2023

GRAPE ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT

Grape Orchard Establishment

Afrostain Farmtech
12/28/2023
Grapes Production

Grapes belong to the family Vitaceae and species Vitis. There are three important species
which include Vitis vinifera (French grape), Vitis labrusca (American grape) and Vitis
rotundifolia (Muscadine grape).

6.1. Objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Describe the classification, botany and adaptation of grapes.

• Outline the agronomic practices involved in grape production.

• Explain grape vineyard management.

• Describe crop protection in grape production.

• Describe the maturity indicies and harvesting in grape production.

6.2. Origin and Distribution

V. vinifera is native to the area near the Caspian Sea, in Asia Minor whilst the species V.
labrusca and V. rotundifolia are native to the USA.

The genus Vitis is broadly distributed, largely between 25° and 50° N latitude in eastern
Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and North America. Additionally, a few species of Vitis are
found in the tropics - Mexico, Guatemala, the Caribbean, and northern South America.

The leading producers of grapes in the world include Italy, China, France, Iran, USA and
Argentina.

6.3. Uses

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 • Wine – V. vinifera; V. labrusca, to some extend.

• Table grapes – all species

• Preserves – V. rotundifolia and V. Labrusca.

• Rootstocks - V. Labrusca.

6.4. Botany

Plant

The plant is a woody vine which requires support and careful pruning to yield well.

Leaves

Are often large, deeply lobed or rounded with entire or serrated margins.

Flowers

Are small, indiscrete, borne in racemose panicles opposite leaves. Vinifera grapes are
perfectflowered and self-fruitful, whereas some muscadines have only pistillate flowers.

Fruit

Fruit are berries, with 2 to 4 seeds; ovaries contain 2 locules each with 2 ovules.

6.5. Cultivars

6.5.1 White Varieties (V. Vinifera)

Chardonnay, Riesling, Pinot blanc and Sauvignon blanc

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6.5.2 Red Varieties (V. Vinifera)

Merlot, Pinot noir, Cabernet franc and Sangiovese

6.6. Environmental Requirements

6.6.1. Temperature

Temperatures between 100C and 200C mean annual temperature is ideal for grape
production. Grapes are temperate fruits with a chilling requirement for growth and
production. Relatively high temperatures in summer are required for the fruit to develop
better aroma.

6.6.2. Rainfall

At least 400mm annual rainfall is required for grape production.

6.6.3 Wind

Extremely windy conditions cause mechanical vine damage and plant desiccation.

6.6.3 Hail

Locations which tend to have a higher probability of hailstorms should be avoided as

grapevines are very susceptible to hail damage.

6.7. Soil Requirements

Grape vines are grown in a wide range of soil types around the world. Ideal soil
requirements are loam, sandy loam or sand clay loam soils. The soils should be deep, well-
drained and not overly fertile. Deep soils, at least 1 to 1.5 metres are needed to discourage
shallow rooting.

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Grapes are not tolerant of high salts, and thus unleached soils or spots that accumulate salts
through seepage and evaporation will not support vine growth. Areas with high water
tables are unsuitable for grapes due to high salts and excessive moisture. It is possible to
maintain low salt levels with low volume irrigation systems.

Soil pH values between 6.0 and 6.8 provide the optimum availability of nutrients in
vineyard soils. Soil pH less than 5.0 increases the aluminium solubility within the root zone
and precipitates essential micronutrients such as iron out of the soil solution.

6.8. Propagation

The most common method of grape propagation is bench grafting, although rooted
cuttings (where phylloxera is not a problem), T-budding, layering (difficult-to-root types
like muscadine), and to a limited extent, tissue culture are used in various situations.

The fully dormant rooted cuttings should have a substantial root system and reasonable
top growth. They should be long enough so that two buds of the previous season's growth
are above ground and the bulk of the roots begin at a depth of 30 to 35cm. The rooting
depth is critical; shallower roots will respond too quickly to winter soil temperature
changes and lead to winter killing or frost damage. Uniform rooting depth also is very
important for controlling drought stress and properly maturing the crop.

The cuttings must be carefully protected before and during planting to avoid drying and
overheating. Generally it is best to avoid the coldest winter temperatures and high summer
temperatures. Cuttings should be stored in a cool place and kept moist until planting can
begin.

At planting, the cuttings should be set in water (in containers like drums) until they are
actually placed in the hole, but should not be kept in water more than one day.

6.9. Planting

Inter-row: 2- 4m
Inrow: 1-2.5m
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The vines should be irrigated immediately after planting, making sure that water reaches
the roots. Throughout the remainder of the first growing season, maximum growth of the
young vine should be encouraged. This can be done by providing a balance between the
water and oxygen needs of the developing root system, avoiding over- and under-
watering.

6.10. Water Requirements

Once the vine is planted, an irrigation schedule should be established. Surface irrigation
every 2 weeks (6-8 hour sets) is very effective for the establishment year. Drip irrigation of
60l per vine per week is also recommended for the establishment year. These
recommendations are for deep clay loam soils. More frequent irrigations may be necessary
on sandy well drained soils.

6.11. Fertiliser Management

Grapevines have lower requirements for mineral nutrient levels than many other crops.
Therefore, few soils require substantial fertilization to support grapes. High nitrogen avail-
ability can inhibit the transition of grapes from vegetative to fruiting to dormant states and
thus should be used with caution.

The essential nutrients in grape production include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,

calcium, magnesium, sulphur, zinc, boron, iron, manganese, copper, molybdenum, and
chlorine. The last seven elements listed above are micronutrients and are used in smaller
quantities than the macronutrients.

Deficiencies and/ or excesses of these nutrients can be determined using proper laboratory
diagnostic methods.

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Laboratory analysis is used to appraise problems related to pH, salinity, and certain
toxicities. Soil analysis is not a reliable means of determining nutritional problems and
fertilizer requirements in grape production. Plant tissue analysis is a much more effective
and reliable means to determine vineyard nutrition than soil analysis.

Nitrogen

Nitrogen is acknowledged to be one of the most important and most likely limiting
nutrients in grapevines. Nitrogen is the essential element used in greatest amounts by vines.
Soil higher inorganic matter content can more easily convert organic nitrogen to available
forms (nitrate and ammonium ions) capable of being absorbed by the vine.

Symptoms of nitrogen deficiency:

• Light green colour of leaves, particularly on basal to mid-shoot leaves.

• Newly developing leaves often have a pale green colour

• Slow rate of shoot growth, short internodal length, and small leaves.

• Reduction in cluster berries and berry set.

Nitrogen application rate

Apply 22.5-45 kg of actual nitrogen per hectare should be applied on sandy loam soils for
mature crops. Young vineyards (first and second growing season) require no more than 35
kg of actual nitrogen per hectare.

Time of Application

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Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied during periods of active uptake to minimize loss
through soil leaching. This includes the period from bud break to veraison, and if leaf fall
has not occurred, immediately after fruit harvest.

Foliar Sprays

A properly applied foliar spray program usually focuses on micronutrients and can be
beneficial. Before applying any nutrient spray, a laboratory analysis of petiole samples
from affected and normal leaves and a soil analysis should be performed and evaluated.
Micronutrients can be extremely toxic even in small amounts. They can kill vines if applied
in excess. Some nutrient deficiency symptoms can be confused with factors other than
nutrient supply. Care should be taken before applications are made to verify visible
symptoms by tissue analyses.

The foliar spray program should be considered as a supplement to basic root feeding.

6.12. Special Cultural Practices

6.12.1. Trellising / Training

There are several dozen different trellising systems in use today. Trellising and training go
hand in hand. Training is the strategic development of grapevine structure and the trellis
supports that vine structure.

The basic goal of trellising and training is to maximize production, facilitate cultural
operations (spraying, tillage, pruning, harvesting), improve canopy microclimate and to
support the mechanical load of the vine.

Factors to consider when selecting a trellising system:

• Vineyard potential

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 Vineyard potential includes environmental factors (temperature, topography, soil,
rainfall and wind) and cultural management decisions (shoot thinning, fertilization,
irrigation).

• Variety vigour

Variety vigour can often determine the choice of trellis system. For example,
choosing a single wire trellis as compared to an improved multi-wired trellis system
with moveable foliage wires may be sufficient for varieties with low vigour. Vines
with excess vigour (long shoots, lateral growth, and shading) need a more extensive
trellis system. The high vigour trellis systems usually divide the canopy to support a
higher number of buds and thus increasing canopy surface area.
• Canopy spacing

Is a combination of row spacing and plant spacing.

6:12.2 Pruning

• To establish and maintain the vine in a form that will facilitate vineyard
management.

• To produce fruit of a desired quality.

• To select nodes that are fruitful.

• To regulate the number of shoots/ clusters.

• To regulate the vegetative growth of the vine.

Common training systems

i) Spur or short pruning

Leaves only a stub with 2-6 buds on each renewal cane and is used on excessively vigorous
cultivars which have fruitful basal buds.

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ii) Cane or long pruning

9-16 buds retained at base of the previous year's canes. The system is used on less vigorous
cultivars with unfruitful basal buds. Common training systems

i) Head training

Permanent part of vine consists of trunk and 4-5 small stubs at top called arms.

ii) Cordon training

Permanent part of vine consists of trunk and 1-4 long, straight shoots trained along a wire
(cordons). Spurs or canes are developed at regular intervals along the cordons.

6:12.3. Shoot Tying

As young shoots reach above the second wire, it is a good practice to tie two to three of
the shoots of each cane to that wire to stabilize the whole cane. This prevents it from
rolling in the wind and exposing the fruit to sun burning. Two or three pairs of moveable
catch wires can keep shoot tying to a minimum and allow for excellent sunlight exposure
and air circulation.

6:12.4 Suckering

Suckers (shoots appearing at ground level or on the lower 2/3 of the trunk) should be
removed while green and easily broken off.

If a systemic herbicide such as Roundup is to be used, it is critical that all green tissue near
the ground be removed.

6:12.5. Shoot Thinning

Vines typically grow more shoots than the nodes left after pruning. These extra shoots
develop from buds at the base of the spurs or out of old wood and often are not fruitful.
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Shoot thinning of these unwanted shoots should be started when new growth has reached
about 40 cm and can continue until soon after fruit set.

Vines are commonly thinned along the cordon wire so that they are evenly spaced at a
distance of 8 to 12 cm. Vines are typically shoot thinned to about 15 shoots per metre.

6:12.6. Leaf Removal

Leaf removal in the fruit zone can improve fruit composition, spray penetration, enhance
fruit colour and reduce disease by increasing the exposure of the clusters to sunlight and
aircirculation. Normally, removal of one to three leaves per shoot is sufficient. The ideal
time for leaf removal is 3-4 weeks before the time when berries begin to colour.

6:12.7. Crop Thinning

Crop thinning is a final adjustment technique of crop regulation that results in the most
significant fruit quality improvement. Crop thinning adjustments may be necessary to
mature the fruit earlier.

Vigorous varieties have high initial fruit set and continue to produce abundant flowers late
in the season which must be removed for proper fruit composition and maturation.

Bunch thinning or cluster thinning is done after flowering and set. This operation involves
removal of undersized, poorly-set or immature clusters. 6:12.8. Hedging, Trimming or
Topping

Hedging, Trimming or topping involves cutting off shoot tips. Vine trimming is a temporary
band- aid solution to vineyard canopy problems.

6.13. Crop Protection

6:13:1 Diseases

1. Powdery Mildew

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The disease is caused by the fungus Uncinula necator. Powdery mildews are unique among
fungal pathogens in that they do not require free moisture for spore germination or for
penetration of the host plant. The spores are spread by wind.

Symptoms

The infected plant surface develops a white to gray, powdery appearance. Almost any
green tissue of the grape vine is susceptible to mild infection including tender parts of the
shoot, blossoms, leaves, berries, the rachis and pedicles, but the most common form of
mildew damage concerns the fruit.

Control

Elemental sulphur is the oldest known fungicide for mildew control. Sulphur dust should
be applied on a 7-10 day cycle.

2. Crown Gall

Crown gall is a bacterial disease caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Symptoms

Gall type of growth on infected plant parts. Galled vines frequently have poor shoot
growth and fruit production, and portions of the vines above the galls often die
prematurely. The galls interfere with normal sugar and water transport in the host and,
depending on the location and size of the gall, can kill the plant or stress it so that it
becomes non-winter hardy. Injuries for gall initiation are most common in the nursery and
during planting.

Control

An eradicant chemical such as kerosene can be used on the gall itself to kill gall tissues.
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3. Verticillium Wilt

Verticillium wilt is caused by the fungus Verticillium dahlia

Symptoms

The symptoms mimic those of drought stress. Shoot wilt, collapse, and death can be
extremely rapid by mid-summer, and leaves and young berries just dry up and remain
attached to the dead cane. The diagnostic symptom is the greyish to brownish
discolouration of the vascular elements within the base of the collapsing cane.

The reason for the drought stress type symptoms and the vascular tissue discoloration is
that the Verticillium fungus colonizes and plugs up the vascular tissues. This disease is
mostly a problem in young plantings between their second and sixth leaf.

Control

Avoiding any sites where the disease has killed grapevines.

4. Grape Leaf-roll Disease

The disease is caused by the grape leaf-roll virus. Leaf-roll infection does not kill affected
vines, but causes yield losses of 20 percent. The disease is distributed through propagation
from diseased mother vines

Symptoms

Coloured leaves (yellow or red to red-purple) with green veins and downward rolled
leaves.

Prevention / Control

Removal of the affected vines.

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Other Diseases

Botrytis Bunch Rot, Sour Bunch Rot and Fanleaf Degeneration

6.13.2. Pests

1. Climbing Cutworms

These pests hide in the soil or debris beneath the grape trellis by day and move up the vine
at night to feed on buds just as they are swelling and pushing in the spring. Their feeding
leaves small tunnels into a bud; this kills the bud and results in crop loss.

Control

Sprinkling suitable carbaryl bait around the trunk of each vine.

2. Grape Berry Moth

The larval stage of this insect enters young berries and causes them to wither as they
mature. Entry of the larvae into the berries of some grape varieties causes the berries to
turn red in response.
Eggs are laid on the berries, and emerging larvae invade the fruit.

Control

Pheromone traps are available that can help determine periods when adult moths are flying
and laying eggs. Insecticide applications are suggested for approximately 10 days after flight
periods begin.

Other pests:

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Grape Leafhopper, Grape Flea Beetle, Mealybugs, Thrips, Grape Cane Borer, Cottony
Maple Scale, Nematodes and Birds.

6.13.3 Weed Management

It is beneficial to take steps to reduce perennial weed infestations before planting. This will
greatly help to control these perennial weeds later. Annual weeds also can be controlled
prior to planting if proper steps are taken in the preparation period.

Most weeds between grape rows can be controlled by cultivating, discing and mowing.
Weeds in the row can be controlled by hand hoeing by the use of herbicides like Diuron
and Trifluralin) and foliar active types (Glyphosate and Paraquat).

6.14. Harvesting

6.14.1 Maturity indicies

The maturity of wine grapes is usually based on three parameters:

1. Sugar content

White wine grapes are usually harvested between 18 and 24 percent sugar. Red wine grapes
are generally harvested at 21 to 25 percent sugar.

2. Acid content

High acids above 9 % are preferred for wine grapes.

3. pH.

The optimum pH range is 3.0 to 3.4.

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For table grapes the time of harvest is determined mostly by appearance, including color
and size of berries. The stems of the cluster also turn a wood or straw color when berries
are mature.

6.14.2 Harvesting methods

Mechanical and hand harvesting methods are very common.

6.14.3 Average Yield

Up to 8000 kg/ha

6.15. Activities

1. State the uses of grapes.

2. Briefly describe the botany of grapes.

3. Outline the climatic and soil requirements for grape production.

4. Discuss propagation and planting in grape production.

5. Describe the pruning and training methods used in grape production.

6. Explain the significance of shoot thinning, leaf removal; shoot tying and suckering
in grape production.
7. Describe powdery mildew and verticillium wilt under the following subheadings:

a) Causal organism

b) Symptoms

c) Control.

8. State any five important pests in grape production.

9. Briefly describe the weed management practices in grapes.

10. State the maturity indicies for grapes.

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 6.16. Summary

Grapes are important fruits grown for wine production and fruit. Plants require intensive
management practices in order to attain the highest possible yields.

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