Clients are
the machines used to access the information stored in the server remotely.
3. Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium among the
users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an email system which the
employees use for daily communication.
4. E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the business over the
internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the internet, i.e., they are doing
their business over internet.

Computer Network Types

• A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.
• A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four types:
1. LAN(Local Area Network)
2. PAN(Personal Area Network)
3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
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4. WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network):

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such as
building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication medium
such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

PAN(Personal Area Network):

• Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically within a range
of 10 meters.
• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is known as
Personal Area Network.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal Area Network.
• Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations
• LAN is a computer network covering a small geographical area and is privately owned. The
• Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial cables. LAN offers high-
speedcommunications data rates up to 1000 Mbps. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more, and
congestion is less in this network.
• LAN can be used for an office building, home, hospital, schools, etc.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

• Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.
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• Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network):

1. A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger network.
2. Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
3. MAN covers a large geographical area than LAN. It is designed for customers who need a high-
speed connectivity and it is usually owned by large organizations to interconnect its various
branches across a city.
4. The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and congestion in the network is more. Modem and Wire/Cable
are used as transmission devices. It may serve as an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

WAN(Wide Area Network):

1. A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as states or
countries
2. A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
3. A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large geographical area
through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
4. The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
5. A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and education.
6. WAN covers the large geographical area and it might be restricted within the bounds of a state or
country. It could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN through telephone lines and radio
waves. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
7. The Speed of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second (Mbps).
Public packet networks, Large corporate networks, Military networks, Banking networks, Stock
brokerage networks, and Airline reservation networks are constructed by WAN.

Internetwork:
• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or computer network
segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local addressing scheme. This
process is known as internetworking.
• An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government computer
networks can also be defined as internetworking.
• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.
• The reference model used for internetworking is Open System Interconnection(OSI).

Types of Internetwork:
• Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as
Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol.
• Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol.

Other types

• Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) - WLAN is a wireless network communication over short
distances. This distribution method uses high-frequency radio waves and often include an access
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point to the Internet. It is also called Local Area Wireless Network (LAWN). Example - A mobile user
can connect to LAN via wireless connection.

• Storage Area Network (SAN) - SAN is a high-speed special-purpose network. It supports data
storage, retrieval, and sharing of data, multiple disk arrays, data migration from one storage device
to another and uses Fibre Channel interconnection technology.

• Campus Area Network (CAN) - CAN is a computer network of interconnected local area networks. It
is larger than a LAN but smaller than MAN or WAN. It can also stand for Corporate Area Network.
Example - Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s (MIT) Project Athena has CAN network.

• Personal Area Network (PAN) - PAN refers to the interconnection of telecommunications devices or
gadgets such as a laptop, mobile phones, printers etc around an individual person. It can cover
network range of 30 feet (approximately 10 m). It can be constructed by using cables or it may be
wireless.

• Wireless Personal Network (WPAN) – WPAN is a type of personal area network. It uses wireless
communication to transfer data between the connected devices of the user. It is also known as
short wireless distance network.

Network Topology:
• A network topology is the arrangement of a network, nodes and connecting lines. The physical
topology and the logical (or signal) topology are the types of network topology.
• Physical Topology
• The physical topology refers to the geometric layout of the connected network. Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Mesh Topology, Star Topology, and Hybrid Topology are several forms of
Physical Topology.
• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected to
each other.
There are six types of topology
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Tree topology
5. Mesh topology
6. Hybrid Topology

Bus Topology:

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• Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial, to which many
network devices and workstations are attached along the length.
• Server is at one end of the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it transmits packets with
destination address in its header along the bus.
• The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal sees the data it
copies it to the local disk.
• In the Bus topology system, every computer and network are connected by using a single cable. The
cable is known as Bus. It transmits the data from one end to another end only in a single direction.
• When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology. A network that uses a bus
topology is referred to as a bus network. Bus networks were the original form of an Ethernet
network.

Ring Topology:

• In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the network a circular
shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.
• When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighboring node which transmits it to the
next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified.
• In this way, data reverses the network and reaches the destination node, which removes it from the
network. If the data reaches the sender, it removes the data and resends it later.
• In ring Topology, network nodes are connected in a closed loop configuration. Each node has
directly connected with its adjacent node on both sides. The Others are indirectly connected and
the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes.

Dual Ring Topology - When the transmission is bidirectional by having two connections between
each network node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. It is a network redundant topology where
nodes are connected using two concentric rings with four branches. If one ring fails, the second
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ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.

Tree Topology:
• Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
• It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies.
• Tree topology is also called hierarchical topology.
• In Tree Topology network, two or more-star networks connected with a root node and all other
nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at
least have three levels to the hierarchy.
• This type of topology used in Wide Area Network. Tree topology is valued for its scalability and
accessibility for troubleshooting.

Star Topology:

• In star topology, server is connected to each node individually.

• Server is also called the central node.
• Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through the server.
• It is the most popular topology for information and voice networks as central node can process data
received from source node before sending it to the destination node.
• In a star topology, all the nodes are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node.
• The data can send from one node to another through the hub. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
It can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Mesh topology:
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• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with
each other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• In Mesh Topology, every node carries traffic only between the two nodes it connects (point-to-
point connection). Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
• Example - Each telephone regional office needs to be connected to every other regional office.
• There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology. They are Routing, Flooding.
1. ✓ Routing – The nodes have a routing logic to direct the data to reach the designation using the
shortest distance.
2. ✓ Flooding – The data is transmitted to all the nodes in the network, hence no routing is required.

Types of Mesh Topology

• Partial Mesh Topology - In this topology, some of the nodes are connected to all nodes and some
nodes are connected only to some nodes.
• Full Mesh Topology - Every node is connected to each other

Hybrid Topology:

The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if
similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
• For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another
branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
• It is a group of two or more topologies. It is a scalable topology and it can be expanded easily. It is
reliable.

Logical/Signal Topology
Logical Topology denotes how the signals transmitted from node to node across the system. Broadcast
and Token Passing are the two types of Logical topology.
• In Broadcast, there is no need for instructions. Ethernet is working in Broadcast transmission.
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• In Token Passing, electronic token is passed to each node. When a token is received by thenode,
the node can send data on the network. Token Ring and Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) are
using Token Passing. Arc net is token passing on a bus topology.

Transmission modes
• The way in which data is transmitted from one device to another device is known as transmission
mode. The transmission mode is also known as the communication mode.
• The Transmission mode is divided into three categories:
1. Simplex mode
2. Half-duplex mode
3. Full-duplex mode

Simplex Mode:

• In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, i.e., the data flow in one direction.
• A device can only send the data but cannot receive it or it can receive the data but cannot send the
data.
• The radio station is a simplex channel as it transmits the signal to the listeners but never allows
them to transmit back.
• Keyboard and Monitor are the examples of the simplex mode as a keyboard can only accept the
data from the user and monitor can only be used to display the data on the screen.
• The main advantage of the simplex mode is that the full capacity of the communication channel can
be utilized during transmission.
• In this type, the data can be transferred in only one direction. The only one can transmit and the
other can receive the data.
• Example – Keyboard (Input) and Monitor (output), Loud Speaker, Television, Fire alarm system etc.

Half-Duplex mode:

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• In a Half-duplex channel, direction can be reversed, i.e., the station can transmit and receive the
data as well.
• Messages flow in both the directions, but not at the same time.
• The entire bandwidth of the communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.
• In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error occurs, then the
receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
• A Walkie-talkie is an example of the Half-duplex mode.
• In this type, the data can be transferred in both directions, but not at the same time. Example –
Walkie-talkie

Full-duplex mode:

• In Full duplex mode, the communication is bi-directional, i.e., the data flow in both the directions.
• Both the stations can send and receive the message simultaneously.
• Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one direction, and
another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
• The Full-duplex mode is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
• The most common example of the full-duplex mode is a telephone network.
• In this type, the data can be transferred in both direction on the same transmission path. Two lines
are used for sending and receiving the data. Example – Telephone network

OSI Model
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• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it
is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model is an intangible and logical arrangement that
describes network communication between two systems by using different layer protocols. The
OSI model developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). It has seven layers to
transmit data from one to another.

Physical layer:
• It is the first layer that physically connects the two systems that need to communicate. It transmits
data in bits and manages simplex or duplex transmission by modem.
• It also manages Network Interface Card’s hardware interface to the network, like cabling, cable
terminators, topography, voltage levels, etc
• It is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It deals with the bit-level transmission between the devices.
It supports mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. Hub,
Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
• The data unit of this layer is Bit. It converts the signal into 0s and 1s and sends them to the next
layer. Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex are the transmission modes for this layer. Protocols used
- ATM, RS232, and Ethernet.

Data Link Layer:

• It is used for the encoding, decoding and logical organization of data bits. It makes the physical
layer appear error-free. It converts the bits into the frames depending on the frame size of Network
Interface Card (NIC).
• Switch and Bridge is Data Link Layer devices. HDLC, LSL, and ATM are the implemented protocols on
this layer. It has two sub-layers.

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• It is the firmware layer of Network Interface Card. It assembles datagrams into frames and adds
start and stop flags to each frame. It also resolves problems caused by damaged, lost or duplicate
frames.
1. Media Access Control (MAC) – It is responsible to the physical address of the sender and/or receiver
in the header of each frame. CSMA/CD, Ethernet are used as protocol.
2. Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is responsible for frame management, error checking, and flow control
of data.

Network Layer:
• This network provides the shortest path for transmitting data for network communication to avoid
congestion. Data is transmitted in the form of packets through the logical network path. The IP
address of the sender/receiver is placed in the header. Routers are used as networking devices. The
IPX and TCP/IP are the implemented protocols on this layer. Routing and Logical Addressing are the
functions of this layer.
• It is concerned with routing, switching and controlling flow of information between the
workstations. It also breaks down transport layer datagrams into smaller datagrams.
1. Routing – Finding the shortest path for data transmission.
2. Logical Addressing – Placing the IP address of the sender/receiver in the header. Physical Layer,
Data Link Layer, and Network Layer are also known as Hardware Layer.

Transport layer:
• Till the session layer, file is in its own form. Transport layer breaks it down into data frames,
provides error checking at network segment level and prevents a fast host from overrunning a
slower one.
• Transport layer isolates the upper layers from network hardware.
• This layer is called as Heart of OSI model.
• It is responsible for end-to-end network communication, flow control of data, error recovery and
reliability and quality of data. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is
operated by the Operating System. SPX, TCP/IP’s, DNS are examples of implemented protocols on
this layer.

Session Layer
• This layer is responsible for the establishment of the connection, maintenance of sessions,
synchronization and ensures security.
• It allows adding checkpoints (synchronization points) into the data to identify the error. This layer is
the network dialog controller which allows two systems into the dialog in either half duplex or full
duplex mode. RPC, PPTP, SCP, SDP are some protocols of this layer.

Presentation Layer
• This layer performs encryption and decryption of data. It gives the data in a readable format from
an application layer perspective. It reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
• It offers liberty from compatibility troubles. It is called the Translation layer and Syntax layer.
• Example - ASCII code to EBCDIC coded text file.

Application Layer
• This layer focuses on process-to-process communication across an IP network and provides a firm

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• communication interface and end-user services. It supports services such as electronic mail, remote
file access, and transfer, shared database management, Web chat and surfing, Directory services
and Network Virtual Terminal. HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS have used protocols of this layer.
It is also called as Desktop Layer.
• Session Layer, Presentation Layer, and Application layer are also known as Upper Layers or
Software Layers.

TCP/IP Model:
• TCP model is a tangible, client-server model. It is one of the most used protocols in digital network.
It has only four in a data communication network.
• Host-to-Network Layer – In this layer, the host has connected to the network using the protocol to
send IP packets. Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay are used.
• Internet Layer – It transfers the Internet Protocol packets (IP datagrams) to the destination. IP,
ICMP, ARP, RARP, and IGMP have used protocols.
• Transport Layer – It is like as transport layer in the OSI model. Two end-to-end transport protocols
are used. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Use Datagram Protocol (UDP). Application Layer
– It contains high-level protocols. TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS, HTTP, NNTP, DHCP are used.

Data Transmission Media

• Data or information is transferred to one place from another through the physical/wireless media
which is known as Transmission Media. Guided Media and Unguided Media are two types of
Transmission Media.

Guided Media/Bounded Media

• The signals are transmitted through the narrow path which made by physical links. Twisted Pair
cable, Coaxial Cable and Fibre-Optic Cable are the types of Bounded Media. Twisted-pair and
coaxial cable accept signals in the form of electric current. Optical fibre accepts signals in the form
of light.

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Unguided/Unbounded Media
• The signals are transmitted without using any cables. This type of transmission is known as wireless
communication. Radio waves, Infrared, Micro waves are some popular type of unbound
transmission media.
1. Microwave – Mobile phone, Satellite networks, Wireless LANs.
2. Radio Wave – Radio, Television and Paging system
3. Infrared – Short range communication (TV remote control, IRD port etc)

Network Devices

Hub –
• Hub is a networking device which connects multiple network hosts. It is used to transfer data. The
hub sends data packets (frames) to all devices on a network. Active Hub (Repeaters) and Passive
Hub are two categories of Hub.

Switch –
• Switch is a small hardware device that works at the layer of LAN (Local Area Network). It receives
incoming data packets, filters the packet and sends only to the interface of the intended receiver.
• It maintains a CAM (Content Addressable Memory) table and has own system configuration and
memory. CAM table is also known as forwarding table or forwarding information base (FIB).

Modem (Modulator-Demodulator) –
• It is a hardware component that allows a computer to connect to the Internet. It converts analog
signal to digital signal.

Router –
• It is a hardware device which is responsible for routing traffic from one to another network. It is
designed to receive, convert and move packets to another network.

Bridge –
• Bridge is a network device that connects a local area network to another local area network that
uses the same protocol.

Gateway –
• A gateway is a network node that connects two dissimilar networks using different protocols
together.

Repeater –
• It is an electronic device that magnifies the signal it receives. It is implemented in computer
networks to expand the coverage area of the network. It is also known as signal boosters.

Firewall –
• A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls overall incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on advanced and a defined set of security rules.

Internet:
It is the global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities,
consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication protocols (TCP/ IP). ARPANET
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was the world's first fully operational packet switching computer network, developed by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency of the U.S. Department of Defense in 1969. It connected with only four
computers. ARPANET adopted TCP/IP in 1983 and the “network of networks” became the modern Internet

1. World Wide Web - WWW is one of the services interconnected over the internet. It is a collection
of all information, resources, pictures, sounds, multimedia on the internet which is formatted in
HTML and accessed through HTTP.

2. Web Server – A web server stores, processes and delivers web pages to the users. The
intercommunication between users and servers is done using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

3. Web Page – It is a document was written in HTML that can be accessed through the internet by
using the web browser. It is identified by Uniform Resource Locator.

4. Web Browser - It is a software application that allows users to access the websites. Internet
Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, Mozilla Firefox, UC Browser, Apple Safari are some examples of a
web browser.

5. Home Page – Homepage is the default page of the website.

6. Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) – HTML is used to create web pages that are displayed on the
Internet.

7. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - This protocol is used to transfer data over the web. It runs on
top of the TCP/IP set of protocols. It uses a server-client model.

8. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) – It is a set of communication protocols

which is used to access the internet. TCP/IP was developed by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf in 1978.

9. Internet Host – Host is a computer or application which is used to transfer the data on the internet.
Each host has a unique IP address called Hostname.

10. Internet Protocol Address (IP Address) – It is a logical numeric address that is used to identify the
host over the internet network.
• ✓ The stable version of IP – IPv4 (32 bits). It is written in decimal and separated by periods.
• ✓ Latest Version of IP – IPv6 (128 bits). It is written in Hexadecimal and separated by colons.

11. Uniform Resource Locator (URL) - A uniform resource locator (URL) is used to locate the address of
a resource and protocol.

12. Domain Name - A domain name serves as an address which is used to access the website. It can be
universally understood by Web servers and online organizations.

Top Level Domains are following:

1. .com- Commercial
2. .net- Network-oriented
3. .org- Non-Profit Organization
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4. .edu- Education
5. .gov- Government
6. .mil- Military
7. .int- International Treaties

a) Domain Name System (DNS) – DNS translates domain names into IP addresses. It has a large
database of domain names and its IP addresses.

b) Uploading – It refers to the transmission of data or files from the computer to the internet server.
Uploaded file can be retrieved by anyone.

c) Downloading – It is the process of copying files from the internet to the user’s computer.

d) Email - Electronic mail is the transmission of messages over the internet. In an email, the user can
attach documents, pictures, videos etc.

e) Carbon copy (CC) – It is used to share e-mail with one or more recipients. Both the main recipients
and other (CC) recipients can see all the mail addresses.

Computer Security:

• Computer security, cyber-security or information technology security (IT security) is the protection
of computer systems from the theft of or damage to their hardware, software, or electronic data,
as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. Internet security is a
branch of computer security specifically related to not only Internet, often involving browser
security and the World Wide Web.
• Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet
represents an insecure channel for exchanging information, which leads to a high risk of intrusion
or fraud, such as phishing, online viruses, Trojans, worms and more. Many methods are used to
protect the transfer of data, including encryption and from-the-ground-up engineering.
• Types of attacks: A cyber-attack is an exploitation of computer systems and networks. It uses
malicious code to alter computer code, logic or data and lead to cybercrimes, such as information
and identity theft. Attacks can be classified into the following categories:

Web-based attacks These are the attacks which occur on a website or web applications. Some of the
important web-based attacks are as follows-

DNS Spoofing
• DNS spoofing is a type of computer security hacking. Whereby a data is introduced into a DNS
resolver's cache causing the name server to return an incorrect IP address, diverting traffic to the
attacker’s computer or any other computer. The DNS spoofing attacks can go on for a long period
of time without being detected and can cause serious security issues.

Session Hijacking
• It is a security attack on a user session over a protected network. Web applications create cookies
to store the state and user sessions. By stealing the cookies, an attacker can have access to all of
the user data.

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Phishing
• Phishing is a type of attack which attempts to steal sensitive information like user login credentials
and credit card number. It occurs when an attacker is masquerading as a trustworthy entity in
electronic communication.
• Phishing is a cyber-attack that used to steal user data, including login credentials and credit card
numbers. They use email as a weapon and trick the email recipient into believing that the message
is received from real companies such as banks, Amazon etc to harvest the recipient’s details. Email
Phishing, Spear Phishing (targets special person/organization) are techniques of Phishing.

Brute force
• It is a type of attack which uses a trial and error method. This attack generates a large number of
guesses and validates them to obtain actual data like user password and personal identification
number. This attack may be used by criminals to crack encrypted data, or by security, analysts to
test an organization's network security.

Denial of Service
• It is an attack which meant to make a server or network resource unavailable to the users. It
accomplishes this by flooding the target with traffic or sending it information that triggers a crash. It
uses the single system and single internet connection to attack a server. It can be classified into the
following-
1) Volume-based attacks- Its goal is to saturate the bandwidth of the attacked site, and is measured
in bit per second.
2) Protocol attacks- It consumes actual server resources, and is measured in a packet.
3) Application layer attacks- Its goal is to crash the web server and is measured in request per second.

Dictionary attacks
• This type of attack stored the list of a commonly used password and validated them to get original
password.

URL Interpretation
• It is a type of attack where we can change the certain parts of a URL, and one can make a web
server to deliver web pages for which he is not authorized to browse.

File Inclusion attacks

• It is a type of attack that allows an attacker to access unauthorized or essential files which is
available on the web server or to execute malicious files on the web server by making use of the
include functionality.

Man in the middle attacks

• It is a type of attack that allows an attacker to intercepts the connection between client and server
and acts as a bridge between them. Due to this, an attacker will be able to read, insert and modify
the data in the intercepted connection

System-based attacks-
These are the attacks which are intended to compromise a computer or a computer network. Some of the
important system-based attacks are as follows:

Computer Hacking:
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• Hacking is an attempt to exploit a computer system or a private network inside a computer. It is

the unauthorized access to or control over computer network security systems for some illicit
purpose.
• Viruses, Keyloggers, Rootkit, Spoofing attack, Packet Sniffer, Trojan horse, Password cracking are
various of techniques for hacking.

1) Computer Virus - A computer virus is a malicious software program loaded onto a user’s computer
without the user’s knowledge and performs malicious actions. Stuxnet, Petya, Wanna cry, Code red,
Melissa, Sasser, Zeus, Mydoom, Crypto Locker, Flashback are some example of Viruses. The Elk
Cloner virus was the first self-replicating computer program to spread on a large scale. It was
created by a 15-year-old Rich Skrenta in 1982. Ryuk, Troldesh are ransomware family of newly
discovered viruses. A virus can be spread by opening an email attachment, clicking on an
executable file, visiting an infected website or viewing an infected website advertisement. It can
also be spread through infected removable storage devices, such USB drives. Once a virus has
infected the host it has the capacity to corrupt or to delete data on your computer and it can utilize
an email program to spread the virus to other computer systems .In the worst case scenario, it can
even delete everything on your hard disk .The purpose of it is to disrupt the operation of the
computer or the program.

2) Computer Worm - A computer worm is a malicious, self-replicating software program (malware)

which affects the functions of software and hardware programs. Stuxnet is the most famous
computer worm. A computer worm is a malicious, self-replicating software program (malware)
which affects the functions of software and hardware programs. Before widespread use of
networks, computer worms were spread through infected storage media, such as floppy diskettes,
which, when mounted on a system, would infect other storage devices connected to the victim
system. USB drives are still a common vector for computer worms.

Differences between worms and viruses: Computer worms "are self-replicating programs that spread with
no human intervention after they are started." In contrast, "viruses are also self-replicating programs, but
usually require some action on the part of the user to spread inadvertently to other programs or systems."

3) Trojan horse or Trojan is any malware which misleads users of its true intent. Trojans are generally
spread by some form of social engineering, for example where a user is duped into executing an e-
mail attachment disguised to appear not suspicious, (e.g., a routine form to be filled in), or by
clicking on some fake advertisement on social media or anywhere else. Trojans may allow an
attacker to access users' personal information such as banking information, passwords, or personal
identity. It can also delete a user's files or infect other devices connected to the network.
Ransomware attacks are often carried out using a Trojan. After it is activated, it can achieve any
number of attacks on the host, from irritating the user (popping up windows or changing desktops)
to damaging the host (deleting files, stealing data, or activating and spreading other malware, such
as viruses). Trojans are also known to create backdoors to give malicious users access to the
system. Unlike computer viruses and worms, Trojans generally do not attempt to inject themselves
into other files or otherwise propagate themselves.

4) Malware: Short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather
sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. It can appear in the form of
executable code, scripts, active content, and other software.

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5) Ransomware - Ransomware is a type of malware program that infects and takes control of a
system. It infects a computer with the intention of extorting money from its owner. Ransomware is
a type of malware program that infects and takes control of a system. It infects a computer with the
intention of extorting money from its owner.

6) Botnet – Botnet is a set of networks connected computers/devices that are used for malicious
purposes. Each computer in a botnet is called Bot. It is also known as Zombie.

7) Keylogger - A keylogger is a type of malware that stores all keystrokes of a computer. It can record
allsorts of personal information, such as usernames, passwords, credit card numbers, and personal
documents such as emails and reports. A key logger is a type of malware that stores all keystrokes
of a computer. It can record all sorts of personal information, such as usernames, passwords, credit
card numbers, and personal documents such as emails and reports.

8) Rootkit - A rootkit is a secret computer program designed to provide continued access to a

computer while actively hiding its presence. Rootkits are associated with malware such as Trojans,
worms, virses.

9) Spyware - Spyware is a software that is installed on a computing device without the end user's
knowledge. It steals internet usage data and sensitive information such as usernames and
passwords, activating the microphone or camera on a computer to record physical activity. Spyware
is unwanted software that infiltrates your computing device, stealing your internet usage data and
sensitive information. Spyware is classified as a type of malware designed to gain access to or
damage your computer, often without your knowledge. Just like viruses, spyware can be installed
when you open an e-mail attachment containing the malicious software or through cookies. It can
also be installed when you install another program that has a spyware installer attached to it.

10) Adware - Adware is unwanted software designed to display advertisements on the computer
screen to generate income. This type of ads cannot be removed easily. Adware, or advertising-
supported software, is software that generates revenue for its developer by automatically
generating online advertisements in the user interface of the software or on a screen presented to
the user during the installation process. The software may generate two types of revenue: one is
for the display of the advertisement and another on a "pay-per-click" basis, if the user clicks on the
advertisement. The software may implement advertisements in a variety of ways, including a static
box display, a banner display, full screen, a video, pop-up ad or in some other form.

11) Smurfing - It is a type of denial-of-service attack that relies on flooding a network with a large
volume of traffic through the manipulation of IP addresses in that network. This type of attack can
result in a high volume of excess activity, which can overwhelm a server or IT setup.

12) Spoofing- A Spoofing attack is a situation in which one person or program successfully represents
oneself as another by falsifying data and thereby gaining an illegitimate advantage.

13) Pharming: Pharming is a cyber-attack intended to redirect a website's traffic to another, fake site.
Pharming can be conducted either by changing the hosts file on a victim's computer or by
exploitation of a vulnerability in DNS server software. DNS servers are computers responsible for
resolving Internet names into their real IP addresses. User of online banking and e-commerce
websites are more prone to this attack.
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IMPORTANT TERMS:
1. Anti-virus software is a program or set of programs that are designed to prevent, search for, detect, and
remove software viruses, and other malicious software like worms, trojans, and adware.

2. Firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predetermined security rules

3. Authorization is the function of specifying access rights to resources related to information security and
computer security in general and to access control in particular. More formally, "to authorize" is to define
an access policy.
4. Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a single piece of data or entity. It
might involve confirming the identity of a person by validating their identity documents, verifying the
validity of a website with a digital certificate, tracing the age of an artifact by carbon dating, or ensuring
that a product is what its packaging and labelling claim to be. In other words, Authentication often involves
verifying the validity of at least one form of identification.

5. A person who uses his or her expertise to gain access to other people’s computers to get information
illegally or do damage is a Hacker.

6. Zombie is a computer connected to the Internet that has been compromised by a hacker, computer
virus or trojan horse program and can be used to perform malicious tasks of one sort or another under
remote direction.

7. Breach is the moment a hacker successfully exploits vulnerability in a computer or device, and gains
access to its files and network.

8. Bot/Botnet is a type of software application or script that performs tasks on command, allowing an
attacker to take complete control remotely of an affected computer. A collection of these infected
computers is known as a “botnet” and is controlled by the hacker or “bot-herder”.

9. Spam is unwanted emails. In other words, we can call them as unsolicited promotional mail.

10. Encryption is the method by which plaintext or any other type of data is converted from a readable
form to an encoded version that can only be decoded by another entity if they have access to a decryption
key. Encryption is one of the most important methods for providing data security, especially for end-to-end
protection of data transmitted across networks.

List of Abbreviations:

Abbreviation Full Form

ASCII American Standard Code For Information Interchange
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
ALGOL Algorithmic Language
ARP Address Resolution Protocol

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API Application Program Interface

ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AI Artificial intelligence
BASIC Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
BIOS Basic Input Output System
Bit Binary Digit
BCC Blind Carbon Copy
BIU Bus Interface Unit
BIS Business Information System
BPS Bits Per Second
BCR Bar Code Reader
BIPS Billion Instruction Per Second
BRD Blu-Ray Disc
CAD Computer Aided Design
CAM Computer Aided Manufacturing
CADD Computer Aided Design and Drafting
CAN Campus Area Network
CC Carbon Copy
CD Compact Disk
CDROM Compact Disk Read Only Memory
CD -R Compact Disk - Recordable
CD – RW Compact Disk Rewritable
CD – WO Compact Disk - Write Once
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
CPI Clock / Cycle Per Instruction
CPU Central Processing Unit
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
CASE Computer-Aided Software Engineering
CPS Characters Per Second.
CROM Control Read-Only Memory
DVD Digital Versatile Disk
DVI Digital Visual Interface
DVDR Digital Versatile Disk Recordable

DVDRW Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable

DRAM Dynamic Random-Access Memory
DBMS Data Base Management System

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DNS Domain Name System

DHTML Dynamics Hyper Text Mark-up Language
DPI Dots Per Inch
DVR Digital Video Recorder
DOS Disk Operating System
DTP Desk-Top Publishing
EDP Electronic Data Processing
EDSAC Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator
EEPROM Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EFS Encrypted File System
ENIAC Electronics Numerical Integrator And Calculator
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
EROM Erasable Read Only Memory
ESDI Enhanced Small Device Interface
FORTRAN Formula Translation
FTP File Transfer Protocol
FDD Floppy Disk Drive
FDC Floppy Disk Controller
FPS Frames Per Second
FLOPS Floating Point Operations Per Second
FAT File Allocation Table
FAX Far Away Xerox/ facsimile
GDI Graphical Device Interface
GIF Graphic Interchangeable Format
GIS Geographic Information System
GML Geography Mark-up Language
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GUI Graphical User Interface
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
HTML Hyper Text Mark-up Language
HVD Holographic Versatile Disc
HD Hard Disk
HDD Hard Disk Drive

ISP Internet Service Provider

IP Internet Protocol

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IOP Input Output Processor

IBM International Business Machines
IC Integrated Circuit
ICT Information Communication Technology
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
ISO International Standards Organisation
INTEL Integrated Electronics
IVR Interactive Voice Response
JAR Java ARchive
JPEG Joint Photographic Expert Group
JSP Java Server Page
LAN Local Area Network
LCD Liquid Crystal Display

LED Light Emitting Diode

LPI Lines Per Inch
LSI Large Scale Integration
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MIPS Million Instructions Per Second
MICR Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
MMS Multimedia Message Service
NAT Network Address Translation
NIC Network Interface Card
NTP Network Time Protocol
OMR Optical Mark Reader
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
OSS Open Source Software
OOP Object Oriented Programming
OCR Optical Character Recognition
PAN Personal Area Network
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
PDF Portable Document Format
PHP Hypertext Pre-processor
PNG Portable Network Graphics
PPM Pages Per Minute
PROM Programmable Read Only Memory

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PCB Printed Circuit Board

PIN Personal Identification Number
POS Point Of Sale
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
POST Power On Self Test
PING Packet Internet Gopher
PSU Power Supply Unit
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read Only Memory
RIP Routing Information Protocol
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
RDMS Relational Data Base Management System
RARP Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
SAN Storage Area Network
SDRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
SIMM Single In-line Memory Module
SIU Serial Interface Unit
SMPS Switch Mode Power Supply
SMS Short Message Service
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNAP Sub Network Access Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
SQL Structured Query Language
SRAM Static Random Access Memory

TCP Transmission Control Protocol

TBPS Tera Bytes Per Second
TIPS Trillion Instruction Per Second
UNIAC Universal Automatic Computer
UPS Uninterruptible Power Supply
URL Uniform Resource Locator
USB Universal Serial Bus
ULSI Ultra Large-Scale Integration
VAN Value Added Network
VGA Video Graphics Array
VDU Visual Display Unit
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VIRUS Vital Information Resource Under Seized

VCD Video Compact Disk

VGA Video Graphics Array
VOIP Voice Over Internet Protocol
VPN Virtual Private Network
WAN Wide Area Network
WAP Wireless Application Protocol
WIFI Wireless fidelity
WMV Windows Media Video
WPM Words Per Minute
WORM Write Once Read Many
XML Extensible Mark-up Language
XMF Extensible Music File
XHTML Extensible Hyper Text Mark-up Language

Microsoft Office
It is an office suite of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services for the Windows operating
systems introduced by Microsoft in 1989. Some important application software of the MS Office is MS
Word, MS Excel, MS Power-point, MS Access, MS OneNote, MS Outlook etc.

Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Word is a word processing program that was first made public by Microsoft. It is one of
the most widely used word processors available for Macs and PCs. It offers a variety of features
such as creating, editing and formatting etc.
• Some other features include spell check, mail merge and link embedding. Another feature is word
wrapping, which means that the processor automatically adjusts all text within the specified
margins. ‘.doc and .docx’ are the file extension of MS word.

Title Bar
• The title bar is located at the top of a window that displays the name of the window or document
being used.

Quick Access Tool Bar

• The quick access toolbar is a small and customizable toolbar at the top of the document window. It
• contains a set of commands that are independent of the tab on the ribbon that is currently
displayed. It usually contains buttons to save, undo, redo and print.

Ribbon
• The Ribbon is a cluster of toolbars in Microsoft Office which are used for writing, designing,
formatting and reviewing different styles, adaptations, add-ins, themes etc. Every tab in the top of
a given word file window displays the Ribbon toolbar.
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• The following are the specifications of MS office 2016 version.

File Menu
• The File menu is a section on the Office ribbon that gives access to file functions such as Open,
Save, Close, Properties, and Recent file options.
• Type of file (i.e. Text file, Word file, HTML file, etc.), file name, size of the file, file location, security
on the file, time and date of creation, modification of the file can also be accessed by anyone.

Home Tab
• The Home tab is the default tab in Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint and
other
• Microsoft Office products. It allows changing document settings, such as the font properties by
using control groups on the tab. The control groups and keys are
✓ Clipboard Group (Copy (only one item at a time), Paste, Cut, Format Painter)
✓ Font Group (Font style, colour & size, Bold, Underline, Strikethrough)
✓ Paragraph Group (Bullets & Numbering, Alignment, Shading, Borders, Line spacing)
✓ Style Group (Listed Styles)
✓ Editing Group (Find, Replace etc).

Insert Tab
• The Insert Tab is used to insert different features such as tables, pictures, clip art, shapes, charts,
page numbers, word art, headers, and footers etc into a document. The availed groups and keys
under this tab are:
✓ Pages Group (Cover page, Blank page, Page break)ṣ
✓ Tables Group (Tables)
✓ Illustrations Group (Pictures, Shapes, Smart Art etc)
✓ Media and Links Group (Hyperlink, Bookmark etc)
✓ Header and Footer Group (Page number, Header, Footer)
✓ Text Group (Text Box, Word Art etc)
✓ Symbol Group (Equation, Symbol)

Design Tab
• Design Tab includes Themes (to change colours, fonts and effects for the document all at once), The
Style Set gallery (to change the styles), Paragraph Spacing, Effects, The Page Background group
(watermark, page colour, page borders) buttons to format the document.

Layout Tab
• The Layout Tab holds the buttons which are used to arrange document pages. The control groups
and keys under layout tabs are:
✓ Page Setup Group (Margins, Orientation, Breaks, Line numbers, Hyphenation, Size of the page,
Columns)
✓ Paragraph Group (Paragraph Indentation, Spacing)
✓ Arrange Group (Align, wrap text, Rotate etc)

References Tab

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• References Tab allows to now create a table of contents, footnotes, citations, cross-references. The
availed control groups and keys in this tab are:
✓ Table of Contents Group (Customize table of contents)
✓ Footnotes Group (Insert footnotes)
✓ Research Group (Smart outlook of the text)
✓ Citations & Bibliography Group (Inserting and choosing a style of citation, Bibliography)
✓ Captions group (cross reference, insert a table of figures, Insert Caption)
✓ Index Group (Insert Index, Mark entry)
✓ Table of Authorities group (Mark Citation, Insert Table of Authorities)

Mailings Tab
• Mail Merging is an ideal task in MS word by using Mailings Tab. Mail merge is used to create form
letters or address labels, certificates with unique names, and more. The following group buttons
are available in Mailings Tab.
✓ Create Group (Envelops, Labels)
✓ Start Mail Merge Group (Start Mail Merge, Selection of Recipients, Edit Recipient List)
✓ Write & Insert Fields Group (Highlighting the fields, Address Block, Greeting Line etc)
✓ Preview Results Group (Check for errors, Find Recipient)
✓ Finish Group (Finish & Group)

Review Tab
• The tools in the Review Tab helps to improve the document. It contains the following control
groups and keys.
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✓ Proofing Group (Spelling & Grammar, Thesaurus, Autocorrect, word count)

✓ Comments Group (Add new comment, show comment, Delete comment)
✓ Tracking Group (Track changes, Simple mark-up, Review pane)
✓ Changes Group (Accept or Reject changes)
✓ Compare Group (Comparing the documents)
✓ Protect Group (Restrict editing, Block Authors)

View Tab
• The View tab has the functionality to change the document views. The options in the view tab are:
✓ Views Group (Read mode, Print Layout, Web Layout Outline, Draft)
✓ Page Movement Group (Vertical and Side to side)
✓ Show Group (Ruler, Gridline, Navigation Pane)
✓ Zoom Group (Zoom {10% to 500%}, Page width, Multiple pages)
✓ Window Group (New window, Arrange and Split window, Switch windows etc)
✓ Macros group

Help Tab
• The users can get help by using F1 function key anytime, Help tab and ‘Tell me what you want to
do’.

Status Bar
• A status bar is a horizontal window at the bottom of a parent window. It displays the various kinds
of status information of the document.

Dialog Box Launcher

• A button in the corner of a group that launches a dialog box containing all the options within that
group.

View Toolbar
• A toolbar that enables, adjusts and displays different views of a document. It is located at the
bottom left corner of the window.

Other Terms
1. Alignment – This option is used to align the text in a document adhere to the right side, left, centre
or justified.
2. Clipboard – The clipboard saves the text temporarily. Using the Cut or Copy commands will place
the text in the clipboard.
3. Font – It is a type of design for text. Times New Roman, Arial, Calibri, Verdana etc are the examples
of font style. The maximum size of Font is 72 in a drop-down selection of MS Word.
4. Undo and Redo – Undo refers to delete the last action in the document. Redo can restore the
changes
5. again.
6. Footer and Header - The footer constantly appears on every page of a document, at the bottom of
each page. It includes the page number, or a company’s name and contact details in formal
documents. The header sits at the very top of every page in a document. A Header contains page
numbers, the document name or sub-titles within a document.

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7. Cut, Copy, Paste - Cut is used to move a section of text from a document to clipboard. Copy refers
to duplicating a section of a document and placing it in the clipboard. Paste allows to copy an object
or text from one location and place it to another location.
8. Paste Special - Paste Special is used to paste an item from the clipboard with custom formatting.
9. Thesaurus - It is a software tool which is in MS Word that provides synonyms for selected words on
command.
10. AutoCorrect - AutoCorrect is a software feature in MS Word. It automatically corrects misspellings
and common errors.
11. Spell Check - It is a software tool for correcting spelling. It is available in word processing programs,
email programs, cell phones, and a variety of other applications.

ShortCut Keys:
Keys Description Keys Description
Ctrl + A Select All Shift+F7 Thesaurus
Ctrl + B Bold F1 Help
Ctrl + C Copy F5 Refresh the page
Ctrl + V Paste F4 Repeat the action
Ctrl + N New Blank Document F7 Spell Check
Ctrl + X Cut F6 Go to the next pane
Ctrl + I Italic F8 Extend the selection
Ctrl + U Underline F9 Update the selected fields
Ctrl + Z Undo F10 Show Key tips
Ctrl + Y Redo F11 Go to the next field
Ctrl + O Open F12 Save As
Ctrl + S Save Shift + F3 Change the case of letters
Ctrl + K Insert Hyperlink Shift + F4 Repeat a find
Ctrl + L Left Alignment Shift + F10 Display a shortcut menu
Ctrl + E Centre Alignment Ctrl + F2 Choose Print Preview
Ctrl + R Right Alignment Ctrl + F4 Close the window
Ctrl + J Justify the alignment Ctrl + F10 Maximize the document window
Ctrl +F To open find box Ctrl + F12 Choose the open button
Ctrl + G Find and Replace Tab To move to the previous object
Ctrl + W Close document Alt + F5 Restore the program window
Ctrl + M Indent Alt + F7 Find the next misspelling
Ctrl + P Print Alt + F10 Maximize the program window
Ctrl + Shift +> Increase font size F2 Rename the file
Ctrl + Shift + < Decrease font size Alt + F4 Exit
Alt + H Home Tab Alt + P Layout Tab
Alt + N Insert Tab Alt + Q Tell me box
Alt + G Design Tab Alt + R Review Tab

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Alt + F File Page Alt + W View Tab

Alt + M Mailings Tab Alt + S Reference Tab

Microsoft Excel
It is a spreadsheet program which is used to present and organise copious amounts of data in a systematic
manner. It also includes performs basics arithmetic operations on data and creates graphs and charts
based on the same.’.xls’ is the file extension of the MS Excel. Ribbons in MS Excel are divided into logical
groups called Tabs and Each tab has its own set of unique function to perform. There are various tabs –
Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Date, Review and View.

The following are the features of MS Excel.

Home Tab

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• The Excel Home Tab is used to perform common commands such as bold, underline, alignment,
Number, copy, and paste. It is also used to apply formats to cells in a worksheet. The Home Tab
groups and their buttons are:
✓ Clipboard Group (Paste, Cut, Copy, Format Painter)
✓ Font Group (Bold, Italic, Underline, Font Style, Colour & Size {decrease and increase}, Fill colour,
Borders)
✓ Alignment Group (Alignment {Top, Middle, Bottom, Left, Right, Centre}, Orientation, wrap text,
Merger& Centre, Indent decrease & increase)
✓ Number Group (General, Accounting Number Format, Percent style, Comma style, Increase and
decrease decimal)
✓ Styles Group (Conditional Formatting, Format as Table, Cell Styles)
✓ Cells Group (Insert cells, Delete cells, Format cells)
✓ Editing Group (AutoSum, Fill, Clear the format, Sort& Filter, Find & Select)

Insert Tab
• Insert Tab is used to insert the picture, charts, filter, hyperlink etc. Alt+N is the shortcut Key to open
Insert Tab. The Insert Tab groups and keys are:
✓ Tables Group (Pivot Table, Recommended Pivot Tables, Table)
✓ Illustrations Group (Pictures, Online pictures, Icons, Shapes, Smart Art Graphic, 3D models,
Screenshot)
✓ Add-ins Group (Store, Insert Add-ins)
✓ Charts Group (Recommended charts, Maps, Pivot Chart Charts*)
✓ Tours Groups (3D Maps)
✓ Sparklines Group (Line, Column, Win/Loss)
✓ Filters Group (Slicer, Timeline)
✓ Links Group (Hyperlink)
✓ Text Group (TextBox, Header & Footer), WordArt, Signature line, Object)
✓ Symbols Group (Equation and Symbol)

*Charts – There are eight types of charts. Colum or Bar Chart, Hierarchy Chart, Line or Area Chart, Combo
Chart, Statistic Chart, Bubble Chart, Pie Chart, Waterfall, Funnel, Stock, Surface or Radar Chart.

Page Layout Tab

• The features under this tab used to change the look of a workbook. The groups under this tab are:
✓ Themes Group (Themes, Colours, Fonts, Effects)
✓ Page Setup Group (Margins, Orientation, Size, Print Area, Breaks, Background, Print Titles)
✓ Scale to fit Group (Page scale, Width and Height)
✓ Sheet Options Group (Gridlines, Headings)
✓ Arrange Group (Bring Forward, Send Backward, Align, Group, Rotate, Selection Pane) Formulas Tab
✓ Formulas Tab is used to make dynamic reports by using functions. In excel, 461 functions are
availed from Office 2003 to 2013. Formulas Tab is divided into four groups.
✓ Function Library (Insert Function, AutoSum, Financial & Logical Function, Date &Time, Math& Trig,
Lookup &Reference, Text, More functions {Statistical, Engineering, Cube etc})
✓ Defined Names group (Name Manager, Define Name, Use in Formula, Create from selection)
✓ Formula Auditing (Trace Precedents & Dependents, Error Checking, Evaluate Formula, Watch
window)
✓ Calculation Group (Calculate sheet, options) Data Tab

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Data tab
• It is used for importing a large amount of data. Importing Data can be done by connecting with the
server, automatically from the web, MS Access etc. It makes easy to read vast data.
✓ Get & Transform Data Group (Get Data, From Text/CSV, Web, Table/Range, Existing Connections)
✓ Queries & Connection Group (Refresh All, Properties, Edit Links, Queries, Connections)
✓ Sort & Filter Group (Sort, Filter, Reapply, Clear, Advanced)
✓ Data Tools Group (Text to columns, Flash Fill, Remove Duplicates, Data Validation, Consolidate,
Manage Data Mode, Relationships)
✓ Forecast Group (What-If Analysis, Forecast Sheet)
✓ Outline Group (Group, Ungroup, Subtotal)

Review Tab
• It contains the editing feature, comments, track changes and workbook protection options. It
makes to share the data easily with the proper information and ensuring the security of data.
✓ Proofing Group (Spell Check, Thesaurus)
✓ Language Group (Translate)
✓ Comments Group (Comment – New, Delete, Previous, Next, Hide/Show)
✓ Protect Group (Protect Sheet, Protect Workbook, Allow Edit Ranges, Unshared workbook)
✓ Ink Group (Start Inking, Hide Ink) View Tab

View tab:
• It helps to change the view of an Excel sheet and make it easy to view the data. This tab is useful for
preparing the workbook for printing. The groups and keys under this tab are
✓ Workbook Views Group (Normal, Page Break Preview, Page Layout & Custom View)
✓ Zoom Group (Zoom {range – 10% to 400%}, Zoom to selection)
✓ Window Group (New Window, Arrange All, Freeze Panes, View side by side, Synchronous Scrolling,
Reset Window, Show/Hide, Switch Windows)
✓ Macros Group (Macros)

Help Tab
• The user can get help using this tab, by pressing F1 Key.
✓ Help & Support Group (Help, Contact Support, Feedback, Show Training, What’s New)
✓ Community Group (Community, Blog Site, Suggest a Feature) Other Terms

Other terms:
Workbook – It is an Excel file which contains worksheets of rows and columns.

Worksheet – A single document or sheet in a workbook which is used to store and work with data. It
consists of rows and columns. In Excel 2016, Default worksheet in a workbook is one.

Row & Column Headings – It indicates the number of rows (Left of the worksheet) and alphabet of column
(Top of the worksheet). The total number of rows is 1,048,576 and columns is 16,384 in the new version of
Excel sheet. Column width is 255 characters and row height is 409 points.

Cell – Cell is a box which is the intersection of a row and column in a worksheet. It is the smallest block of
the spreadsheet. The cell in which the user working is known as Active Cell. The maximum number of line
feeds per cell is 253 in the new version of Excel.

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Cell Address – The location of a cell is known as Cell Address. Example: C10 (Column: Row)

Autofill – Autofill fills the values in the cell according to a given pattern. (i.e. Months & Days, Even
Numbers, Odd Numbers, tens, etc) This is done through the Fill Handle.

Formula – It is an expression which calculates the value of a cell. It always starts with a ‘=’.

Formula Bar – It is located just below the ribbon. It shows the contents of the active cell and allows to
create and view formulas.

Pivot Table – Pivot Table is an interactive report creation system. It is used to reorganize and summarize
the data.

Flash Fill – Flash Fill is used to identify the patterns in existing data. It copies only required data from one
column to another.

Freeze Panes – It is used to freeze rows/columns in place and making it visible when scrolling. Example
– Header row visible
Macro – It is a sequence of instructions that replace a repetitive series of keyboard and mouse actions to
execute. It is used in MS Word and MS Excel.

Status Bar – It is the Bar below the worksheet names that has a few buttons and indicators.

Wrap Text –When text exceeds a column width/Height, wrap text automatically adjust the height/width of
a cell to make all text visible.

Sparklines –They are graphs that can fit into one cell and gives the information about the data.

Short Cut Keys:

Keys Description Keys Description
F2 Edit active cell Shift + F11 Insert new worksheet
F5 Go to Dialog box Shift + F9 Calculate the active worksheet
F9 Calculate Ctrl + Shift +; Time
worksheets
F4 Create an absolute Ctrl +; Date
Tab Right one Cell F11 Create Chart
Shift + Tab Left One Cell Ctrl + Shift + U Expand/Collapse formula bar
Ctrl + Home To first Cell Alt + = Insert AutoSum formula
Ctrl + End To Last Cell Ctrl + ~ Show/hide all formula
Shift + Select entire row Ctrl + Shift +@ Apply the time format
Spacebar
Ctrl + Spacebar Select entire column Ctrl + Shift + # Apply the date format
Ctrl + 9 Hide selected rows Ctrl + Shift + % Apply the percentage format without
decimal

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Ctrl + 0 Hide selected Ctrl + Shift + $ Apply the currency format with two
columns decimals
Arrow Keys Move between Cells Alt + Enter Start a new line in the same cell
Alt + Spacebar Display control Menu Ctrl + Shift + Extend the selection of the cells
Home
F1 Create Pivot Chart Alt + F1 Create Pivot Chart in the same
worksheet

Microsoft PowerPoint
MS PowerPoint is a popular presentation program and is used to create slideshows which comprise text,
graphics, sounds and other animated media. Features such as word art, auto shapes etc. can also be added
to the presentation. It is convenient for both school and office level work. ‘.ppt’ is the file extension of MS
PowerPoint. The Ribbons in MS Power-point 2016 are divided into following tabs.

Home Tab
• The Home Tab includes the commands for formatting presentations. The Keys and Groups under
the Home Tab are:
✓ Clipboard Group (Cut, Copy, Paste, Format Painter)
✓ Slides Group (New slide, Layout, Reset, Section)
✓ Font Group (Font Style & size {Max. size is 96 in dropdown selection}, Text Shadow, Bold, Underline,
Italic, Strikethrough, Clear All Formatting, Character Spacing, Change case)
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✓ Paragraph Group (Bulleting, Numbering, Align Text, Text direction, Convert to SmartArt)
✓ Drawing Group (Shapes, Arrange, Quick Styles, Shape Fill, Shape Outline, Shape Effects)
✓ Editing Group (Find, Replace, Select)

Insert Tab
• It is used to add features such as tables, pictures, clip art, shapes, charts, word art, or headers, and
footers into a presentation. The groups and buttons in this tab are:
✓ Slides Group (New Slide)
✓ Tables Group (Draw/Add Table)
✓ Images Group (Pictures, Online Pictures, Screenshot, Photo Album)
✓ Illustrations Group (Shapes, Icons, 3D models, Smart Art, Chart)
✓ Add-ins Group (Store, Add-ins)

✓ Links Group (Zoom, Link, Action)

✓ Comments (Add comment, Edit& Delete Comment)
✓ Text Group (TextBox, Header & Footer, Word Art, Date & Time, Slide number, Object)
✓ Symbols Group (Equation and Symbol)
✓ Media Group (Video, Audio, Screen Recording)

Design Tab
• The Design tab holds commands related to the presence of slides like page setup and slide
orientation. The group and Keys under this tab are:
✓ Themes Group (Listed Slide Themes)
✓ Variants Group (Listed Variants)
✓ Customize Group (Slide Size, Format Background)
✓ Designer Group (Design Ideas)

Transition Tab
• Transitions tab is used to add transitions to a slide and to customize transition effects. The
group and Keys of Transition Tab are:
✓ Preview (to view slides)
✓ Transition to this slide (Listed transition, Effect options)
✓ Timing Group (Sound in slides, Duration, Apply to all slides, Advance slide)

Animation Tab
• It is used to add animation to text in a slide and to manage the animation order. The Groups
and Keys are:
✓ Preview Group (Slide’s Preview)
✓ Animation Group (Listed Animation, Effect Options)
✓ Advanced Animation (Add Animation, Animation Pane, Trigger, Animation Painter)
✓ Timing Group (Start, Duration, Delay of slides, Reorder Animation)

Slideshow Tab
• This tab is used to finalize the slideshow details, timings, and more. The Keys and groups
under this tab are:
✓ Start Slide Show Group (From Beginning, From Current Slide, Present Online, Custom
Slideshow)
✓ Set up Group (Set up slideshow, Hide slide, Rehearse timings, Record Slide Show)
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✓ Monitors Group

Review Tab
• Review tab is used to check spelling, to collaborate by adding comments, and to access editor tools.
The groups are:
✓ Proofing Group (Spelling, Thesaurus)
✓ Language Group (Translate, Language)
✓ Comments Group (New comment, Delete Previous/next Comment)
✓ Compare Group (Compare, Accept, Reject, End Review, reviewing Pane)
✓ Ink Group (Start inking, Hide ink)
✓ OneNote Group (Linked Notes)

View Tab
• View tab is used to access the various presentation views, to show and hide the ruler and grid lines,
and more.
✓ Presentation Views Group (Normal, Outline view, Slide Sorter, Notes Page, Reading view)
✓ Masters View Group (Slide Master, Handout Master, Notes Master)
✓ Show Group (Ruler, Gridlines, Guides, Notes)
✓ Zoom Group (Zoom {10% to 400%}, Fit to the window)
✓ Colour/Grayscale Group (Colour, Grayscale, Black &White)
✓ Window Group (New window, Arrange All, Cascade, Move Split)
✓ Macros Group (Macros)

Other Terms
1. Presentation – A Presentation is a collection of individual slides that contain information on a topic
with audio, visual features. It makes an interaction between a speaker and an audience.
2. Design Template - A PowerPoint template is a pattern of a slide whose format and colour scheme is
used as the basis for other presentations. It can contain layouts, theme colours, theme fonts,
theme effects, background styles, and even content.
3. Master Slide – A slide that controls the properties such as theme, layout, background, colour, fonts,
and positioning of all other slides in a presentation.
4. Normal View - Normal view is used for creating, editing and viewing presentation slides. It contains
all three view panes such as Slides, Outline and Notes.
5. Greyscale - Grayscale is a variety of shades of grey (Black and white combination) without apparent
colour.
6. Notes Pane - It is used to add notes and graphics that apply to the current slide in the presentation.
It is also used to print the notes.
7. Slides Pane – Slide Pane displays the slides thumbnails. It allows the user to view and edit the slides.
Outline Pane – Outline Pane displays the text from the slides.
8. Slide Show View – It is used to display the presentation. It is the way to preview the presentation.
9. Slide Sorter View – It shows all the slides in a presentation as thumbnails. It is used to reorganize,
insert, delete and copy the presentation slides.
10. Slide Timing – It is the time period that a slide seems on the screen.
11. Task Pane – It allows to access commands like getting started, PowerPoint help, slide, new
presentation etc related to a specific task.
12. AutoContent Wizard - A wizard helps to create a presentation. It helps with a general structure and
suggested topics based on the user’s view regarding the presentation output.
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ShortCut Keys:
Keys Description Keys Description
Alt + W, Q Change the zoom Alt + N, X Insert textbox
Alt + H, F and S Change the font size Alt + N, W Insert word art
Alt + H, S and H Insert a shape Alt + F10 Maximize window
Alt + G, H Select a theme Ctrl + D Duplicate Slide
Alt + H, L Select a slide layout Ctrl + Shift + F Change Font Style
Alt + N, P Insert a picture Shift + F3 Toggle cases
Alt + H Home Tab Ctrl + Shift + Z Normal/Plain Text
Alt + N Insert Tab Shift + F6 Move anticlockwise among pane
Alt + S, B Start Slideshow Shift + F10 Display context menu
Alt + F, X Close PowerPoint Ctrl + F5 Restore window to previous size
Esc End the slideshow Alt + Q Search
Alt + T Transitions Tab Alt + R Review Tab
Alt + A Animations Tab Alt + G Design Tab
F5 Slide Show Alt + W View Tab

File Extension
• A file extension is a suffix at the end of a filename that specifies what type of file it is. It helps the
operating system to understand the characteristics of the file.
• Example – filename.docx is the name of the document. ‘.docx’ is the file extension.

List of File Extension:

File Meaning File Meaning
Extension Extension
.apk Android Package file .bin Binary file
.txt Plain text file .py Python file
.wks / .wps Microsoft Works Word Processor .wsf Windows Script file
Document file
.ods OpenOffice Calc spreadsheet file .exe Executable file
.xlr Microsoft Works spreadsheet file .com MS-DOS command file
.xls Microsoft Excel File .mp3 MP3 audio file
.xlsx MS Excel Open XML spreadsheet file .wma Windows media audio file
.pptx PowerPoint Open XML presentation .wpl Windows Media Player
Playlist
.ppt PowerPoint presentation .mpg/.mpeg MPEG Video file
.db/.dbf Database file .avi Audio Video Interleave file
.sql SQL Database file .flv Adobe Flash video file
.tar Linux / Unix tarball file archive .mp4 MPEG-4 video file
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.bak Backup file .odt Open office writer doc file

.tmp Temporary file .pdf PDF file
.htm/.html HTML/Hypertext Markup Language file .js JavaScript file
.png Portable Network Graphic image .php PHP Source file code
.gif Graphical Interchange Format image .ps PostScript file
.psd Adobe Photoshop Document image .max 3ds Max Scene File
.jpg/.jpeg JPEG image .jsp Java Server Page file
.sys Windows system file .cfg Configuration file

Extra Information:

Definitions and Terminologies

1. Application: An application is a set of codes designed to allow specific tasks to happen. Microsoft
Windows and Internet Explorer are common examples.

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2. Access time: The performance of a hard drive or other storage device - how long it takes to locate a
file.
3. Active program or window: The application or window at the front (foreground) on the monitor.
4. ALGOL: It was the first language with a formal grammar. ALGOL was created by a committee for
scientific use in 1958. Its major contribution is being the root of the tree that has led to such
languages as Pascal, C, C+ + and Java.
5. Algorithm: In computing, an algorithm is a procedure for accomplishing some tasks which, given an
initial state, will terminate in a defined end-state
6. ASCII (pronounced ask key): American Standard Code for Information Interchange. a commonly
used data format for exchanging information between computers or programs.
7. Amplifier: A device that takes in a weak electric signal and sends out a strong one. It is used to
boost electrical Signals in many electronic devices such as radios, !elevisions and telephone.
8. Analog Computer: A computer that operates on data which is in the form of continuous variable
physical quantities.
9. Android: It is a linux based operating system designed Primarily for touchscreen mobile devices
such as smartphones and tablets computer.
10. Antivirus Software: Antivirus software consists of 3omputer programs that attempt to identify
threat and eliminate computer virus and other malicious software ( Malware )
11. API: API refers to Application Programming Interface. It’s the platform used by a program to access
different services on the computer system.
12. Application Software: Application software is a subclass of computer software that employs the
capabilities of a computer directly to a task that the user wishes to perform. e.g., word document,
spreadsheet, etc.
13. Archieve: It provides backup storage.
14. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The arithmetic logic unit is a part of the execution unit, a core
component of all CPUs. ALUs are capable of calculating the results of a wide variety of basic
arithmetical and logical computations
15. Artificial Intelligence: Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used
today.
16. Array: An array is similar data saved on a computer system in a sequential form.
17. Assembler: A program that translates mnemonic statement into executable instruction.
18. Attribute: The characteristics of an entity are called its attributes.
19. BIOS: BIOS stands for Basic Input/Output System. It gives the computer a platform to run the
software using a floppy disk or a hard disk. BIOS is responsible for booting a PC.
20. Bit: Bit is Binary Digit. It refers to a digit number, either a 0 or a 1. The binary digit is used to
represent computerized data.
21. Backup: A copy of a file or disk you make for archiving purposes.
22. Backspace: Backspace key is used on the keyboard to delete the text. Backspace will delete the text
to the left of cursor.
23. Bandwidth: The maximum amount of data that can travel in a communication path in a given time,
measured in bits per second (bps).
24. Bar Code: A bar code is a machine-readable representation of information in a visual format on a
surface. The first bar code system was developed by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver
in 1952.
25. Bitmap: A method of storing a graphic image as a set of bits in a computer memory. To display the
image on the screen, the computer converts the bits into pixels.
26. Blog: It is a discussion or informational site published on the world wide web.
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27. Bomb: A type of virus designed to activate at a specific date and time on your computer.
28. Bluetooth: A protocol that permits a wireless exchange of information between computers. cell
phone and other electronic devices within a radius about 30 feet
29. Booting: Booting is a bootstrapping process which starts the operating system when a computer is
switched on
30. Botnet: It is a collection of internet connected programs communicating with other similar
programs in order to perform tasks.
31. Boot Sequence: A boot sequence is the set of operations the computer performs when it is
switched on which loads an operating system.
32. Browser: A special software that enables users to read/view web pages and jump from one web
page to another.
33. Buffering: The process of storing data in a memory device, allowing the devices to change the data
rates,perform error checking and error retransmission.
34. Bug: A software bug is an error, flaw, failure, or fault in a computer program or system that
produces an incorrect or unexpected result.
35. Boolean: An expression, the value of which is either true or false.
36. BUS: A bus is a set of wires that enables flow of data from one location of the computer to another.
37. Byte: Eight bits is equal to 1 byte.
38. CGI: CGI stands for Common Gateway Interface. It defines how an auxiliary program and a Web
server would communicate.
39. Class: A group of objects having same operations and attributes is defined as a class.
40. Client: A client is a program that asks for information from other processes or programs. Outlook
Express is a great example of a client.
41. CD-ROM: An acronym for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory.
42. Client – Server: A common form of distributed system in which software is split between server
tasks and client
43. tasks. A client sends requests to a server, according to some protocol, asking for information or
action, and the server responds.
44. Clipboard - A portion of memory where the Mac temporarily stores information. Called a Copy
Buffer in many PC applications because it is used to hold information which is to be moved, as in
word processing where text is "cut" and then "pasted".
45. Clock Rate (MHz) - The instruction processing speed of a computer measured in millions of cycles
per second (i.e., 200 MHz).
46. Compiler - a program the converts programming code into a form that can be used by a computer.
47. Compression - a technique that reduces the size of a saved file by elimination or encoding
redundancies (i.e., JPEG, MPEG, LZW, etc.)
48. CPU: The Central Processing Unit. The processing chip that is the "brains" of a computer.
49. Cache Memory: The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main memory
Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. To decrease
the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and main memory
whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU It is called the Cache Memory.
50. Chip: A tiny wafer of silicon containing miniature electric circuits that can store millions of bits of
information.
51. Client-Server: Client-server is a network architecture which separates the client from the server.
Each instance of the client software can send requests to a server or application server.
52. Cookie: A packet of information that travels between a browser and the web server

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53. Compiler: A compiler is a computer program that -translates a series of instructions written in one
computer language (called the source language) into another computer language (also called the
object or target language).
54. Communication: The transmission of data from one computer to another or from one device to
another is called communication.
55. Computer Networks: A computer network is a system or communication among two or more
computers. The computer networks can be broadly classified as Homogenous' and
'Heterogeneous'.
56. Computer Graphics: Computer Graphics are visual presentations on a computer screen. Examples
are photographs, drawings, line arts, graphs, diagrams, typography numbers, symbols, geometric
designs, maps, engineering drawings or other images.
57. Cold Boot: When a computer restarts after the power cut is called cold boot
58. Control Panel: Control Panel is the part of Windows menu. accessible from the start menu, which
allows users to view and manipulate basic system settings and controls, such as adding hardware.
adding/removing software, controlling user accounts, changing accessibility options, etc.
59. Control Unit: A control unit is the part of a CPU that 'erects its operation. The outputs of this unit
control The activity of the rest of the device.
60. Cracker: The preferred term used to refer to a computer criminal who penetrates a computer to
steal information or damage the program in some way
61. Crash - a system malfunction in which the computer stops working and has to be restarted.
62. Cursor - The pointer, usually arrow or cross shaped, which is controlled by the mouse.
63. CMOS: CMOS is an abbreviation for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor. It is the battery
powered chip that is situated on the Motherboard that retains system information such as date and
time.
64. Data: Data refers to the information that is saved on a computer.
65. DOS: DOS is an acronym for Disc Operating System. It is a command line operating system launched
by Bill Gates.
66. Database - an electronic list of information that can be sorted and/or searched.
67. Defragment - (also - optimize) to concatenate fragments of data into contiguous blocks in memory
or on a hard drive.
68. Dialog box - an on-screen message box that appears when the computer requires additional
information before completing a command.
69. Digitise - To convert linear, or analogue, data into digital data that can be used by the computer.
70. Disk - a spinning platter made of magnetic or optically etched material on which data can be stored.
71. Disk drive: The machinery that writes the data from a disk and/or writes data to a disk.
72. Disk window: The window that displays the contents or directory of a disk.
73. Document - a file you create, as opposed to the application which created it.
74. DOS - acronym for Disk Operating System - used in IBM PCs.
75. Download - to transfer data from one computer to another. (If you are on the receiving end, you
are downloading. If you are on the sending end, you are uploading).
76. Drag - to move the mouse while its button is being depressed
77. Driver - a file on a computer that tells it how to communicate with an add-on piece of equipment
(like a printer).
78. DTP: Desk Top Publisher (ing) is a term that describes a program that enables users to create,
design, and print items such as business cards, birthday cards, letterheads, calendars, invitations,
and so on.
79. Editing: The process of changing information by inserting, deleting, replacing, rearranging and
reformation.
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80. E-mail: Electronic mail, abbreviated e-mail is a method of composing, sending, storing and receiving
messages over electronic communication systems.
81. Encapsulation: It is a mechanism that associates the code and the data it manipulates into a single
unit and keeps them safe from external interference.
82. Encryption: In cryptography, encryption is the process of encoding messages (or information) in
such a way that hackers cannot read it, but the authorised users can access it.
83. End User: Any individual who uses the information verified by a computer based system.
84. Entity: An entity is something that has certain attributes or properties which may be assigned
values.
85. Entity-relationship diagram: It’s a diagram that represents entities and how they are related to each
other.
86. Ethernet - a protocol for fast communication and file transfer across a network.
87. Execution Time: The total time required to execute program on a particular system.
88. Expansion slot: A connector inside the computer that allows one to plug in a printed circuit board
that provides new or enhanced features.
89. Environment: Environment refers to the interaction among all factors external to a physical
platform. An environment is made of specific software, hardware, and network protocols that allow
communication with the system.
90. FAT: FAT is an acronym for File Allocation Table. It resembles a table of contents so that files can be
located on a computer.
91. Fault: Hardware or software failure.
92. Fax: It stands for 'Facsimile machine'. It is used to transmit a copy of a document electronically.
93. Field: The attributes of an entity are written as fields in the table representation.
94. File - the generic word for an application, document, control panel or other computer data.
95. Floppy - a 3.5-inch square rigid disk which holds data. (so named for the earlier 5.25 and 8 inch
disks that were flexible).
96. Folder - an electronic subdirectory that contains files.
97. Font - a typeface that contains the characters of an alphabet or some other letterforms.
98. Fragmentation - The breaking up of a file into many separate locations in memory or on a disk.
99. Freeze - a system error, which causes the cursor to lock in place
100. Front End: It is an interface through which a program can be accessed by common users.
101. Gateway: A device that is used to join together two networks having different base protocols.
102. Groupware: It is software that allows networked individual to form groups and collaborate on
documents, programs or database.
103. Hardware: Hardware is a set of physical objects such as monitor, keyboard, mouse, and so on.
104. Hard drive - a large capacity storage device made of multiple disks housed in a rigid case.
105. Head crash - a hard disk crash caused by the heads coming in contact with the spinning disk(s).
106. High density disk: a 1.4 MB floppy disk.
107. Hub: A network device that connects multiple computers on a LAN, so that they can
communicate with one another.
108. Hyperlink: An image or portion of text on a web page that is linked to another web page.
109. Highlight: To select by clicking once on an icon or by highlighting text in a document.
110. Hit rate - The fraction of all memory reads which are satisfied from the cache.
111. Hz - Abbreviation for hertz, the number of cycles per second, used to measure clock speed
112. Icon: Icon is a small visual display of an application which can be activated by clicking on it.
113. IDE: It stands for Integrated Development Environment. IDE is a programming system that
combines several tools of programming to provide an integrated platform for programming. For
instance, Visual Basic provides an IDE.
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114. Initialise - to format a disk for use in the computer; creates a new directory and arranges the
tracks for the recording of data.
115. Insertion point - in word processing, the short flashing marker that indicates where your next
typing will begin.
116. Installer - software used to install a program on your hard drive.
117. Interrupt button - a tool used by programmers to enter the debugging mode. The button is
usually next to the reset button
118. Instance: It is an object described by its class.
119. Internet: Internet is a network that accommodates several computers to facilitate exchange
and transfer of data.
120. Joystick: A joystick is a computer peripheral or general control device consisting of a handheld
stick that pivots about one end and transmits its angle in two or three dimensions to a computer.
121. Kernel: It is a program called when a computer system is started. Kernel is responsible for
setting up system calls in order to manage hardware and system services, and allocate resources to
applications.
122. Kilobyte - 1024 bytes.
123. LIGHT Pen: A light sensitive style for forming graphics by touching coordinates on a display
screen. Thereby seeming to draw directly on the screen.
124. Loop: A sequence of instructions that is executed repeatedly until a terminal condition occurs.
125. LAN: LAN is an acronym for Local Area Network that spans small area. A LAN can be connected
to another LAN to accommodate more computers.
126. Landscape: In printing from a computer, to print sideways on the page.
127. Launch - start an application.
128. Memory: Memory is the internal storage location where data and information is stored on a
computer.
129. Modem: Modem is a term created from the beginning letters of two other words viz.
MOdulation and DEModulation. The term implies changing of data from digital to analog and then
back to digital.
130. Morphing: The transformation of one image into another image
131. Multitasking: Multitasking can simultaneously work with several programs or interrelated tasks
that share memories, codes, buffers and files
132. Multithreading: It is a facility available in an operating system that allows multiple functions
from the same application packages.
133. Multiuser: The term describing the capability of a computer system to be operated at more
than one terminal at
134. the same llf 11°
135. Multiplexer: It is a device That combines multiple input signals into an aggregate signal for
transmission.
136. Memory - the temporary holding area where data is stored while it is being used or changed;
the amount of RAM a computer has installed.
137. Menu - a list of program commands listed by topic.
138. Menu bar: The horizontal bar across the top of the screen that lists the menus.
139. MHz - Abbreviation for megahertz, or millions of cycles per second.
140. Multi-tasking: Running more than one application in memory at the same time.
141. Nibble: A sequence of four adjacent bits , or a half byte . A hexadecimal or BCD coded digit can
be represented by a nibble .
142. Network: A Network is a group of computers connected to each other in order to send and
receive data.
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143. Operating System: An Operating System provides the software platform required for various
applications to run on.
144. Its responsibility is to manage memory storage and security of Data.
145. Optical disk: A high-capacity storage medium that is read by a laser light.
146. Packet: Sections in which message or data are divided to transfer it over a network.
147. Pixel: Pixel is formed by combining the two words viz. Picture Element. It represents one point
within an image.
148. Palette - a small floating window that contains tools used in a given application.
149. Partition - a subdivision of a hard drives surface that is defined and used as a separate drive.
150. Paste: To insert text, or other material, from the clipboard or copy buffer.
151. PC - acronym for personal computer commonly used to refer to an IBM or IBM clone computer
that uses DOS.
152. PCI: Acronym for Peripheral Component Interchange - the newer, faster bus architecture.
153. Peripheral - an add-on component to your computer.
154. Pop-up menu: Any menu that does not appear at the top of the screen in the menu bar. (May
pop up or down)
155. Power PC - a processing chip designed by Apple, IBM and Motorola (RISC based).
156. Power Mac - a family of Macs built around the PowerPC chip.
157. Print spooler - a program that stores documents to be printed on the hard drive, thereby
freeing the memory up and allowing other functions to be performed while printing goes on in the
background.
158. Port: Port is a connecting component mainly a hardware that enables two computers to allow
data sharing physically. Examples are USB and HDMI.
159. Process: It’s a series of commands that changes data values.
160. Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that are followed by two devices while interacting
with each other.
161. Query: Query is a request made by a computer from a database residing in the same system or
a remotely located system.
162. RAM: RAM is an acronym for Random Access Memory. It is a configuration of storage cells that
hold data so that it can be processed by the central processing unit. RAM is a temporary storage
location
163. Router: A network device that enables the network to reroute messages it receives that are
intended for other
164. networks. The network with the router receives the message and sends it on its way exactly as
received. In normal operations. They do not store any of the messages that they pass through.
165. Routing: The process of choosing the best path throughout the LAN.
166. Root directory - the main hard drive window.
167. ROM: ROM is an acronym for Read-Only Memory. It is semiconductor-based storage system
that saves information permanently.
168. Software: Software is a program (coding) that the computer reads. The system then carries out
functions as directed by the code. Adobe Photoshop is software.
169. Save - to write a file onto a disk.
170. Save as: To save a previously saved file in a new location and/or with a new name.
171. Scroll: To shift the contents of a window to bring hidden items into view.
172. Swapping: Storing programs on disk and then transferring these programs into main storage as
and when they are needed.
173. Synchronisation: This method ensures that the receiving end can recognise characters in order,
in which the transmitting end sends them in a serial data transmission.
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174. Scroll bar - a bar at the bottom or right side of a window that contains the scroll box and allows
scrolling.
175. Scroll box - the box in a scroll bar that is used to navigate through a window.
176. SCSI: Acronym for Small Computer System Interface.
177. Serial port: A port that allows data to be transmitted in a series (one after the other),such as
the printer and modem ports on a Mac.
178. Server - a central computer dedicated to sending and receiving data from other computers (on
a network).
179. Shut down - the command from the Special menu that shuts down the computer safely.
180. Spreadsheet - a program designed to look like an electronic ledger.
181. Startup disk - the disk containing system software and is designated to be used to start the
computer.
182. Surge suppressor - a power strip that has circuits designed to reduce the effects ofsurge in
electrical power. (Not
183. the same as a UPS)
184. TCP/IP: TCP/IP is an acronym for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It’s a set of
communication
185. protocols used to connect host computers on the Internet.
186. Title bar - the horizontal bar at the top of a window that has the name of the file or folder it
represents.
187. URL: URL stands for Universal Resource Locator. It’s a way of accessing the Internet.
188. Upload - to send a file from one computer to another through a network.
189. Uninterruptible Power Source (UPS):A constantly charging battery pack that powers the
computer. A UPS should have enough charge to power your computer for several minutes in the
event of a total power failure, giving you time to save your work and safely shut down.
190. UPS - acronym for Uninterruptible Power Source.
191. Virtual Memory: Virtual Memory is the unused memory on the hard disk used when certain
applications require more RAM than is available on the machine.
192. Virus: Virus is a program that is loaded onto your computer without you knowing about it and it
runs to hinder the normal functioning of the computer.
193. WWW: WWW stands for World Wide Web. It’s a term used to define the Internet.
194. WAN: WAN is an acronym for Wide Area Network. Such a network spans over an area larger
than a LAN.
195. WORM - acronym for Write Once-Read Many; an optical disk that can only be written to once
(like a CD-ROM).
196. Zoom box - a small square in the upper right corner of a window which, whenclicked, will
expand the window to fill the whole screen.
197. ZIP: ZIP is an acronym for Zone Information Protocol. ZIP application enables transfer of data
using compression of
198. files.

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