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Slide 5

This document discusses parallel and distributed storage technologies. It covers the history of parallel/distributed data storage from the 1980s to today. It then discusses techniques for parallelizing I/O, including horizontal partitioning, round-robin partitioning, hash partitioning, and range partitioning. It compares these partitioning techniques and discusses how to handle issues like small relations, data distribution skew, and execution skew. Finally, it covers techniques like virtual node partitioning and dynamic repartitioning to help balance workloads over time.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
71 views43 pages

Slide 5

This document discusses parallel and distributed storage technologies. It covers the history of parallel/distributed data storage from the 1980s to today. It then discusses techniques for parallelizing I/O, including horizontal partitioning, round-robin partitioning, hash partitioning, and range partitioning. It compares these partitioning techniques and discusses how to handle issues like small relations, data distribution skew, and execution skew. Finally, it covers techniques like virtual node partitioning and dynamic repartitioning to help balance workloads over time.

Uploaded by

dejenedagime999
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Advances in Database Technologies

(MSITec7111)

Parallel and Distributed Storage


Introduction

 Parallel machines have become quite common and affordable


• prices of microprocessors, memory and disks have dropped sharply
 Data storage needs are growing increasingly large
• user data at web-scale
 100’s of millions of users, petabytes of data
• transaction data are collected and stored for analysis.
• multimedia objects like images/videos
 Parallel storage system requirements
• storing large volumes of data
• processing time-consuming decision-support queries
• providing high throughput for transaction processing
• Very high demands on scalability and availability
Parallel/Distributed Data Storage History

 1980/1990s
• Distributed database systems with tens of nodes
 2000s:
• Distributed file systems with 1000s of nodes
 Millions of Large objects (100’s of megabytes)
 Web logs, images, videos, …
 Typically create/append only
• Distributed data storage systems with 1000s of nodes
 Billions to trillions of smaller (kilobyte to megabyte) objects
 Social media posts, email, online purchases, …
 Inserts, updates, deletes
• Key-value stores
 2010s: Distributed database systems with 1000s of nodes
I/O Parallelism

 Reduce the time required to retrieve relations from disk by partitioning the
relations on multiple disks, on multiple nodes (computers)
• Our description focuses on parallelism across nodes
• Same techniques can be used across disks on a node
 Horizontal partitioning – tuples of a relation are divided among many
nodes such that some subset of tuple resides on each node.
• Contrast with vertical partitioning, e.g. r(A,B,C,D) with primary key A
into r1(A,B) and r2(A,C,D)
• By default, the word partitioning refers to horizontal partitioning
I/O Parallelism

 Partitioning techniques (number of nodes = n):


Round-robin:
Send the ith tuple inserted in the relation to node i mod n.
Hash partitioning:
• Choose one or more attributes as the partitioning attributes.
• Choose hash function h with range 0…n - 1
• Let i denote result of hash function h applied to the partitioning attribute
value of a tuple. Send tuple to node i.
Range Partitioning
I/O Parallelism (Cont.)

Partitioning techniques (cont.):


 Range partitioning:
• Choose an attribute as the partitioning attribute.
• A partitioning vector [vo, v1, ..., vn-2] is chosen.
• Let v be the partitioning attribute value of a tuple. Tuples such that vi 
vi+1 go to node I + 1. Tuples with v < v0 go to node 0 and tuples with v 
vn-2 go to node n-1.
E.g., with a partitioning vector [5,11]
 a tuple with partitioning attribute value of 2 will go to node 0,
 a tuple with value 8 will go to node 1, while
 a tuple with value 20 will go to node2.
Comparison of Partitioning Techniques

 Evaluate how well partitioning techniques support the following types of


data access:
1. Scanning the entire relation.
2. Locating a tuple associatively – point queries.
 E.g., r.A = 25.
3. Locating all tuples such that the value of a given attribute
lies within a specified range – range queries.
 E.g., 10  r.A < 25.
 Do above evaluation for each of
• Round robin
• Hash partitioning
• Range partitioning
Comparison of Partitioning Techniques (Cont.)

Round robin:
 Best suited for sequential scan of entire relation on each query.
• All nodes have almost an equal number of tuples; retrieval work is thus
well balanced between nodes.
 All queries must be processed at all nodes
Hash partitioning:
 Good for sequential access
• Assuming hash function is good, and partitioning attributes form a key,
tuples will be equally distributed between nodes
 Good for point queries on partitioning attribute
• Can lookup single node, leaving others available for answering other
queries.
 Range queries inefficient, must be processed at all nodes
Comparison of Partitioning Techniques (Cont.)

Range partitioning:
 Provides data clustering by partitioning attribute value.
• Good for sequential access
• Good for point queries on partitioning attribute: only one node needs to
be accessed.
 For range queries on partitioning attribute, one to a few nodes may need to
be accessed
• Remaining nodes are available for other queries.
• Good if result tuples are from one to a few blocks.
• But if many blocks are to be fetched, they are still fetched from one to
a few nodes, and potential parallelism in disk access is wasted
 Example of execution skew.
Handling Small Relations

 Partitioning not useful for small relations which fit into a single disk block
or a small number of disk blocks
• Instead, assign the relation to a single node, or
• Replicate relation at all nodes
 For medium sized relations, choose how many nodes to partition across
based on size of relation
 Large relations typically partitioned across all available nodes.
Types of Skew

 Data-distribution skew: some nodes have many tuples, while others may
have fewer tuples. Could occur due to
• Attribute-value skew.
 Some partitioning-attribute values appear in many tuples
 All the tuples with the same value for the partitioning attribute end
up in the same partition.
 Can occur with range-partitioning and hash-partitioning.
• Partition skew.
 Imbalance, even without attribute –value skew
 Badly chosen range-partition vector may assign too many tuples to
some partitions and too few to others.
 Less likely with hash-partitioning
Types of Skew (Cont.)

 Note that execution skew can occur even without data distribution skew
• E.g. relation range-partitioned on date, and most queries access
tuples with recent dates
 Data-distribution skew can be avoided with range-partitioning by creating
balanced range-partitioning vectors
 We assume for now that partitioning is static, that is partitioning vector is
created once and not changed
• Any change requires repartitioning
• Dynamic partitioning once allows partition vector to be changed in a
continuous manner
Handling Skew in Range-Partitioning

 To create a balanced partitioning vector


• Sort the relation on the partitioning attribute.
• Construct the partition vector by scanning the relation in sorted order
as follows.
 After every 1/nth of the relation has been read, the value of the
partitioning attribute of the next tuple is added to the partition
vector.
• n denotes the number of partitions to be constructed.
• Imbalances can result if duplicates are present in partitioning
attributes.
 To reduce cost
• Partitioning vector can be created using a random sample of tuples
• Alternatively histograms can be used to create the partitioning vector
Histograms
 Histogram on attribute age of relation person

50

40

frequency
30

20

10

 Equi-width histograms 1–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 21–25


 Equi-depth histograms value
• break up range such that each range has (approximately) the same
number of tuples
• E.g. (4, 8, 14, 19)
 Assume uniform distribution within each range of the histogram
 Create partitioning vector for required number of partitions based on
histogram
Virtual Node Partitioning
 Key idea: pretend there are several times (10x to 20x) as many virtual
nodes as real nodes
• Virtual nodes are mapped to real nodes
• Tuples partitioned across virtual nodes using range-partitioning
vector
 Hash partitioning is also possible
 Mapping of virtual nodes to real nodes
• Round-robin: virtual node i mapped to real node (i mod n)+1
• Mapping table: mapping table virtual_to_real_map[] tracks which
virtual node is on which real node
 Allows skew to be handled by moving virtual nodes from more
loaded nodes to less loaded nodes
 Both data distribution skew and execution skew can be handled
Handling Skew Using Virtual Node Partitioning

 Basic idea:
• If any normal partition would have been skewed, it is very likely the
skew is spread over a number of virtual partitions
• Skewed virtual partitions tend to get spread across a number of nodes,
so work gets distributed evenly!
 Virtual node approach also allows elasticity of storage
• If relation size grows, more nodes can be added and virtual nodes
moved to new nodes
Dynamic Repartitioning

 Virtual node approach with a fixed partitioning vector cannot handle


significant changes in data distribution over time
 Complete repartitioning is expensive and intrusive
 Dynamic repartitioning can be done incrementally using virtual node
scheme
• Virtual nodes that become too big can be split
 Much like B+-tree node splits
• Some virtual nodes can be moved from a heavily loaded node to a
less loaded node
 Virtual nodes in such a scheme are often called tablets
Dynamic Repartitioning
 Virtual nodes in such a scheme are often called tablets
 Example of initial partition table and partition table after a split of tablet 6
and move of tablet 1

Tablet move

Tablet split
Routing of Queries

 Partition table typically stored at a master node, and at multiple routers


 Queries are sent first to routers, which forward them to appropriate node
 Consistent hashing is an alternative fully-distributed scheme
• without any master nodes, works in a completely peer-to-peer fashion
 Distributed hash tables are based on consistent hashing
• work without master nodes or routers; each peer-node stores data
and performs routing
Replication

 Goal: availability despite failures


 Data replicated at 2, often 3 nodes
 Unit of replication typically a partition (tablet)
 Requests for data at failed node automatically routed to a replica
 Partition table with each tablet replicated at two nodes
Basics: Data Replication

 Location of replicas
• Replication within a data center
 Handles machine failures
 Reduces latency if copy available locally on a machine
 Replication within/across racks
• Replication across data centers
 Handles data center failures (power, fire, earthquake, ..), and
network partitioning of an entire data center
 Provides lower latency for end users if copy is available on nearby
data center
Updates and Consistency of Replicas

 Replicas must be kept consistent on update


• Despite failures resulting in different replicas having different values
(temporarily), reads must get the latest value.
• Special concurrency control and atomic commit mechanisms to
ensure consistency
 Master replica (primary copy) scheme
• All updates are sent to master, and then replicated to other nodes
• Reads are performed at master
• But what if master fails? Who takes over? How do other nodes know
who is the new master?
Protocols to Update Replicas

 Two-phase commit
• Assumes all replicas are available
 Persistent messaging
• Updates are sent as messages with guaranteed delivery
• Replicas are updated asynchronously (after original transaction
commits)
 Eventual consistency
• Can lead to inconsistency on reads from replicas
 Consensus protocols
• Protocol followed by a set of replicas to agree on what updates to
perform in what order
• Can work even without a designated master
Parallel Indexing

 Local index
• Index built only on local data
 Global index
• Index built on all data, regardless of where it is stored
• Index itself is usually partitioned across nodes
 Global primary index
• Data partitioned on the index attribute
 Global secondary index
• Data partitioned on the attribute other than the index attribute
Global Primary and Secondary Indices
Global Secondary Index

 Given relation r which is partitioned on Kp, to create global secondary


index on attributes Ki,
• create a relation
 ris (Ki, Kp) if Kp is unique, otherwise
 ris(Ki, Kp, Ku) where (Kp, Ku) is a key for r

• Partition ris on Ki
• At each node containing a partition of r, create index on (Kp) if Kp is a
key, otherwise create index on (Kp, Ku)
• Update the relation ris on any updates to r on attributes in ris
Distributed File Systems

 Google File System (GFS)


 Hadoop File System (HDFS)
 And older ones like CODA
 And more recent ones such as Google Colossus
 Basic architecture:
• Master: responsible for metadata
• Chunk servers: responsible for reading and writing large chunks of
data
• Chunks replicated on 3 machines, master responsible for managing
replicas
• Replication is in GFS/HDFS is within a single data center
Hadoop File System (HDFS)

 Client: sends filename to


NameNode
 NameNode
• Maps a filename to list of
Block IDs
• Maps each Block ID to
DataNodes containing a
replica of the block
• Returns list of BlockIDs
along with locations of
their replicas
 DataNode:
• Maps a Block ID to a
physical location on disk
• Sends data back to client
Hadoop Distributed File System

Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)


 Modeled after Google File System (GFS)
 Single Namespace for entire cluster
 Data Coherency
• Write-once-read-many access model
• Client can only append to existing files
 Files are broken up into blocks
• Typically 64 MB block size
• Each block replicated on multiple (e.g., 3) DataNodes
 Client
• Finds location of blocks from NameNode
• Accesses data directly from DataNode
Limitations of GFS/HDFS

 Central master becomes bottleneck


• Keep directory/inode information in memory to avoid IO
• Memory size limits number of files
• Colossus file system supports distributed master
 With smaller (1MB) block size
 File system directory overheads per file
• Not appropriate for storing very large number of objects
 File systems do not provide consistency guarantees
• File systems cache blocks locally
• Ideal for write-once and and append only data
• Can be used as underlying storage for a data storage system
 E.g., BigTable uses GFS underneath
Sharding
Sharding (recall from Chapter 10)
 Divide data amongst many cheap databases (MySQL/PostgreSQL)
 Manage parallel access in the application
• Partition tables map keys to nodes
• Application decides where to route storage or lookup requests
 Scales well for both reads and writes
 Limitations
• Not transparent
 application needs to be partition-aware
 AND application needs to deal with replication
• (Not a true parallel database, since parallel queries and transactions
spanning nodes are not supported)
Key Value Storage Systems

 Key-value stores may store


• uninterpreted bytes, with an associated key
 E.g., Amazon S3, Amazon Dynamo
• Wide-column stores (can have arbitrarily many attribute names) with
associated key
• Google BigTable, Apache Cassandra, Apache HBase, Amazon
DynamoDB, Microsoft Azure Cloud store
• Allows some operations (e.g., filtering) to execute on storage
node
• Google MegaStore and Spanner and Yahoo! PNUTS/Sherpa
support relational schema
• JSON
 MongoDB, CouchDB (document model)
 Document stores store semi-structured data, typically JSON
Typical Data Storage Access API

 Basic API access:


• get(key) -- Extract the value given a key
• put(key, value) -- Create or update the value given its key
• delete(key) -- Remove the key and its associated value
• execute(key, operation, parameters) -- Invoke an operation to the
value (given its key) which is a special data structure (e.g., List, Set,
Map .... Etc.)
 Extensions to add range queries, version numbering, etc.
Data Storage Systems vs. Databases

Distributed data storage implementations:


 May have limited support for relational model (no schema, or flexible
schema)
 But usually do provide flexible schema and other features
• Structured objects e.g. using JSON
• Multiple versions of data items
 Often do not support referential integrity constraints
 Often provide no support or limited support for transactions
• But some do!
 Provide only lowest layer of database
Data Representation

 In wide-column stores like BigTable, records may be vertically partitioned


by attribute (columnar storage)
• (record-identifier, attribute-name) forms a key
 Multiple attributes may be stored in one file (column family)
• In BigTable records are sorted by key, ensuring all attributes of a
logical record in that file are contiguous
 Attributes can be fetched by a prefix/range query
• Record-identifiers can be structured hierarchically to exploit sorting
 E.g., url: www.cs.yale.edu/people/silberschatz.html
can be mapped to record identifier
edu.yale.cs.www/people/silberschatz.html
 Now all records for cs.yale.edu would be contiguous, as would all
records for yale.edu
Storing and Retrieving Data

Architecture of BigTable key-value store


 Table split into multiple tablets
 Tablet servers manage tablets, multiple tablets per server. Each tablet is
100-200 MB
• Each tablet controlled by only one server
• Tablet server splits tablets that get too big
 Master responsible for load balancing and fault tolerance
 All data and logs stored in GFS
• Leverage GFS replication/fault tolerance
• Data can be accessed if required from any node to aid in recovery
Architecture of Key-Value Store
(modelled after Yahoo! PNUTS)
Geographically Distributed Storage

 Many storage systems today support geographical distribution of storage


• Motivations: Fault tolerance, latency (close to user), governmental
regulations
 Latency of replication across geographically distributed data centers much
higher than within data center
• Some key-value stores support synchronous replication
 Must wait for replicas to be updated before committing an update
• Others support asynchronous replication
 update is committed in one data center, but sent subsequently (in a
fault-tolerant way) to remote data centers
 Must deal with small risk of data loss if data center fails.
Index Structures in Key-Value Stores

 Storing data in each tablet in clustered on key benefits range queries


 B+-tree file organization works well for range queries
 Write optimized trees, especially LSM trees (Section 24.2) work well for
updates as well as for range queries
• Used in BigTable, HBase and many other key-value stores
 Some key-value stores organize records on each node by hashing, or just
build a hash index on the records
Transactions in Key-Value Stores

 Most key-value stores don’t support full-fledged transactions


• But treat each update as a transaction, to ensure integrity of internal
data structure
 Some key-value stores allow multiple updates to one data item to be
committed as a single transaction
 Without support for transactions, secondary indices cannot be maintained
consistently
• Some key-value stores do not support secondary indices at all
• Some key-value stores support asynchronous maintenance of
secondary indices
 Some key-value stores support ACID transactions across multiple data
items along with two-phase commit across nodes
• Google MegaStore and Spanner
 More details in Chapter 23
Transactions in Key-Value Stores

 Some key-value stores support concurrency control via locking and


snapshots
 Some support atomic test-and-set and increment on data items
• Others do not support concurrency control
 Key-value stores implement recovery protocols based on logging to ensure
durability
• Log must be replicated, to ensure availability in spite of failures
 Distributed file systems are used to store log and data files in some key-
value stores such as BigTable, HBase
• But distributed file systems do not support (atomic) updates of files
except for appends
• LSM trees provide a nice way to index data without requiring updates
of files
 Some systems use persistent messaging to manage logs
 Details in Chapter 23
Querying and Performance Optimizations

 Many key-value stores do not provide a declarative query language


 Applications must manage joins, aggregates, etc on their own
 Some applications avoid computing joins at run-time by creating (what is in
effect) materialized views
• Application code maintains materialized views
• E.g., If a user makes a post, the application may add a summary of the
post to the data items representing all the friends of the user
 Many key-value stores allow related data items to be stored together
• Related data items form an entity-group
• e.g., user data item along with all posts of that user
• Makes joining the related tuples very cheap
 Other functionality includes
• Stored procedures executed at the nodes storing the data
• Versioning of data, along with automated deletion of old versions

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