- Add 1

COMPUTER SCIENCE 2210 – O LEVEL - Put in two’s complement register

Data Representation Measurement of the Size of Computer Memories

 A binary digit is referred to as a BIT, 8 bits is a byte, half a byte is a
Binary Systems
nibble
 The binary system is base 2 number system.  Byte is used to measure memory size (basic unit in memory storage)
 Made up of 1s and 0s Name of memory No. of Equivalent Denary
 Basic building block of all computers. Files and other data are size Bytes Value
converted into binary to be understood by computers. 1 kilobyte (1KB) 2 10
1 024 bytes
Converting Binary to Denary 1 megabyte (1MB) 2 20
1 048 576 bytes
30
 To calculate a binary number like, 10101000, place it in columns of 1 gigabyte (1GB) 2 1 073 741 824 bytes
40
base 2 numbers 1 terabyte (1TB) 2 1 099 511 627 776
 Then add all the base 2 numbers bytes
50
128+32+8=168 128 6 32 1 8 4 2 1 1 petabyte (1PB) 2 1 125 899 906 842 624
4 6 bytes
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 Example use of binary
Converting Denary to
 A register is a group of bits, often depicted as: 10010111
Binary
 Robotics
 To calculate a denary number like, 84, set up the columns of base 2  Digital instrument
numbers  Counting systems
128 6 32 1 8 4 2 1
01010100 4 6  Memory Dumps
Logical Binary 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 Shifts  Coding in Low Level Language
 Making Code that uses less Memory
 Left shift = multiply by 2; Right shift = divide by 2; Exceeding limit of
zeros = error message
Text, Sound, Images
Two’s Complement: Used to represent negative numbers. Character sets
Negative denary to binary:  Complete collection of characters made up on letters, numbers, etc.
- Find positive binary number of denary and encoded as patterns of bits.
- Flip digits
ASCII Code (American Standard Unicode
 Code for Information Interchange)  Stereo sound file = mono x 2
Used in communication and computer systems
Standard set has 7-bit codes Uses 8, 16, or 32 bits per character Use of the Hexadecimal System
32 control codes Can represent many languages  Examples:
Extended ASCII has 8-bit May take up more storage space  Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) colour codes
character sets  Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
 Media Access Control (MAC) addresses
Sound  Assembly languages and machine code
 Debugging
 Sound captured on microphone -> converted to digital signal by ADC -
 Display error codes (memory location of error)
> sound waves sampled at regular time intervals
 Sampling rate – number of samples per second (measured in hertz)
Memory Dumps
 Sampling resolution/bit depth – number of bits per sample  Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or when trying to
 Higher sampling rate/resolution: trace errors
 Memory dump is when the memory contents are output to a printer,
BENEFITS CONS
monitor.
Larger dynamic range Larger file size
Better sound quality Longer to transmit/download Assembly code and machine code (low level languages)
Less sound distortion Greater processing power  Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code (made up of
required partitions consisting of an address and its contents)
Bitmap Images  Using hexadecimal makes it easier, faster, less error prone to write
code compared to binary.
 Made up of pixels (picture elements)
 Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in values and
 Colour depth – number of bits used to represent each colour.
prone to errors
 Image resolution – number of pixels that make up an image.
 Increase in any leads to larger file size and takes longer to Hexadecimal
transmit/download.  Closely related to the binary system
 Hexadecimal is a base 16 system
Calculation of file size
 Numbers 0 to 9 and letters A to F are used to represent each
 Image file size = image resolution (pixels) x colour depth (bits) hexadecimal digit
 Mono sound file = sample rate (Hz) x sample resolution (bits) x length HEX 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
of sample (seconds) DEN 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 13 14 15
 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal =6
 To convert binary number 01100001 =2
 Separate into two nibbles (4 bits) Converting Hexadecimal to Denary
 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 Convert nibbles to
 To convert hex value 2B
denary 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1  Split the hex value into two
 Change denary
 Convert each number to binary
numbers to hex if needed (e.g. 10 = A)
 Put the two binary numbers together
=6
 Convert to denary
=1 hex value 2 to binary + hex value B (11) to binary
hex value 61 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
 To convert hex value 6C 12 6 3 1 8 4 2 1
 Change hex
8 4 2 6
8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 value to denary
numbers 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 (e.g. 12 = C)
 Separate hex value and =43
convert to 4-bit binary value File types
 Put the two nibbles together to form an 8-bit binary
hex value 6 to binary + hex value C (12) to binary
MP3
01101100  Uses technology known as Audio Compression to convert music and
other sounds into an MP3 file format
 This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal  Done using file compression algorithms which use Perceptual

 To convert denary number 98 Music Shaping

 Convert to binary  Removes sounds that human ear cannot hear properly

 Split the binary (8bits) into nibbles (4bits)  Certain sounds are removed without affecting the quality too

 Find the values separately much

128 64 3 16 8 4 2 1  CD files are converted using File Compression Software
2
 Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the compression  The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary bits of data like
algorithm MP3 and JPEG formats
MP4  Impossible to get original file back once compressed. Some of original
file is lost.
 This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather than just
 Reduces file quality
sound
 Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored Data Transmission
 Videos, could be streamed without losing any real discernible quality
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) Transmission of Data
 JPEG is a file formats used to reduce photographic file sizes  Can be over long distances (between networks) or short distances
 Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of pixels per (computer -> printer)
centimeter  Bandwidth – Amount of data carried at one time.
 When photographic file undergoes compression, file size is reduced Data packets
 JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor between 5 and 15  Data sent over long distances are broken into small (~64 KiB) ‘packets’
Lossless and Lossy File Compression that are sent along different routes to its destination.
- A: used when specific transmission route is busy
 Compression used to:
- D: packets need to be reassembled at destination
- Save storage space
 Data packets are split into:
- Reduce time taken to stream video/music files
- Reduce time taken to upload/transmit/download files HEADER: PAYLOAD: TRAILER:
IP address of sender Method of identifying end of
Lossless File Compression
packet
 All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed when the file IP address of receiver Actual Error checking method (CRC –
again is uncompressed. Packet size (in bytes) data in Cyclic Redundancy Checks) [Add
 NO data loss. Important for files where loss of data would be Sequence number of packets up all 1-bits in payload and store
disastrous (spreadsheet) packets (for correct (~64 KiB) as hex value and compare with a
 An algorithm is used to compress data (RLE [Run-Length Encoding]) assembly at recalculation at destination.
 Repeated characters are grouped together to two values (number destination
+ type of character) Packet switching
 Quality is not dropped. (Effective if many repeated units present)
 Form of data transmission where message is broken to packets and
Lossy File Compression
sent independently to destination.
 Packets are reassembled at destination using sequence number from  Ensures that the sender and receiver are synchronized with
header. each other
 At each stage of transmission, packets enter nodes (containing  Faster method
routers) which decide shortest POSSIBLE route the packet takes to  Uses internal clock
destination.  Faster than asynchronous
 Packets reach destination in jumbled order. Serial & Parallel Transmission
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES  Serial data transmission is when data is sent one signal/bit at a time
No need to tie up single Packets can be lost and need over a single wire
communication line. to be re-sent  Works well over long distances
High data transmission rate Not good when real-time  High data transfer rates can be achieved
possible. streaming.  Data transmitted at a slower rate (USB)
Devices with different speeds can Delay at destination when  e.g. Fibre-optic cables in USB
communicate reordering packets A: Smaller, simpler, cheaper; More reliable with long distances; less
Re-routing is possible in case of external interference; data sent is not skewed; data sent is small
network line issues
 Parallel data transmission is when data several bits (1 byte) are sent
Hopping down several wires at the same time. [internal components of
 Hop number is given to a packet to avoid the packet ‘bouncing’ from computer use parallel for high speed]
router to router without reaching destination and so, it’s deleted after  Each channel/wire transmits one bit
a certain number of ‘hops’ and computer sends a request to resend  Faster method (in short distances or else data can arrive
packet. skewed)
Asynchronous and Synchronous  Synchronous
A: Used in time-sensitive, speedy operations; more expensive; easier to
 Asynchronous data transmission refers to data being transmitted in an
program I/O operations
agreed bit pattern
 Data bits are grouped together & sent with control bits Simplex, Half-duplex and Full-duplex
 This means the receiver of the data knows when the data  Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g. computer to
starts and ends, prevents data getting mixed up printer)
 Synchronous data transmission is a continuous stream of data (not in
 Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but not at the
discrete groups like asynchronous)
same time (e.g. walkie talkie)
 Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions simultaneously  A byte of data is allocated a parity bit
(e.g. internet cables)  Systems that use even parity have an even number of 1-bits
 Systems that use odd parity have an odd number of 1-bits
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
 Parity bit added together along with the 1 bits
 USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method (can be full-  If different parity after transmission, then error detected
duplex or half-duplex)  Parity byte used to find exact location of error
 USB consists of:
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
 Four-wire shielded cable
 ARQ is another method to check if data has been transmitted correctly
 Two wires used for power and earth
 It uses acknowledgements (message sent by the receiver indicating
 Two wires used in data transmission
that data has been received correctly)
Advantages Disadvantages
 It uses timeouts
Automatically detected when Transmission rate is less
 Request is sent requiring acknowledgment
connected (drivers auto-loaded up) than 500 mb/sec
 If there is no response within the certain timeout, data is resent
Only fits one way, prevents incorrect
 Used to assure reliable data transmissions and data integrity
connections
Supports different data transmission Max cable length of 5 Checksum
rates meters  Checksum is another way to see if data has been transmitted
Backwards compatible Early USB standards may correctly.
Industry standard (most common I/O not be supported  Data is sent in blocks and an additional value sent at the end of the
device) block
No need for external power source Slow data transfer rates  A value is calculated from the data and sent with data
(+5V red wire) compared to Ethernet  Data is recalculated at receiver’s end and compared to original
Easy to add more USB ports by using checksum to identify error
USB hubs Echo check
USB protocol detects error and  When data is sent to another device, this data is sent back again to the
requests re-transmission sender
Error Checking  The sender compares the two sets to check if any errors occurred
 Not reliable
Parity Checking
Check digit
 Parity checking is used to check whether data has been changed or
 Identifies errors in data entry of barcode by:
corrupted following transmission from one device to another.
 - Transposition errors; omitted/extra digits; incorrect digits;  Also known as microprocessor or processor. It’s central to all
phonetic errors computer systems.
 Final digit of code calculated from all other digits of code  Usually installed as an integrated circuit (IC) on a single microchip.
 E.g. ISBN (International Standard Book Numbers), VIN (Vehicle  Responsible for execution and processing of all instructions and data
Identification Numbers) in a computer application.
Encryption  CPU takes data from HDD and temporarily places it in RAM since I/O
operations are faster there.
 Process of encoding data/message so it can’t be understood by
 RAM holds all data/programs needed to be accessed by CPU.
anyone but recipient
 Encrypted using encryption algorithms Von Neumann Architecture contains:
 Doesn’t prevent hacking, simply makes data meaningless  Concept of CPU which accesses memory directly
 SENDER -> plaintext -> encryption key -> ciphertext -> decryption key -  Computer memories that can store programs and data
> plaintext -> RECIEVER  Stored programs made of executable instructions in order
SYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION
CPU is made up of:
Same key used to encrypt and Uses public key to encrypt. Private key
decrypt message to decrypt. (different keys but related) Control Unit (CU)
Size of cipher text =< size of Size of cipher text => size of original  Reads instruction from memory and its location address is found and
original plaintext plaintext stored in Program Counter (PC).
Fast encryption process Slow encryption process  Instruction interpreted by Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle.
Used to encrypt large amounts Used to encrypt small amounts of data  Signal generated by control bus to tell components what to do.
of data  CU ensures synchronization of data flow and instructions.
Provides confidentiality Provides confidentiality, authenticity,  Controls the operation of the memory, processor and input/output
validation devices
Low resource utilization High resource utilization Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Allows required logic and arithmetic operations to occur while
program is being run.
Hardware  More than one ALU is possible.
 Calculations done by subtraction, addition and logical binary shifts.
Computer Architecture & Fetch-Execute Cycle
Cache memory
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 Located in CPU and motherboard (near RAM)
 Stores frequently used information and data to be accessed faster.  Current instruction being decoded
 Larger the cache memory size, better the performance.  Results of calculations
System clock REGISTER FUNCTION/PURPOSE
 Sends out regular electrical pulses that synchronize all the Current Stores current instruction being decoded and
components. Instruction executed. Data gets executed from here by sending
 Increase in clock speed CAN increase performance but can cause Register (CIR) to bios or processed by sending to ALU.
overclocking and therefore overheating. Accumulator Temporarily stores data during ALU calculations.
(ACC)
Cores
Memory Address Stores address of memory location currently being
 Contains ALU, CU, and registers. Register (MAR) read to/written from and sends it to MDR.
 Increased number of cores increases clock speed but a quad core CAN Memory Data Stores data that has JUST been/ABOUT to be read
reduce performance due to communication issues between cores. Register (MDR) from/written to memory from MAR and sent to CIR.
Buses Program Counter Stores address where next instruction to be read can
 High speed internal connection between the processor and the other (PC) be found; Increments the value of the instructions by
components. 1.
Immediate Access Store (main memory)
Address Bus (uni- Carries memory addresses FROM processor TO
directional) other components like primary memory and I/O Stores the instructions that are to be processed which are fetched by the
devices CPU. Basically RAM/cache memory.
Control Bus (uni- & Carries control signals BETWEEN processor and The Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle
bi-directional) other components. Also carries clock’s pulses. 1. PC contains address of the next instruction to be fetched from
Data Bus (bi- Carries actual data BETWEEN processor and other RAM/IAS and copied to MAR.
directional) components. 2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus
 Increasing bus width (data or address) increases performance/speed 3. The instruction of the address from address bus is placed into data
of computer. bus & copied into the MDR temporarily.
Registers 4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing the next
 Small amounts of high-speed memory within CPU.
instruction to be fetched
 Used by processor to store:
6. The instruction in CIR is decoded.
 Address of next instruction to be executed
7. CPU passes decoded instruction as control signals to components
 Data needed during processing
to be executed.
Stored program concept: Consumes less power If open to internet, risk of hackers,
viruses, etc.
 Instructions are stored in main memory
Can be controlled remotely Devices are often thrown away
 Instructions are fetched, decoded and executed by the processor
than repair
 Programs can be moved to and from the main memory
Fast reaction to changing input Trend of ‘throwing away’ can occur
Instruction sets:
With mass production, comes
 All computer software is built up of sets of binary-encoded reliability
information. Based on:
 Instructions are decoded as a set of sequenced operations which Microcontrollers: Has CPU, RAM, ROM etc. Embedded onto one chip for a
instruct ALU and CU in CPU. specific task.
 Opcode: - tells processor the job to be done. “What should we do to Microprocessor: integrated circuit with ONLY CPU on chip. Other stuff
the data?” should be added.
 Operand: specifies data that needs to be acted on. “What is the System On Chips (SoC): may contain microcontroller, has CPU, memory,
data?”; Can refer to a place in memory, like registers.; Contains actual I/O ports, secondary storage. Is a single microchip.
data or address. Contains:
Embedded systems  User interface
 Not usually programmable by user.  System software
 Analogue/digital input
 A small computer system that forms part of a larger system/device.
 Form of output
 Tends to have limited tasks to perform. (used to control device and
 Actuators
allow user interaction)
 Sensors
 E.g. Central heating systems; engine management systems (vehicles);  Hardware
GPS systems; domestic applications; mobile phones, smartwatches;
Feedback system: compares output to desired input and takes action to
calculators; fitness trackers.
force output to follow input.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Small in size, easier to fit Can be difficult to upgrade Input Devices
Low cost to make Troubleshooting faults can be a Two-dimensional Scanners:
specialist task
 Used to input hard-copy documents
Dedicated to one task (allows Interface MAY be confusing
simple interface)
 The image is converted into an electronic form which can be stored in  A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of varying
the computer thicknesses
 Document is placed on a glass panel  The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique series of lines
 A bright light illuminates the document  The left and right hand sides of the barcode are separate using guard
 A scan head moves across the document until the whole page bars
is scanned. And image of the document is produced and sent  Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
to a lens using a series of mirrors  Barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
 The lens focuses the document image  Light is reflected back off the barcode; dark areas reflect less
 The focused image now falls onto a charge couple device light which allows the bars to be read
(CCD) which consists of a numbers of integrated circuits  Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
 Software produces a digital image from the electronic form  Pattern is generated which is converted to digital
 If the original document was a photo/image, then the scanned image A: easy and fast to change stock prices; better, up-to-date sales info;
forms an image file such as JPEG. errors reduced; itemized bill; automatic stock control; saves time and
Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport: cost; faster checkout
 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which converts I/O devices in stores: screen/monitor; keypad; speaker; printer;
scanned documents into a text file format. Reviews contents of touchscreen; card reader/PIN
passport and compares with existing data. Quick Response (QR) Codes
 Face recognition: key parts of the face such as: distance between  Another type of barcode is the QR codes (more advanced)
eyes; width of nose; length of jawline; shape of eyebrows and  Made up of a matrix of filled in dark squares on a light background
cheekbones are used to compare passport images etc.  Phone camera pointed at QR code. App processes image into readable
Three-dimensional Scanners data, browser decodes any website addresses and user is sent to
 3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-dimensional website automatically or data is instantly downloaded.
image  3 large corner squares ensure alignment. Small square ensures
 Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers, magnetic, orientation.
white light)  Advantages of QR codes:
 The scanned images can be used in Computer Aided Design (CAD) or  No need for the user to write down website address

to a 3D printer to produce a working model.  QR codes can store website addresses

 E.g. CT (Computed tomography) scanners (x-rays), MRI (radio waves),  Easier to read

SPECT (gamma rays)  Built-in error checking and encryption

 Easy to transmit
Barcode readers/scanners
  Can hold more storage (7000 digits) A: (Optical) No moving parts; no dirt interference; smoother response; no
 Rapid response time (decoded + accessed instantly) special surface needed
 Disadvantages: Microphones
 More than one format available
 Used to input sound to a computer
 Attagging (can contain malicious codes)
 When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm vibrates producing
Digital Cameras an electric signal.
 Controlled by microprocessor (embedded system) which automatically  The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into digital values by
adjusts the shutter speed; focus the image; adjust image and aperture ADC and stored in computer and processed.
size; operate flash gun, etc.  Voice recognition, voice is detected and converted into digital
 Images can be transferred by USB or wireless Bluetooth Touchscreens
 Photo is captured when light passes through the lens onto a CCD
Capacitive (medium cost and very common tech)
(Charge Coupled Device) [converts light to electricity] and then to
ADC (Analogue to Digital Converter)
 Number of pixels determines size of the file
Keyboards
 Connected to computer with a USB connection or by wireless  Uses electrical properties of humans
connection or even virtual (touchscreen)  Surface capacitive:
 Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a digital signal  Sensors are placed at corners and an electric field is produced.
 Slow but common method of data entry  Finger draws current from corners which reduces capacitance
 Prone to errors which is detected by microcontroller which determines point
 RSI (Repetitive Strain Injury) avoided by ergonomic keyboards. of touch.
Pointing devices/Mice  Projective capacitive:
 Mouse/trackball  Conductive layer is in the form of X-Y matrix which creates 3D
 Optical uses tiny cameras to take 1500 pictures per second. electrostatic field.
 Traditional; mechanical ball, connected by USB port  Finger disturbs field and point of contact is determined by
 Modern type; red LEDs to detect movement using CMOS microprocessor.
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) which generates ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
electric impulses based on light to a DSP (Digital Signal Processor) to Multi-touch (Projective) Surface only works with
calculate coordinates of mouse and on-screen cursor. fingers/stylus
Durable screens Sensitive to electromagnetic
 radiation  When top polythene layer is touched, resistive coatings make contact
Sharp and vibrant images which causes flow of electricity.
 Point of contact detected where there is change in voltage.
Infra-red (expensive)  Microcontroller converts voltage to digital data and sent to
microprocessor.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low cost Low touch sensitivity
Low power consumption Scratches
Resistant to dust/water No multi-touch
Can be used with Poor visibility in strong
finger/stylus/gloves sunlight
 Uses glass screen with arrays of sensors and infrared transmitters
Sensors
relying on interruption of light grid.
 Sensors detect change in infrared radiation from transmitters when  Devices which read or measure physical properties.
touched.  Data needs to be converted to digital.
 Sensor readings are sent to microcontroller to determine point of
contact.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Multi-touch Sensitive to water/moisture
Durable screen Accidental activation if disturbed
Scratches don’t affect operability May be sensitive to light

Resistive (inexpensive and very common tech)

 Two layers’ contact, complete circuit and change voltage.

 Output Devices
Inkjet Printers
 Used to print one-off pictures and documents. Contains small paper
trays and ink cartridges.
 Made up of:
o Printer head (with ink-spraying nozzles)
o Ink cartridges (contains colours)
o Stepper motor and belt (moves print head)
o Paper feed
 Ink droplets can be produced by:
 Thermal Bubble: tiny resistors cause heat which makes ink
vaporize and form a bubble that ejects ink from print head to
paper. When bubble collapses, small vacuum created which allows
 Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC) converts physical values fresh ink to be drawn into print head. Repeated until print cycle is
gathered by sensors into digital values. completed.
Control of Street Lighting  Piezoelectric: crystal located at back of ink reservoir for each
 Light sensor sends data constantly to the ADC. nozzle. Electric charge is given which makes it vibrate and force ink
 Data is digitized and sent to the microprocessor. to be ejected onto paper.
 Microprocessor samples data every minute 1. Data from document sent to printer driver
 If data from sensor < value stored in memory: 2. Printer driver ensures data is in readable format
 Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp 3. Check made by printer driver that chosen printer is available
 Lamp switched on 4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary memory (printer buffer)
 Lamp stays switched on for certain time interval and sensor readings 5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if paper is available in paper tray
sampled again (prevents lamp switching on and off constantly) 6. Print head moves across paper printing text/image, four ink colours
 If data from sensor > value stored in memory: sprayed in exact amount
 Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp 7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed
 Lamp switched off 8. Repeated until buffer is empty
 Lamp stays switched off for certain time interval and senor readings 9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt to the processor (request for
are sampled again. more data to be sent)
Laser Printers
 Used to print high-volume, high quality. Contains larger paper trays Loudspeakers/Headphones
and cartridges.
 Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a DAC then
 Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to produce text and
through amplifier and then emerges from loudspeaker.
images and has 4 toner cartridges (blue, cyan, magenta, black)
 Produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker at
 Prints the whole page in one go
different frequencies.
1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
LCD and LED Monitors
2. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum rotates, a laser
beam is scanned across it, removing the positive charge; this leaves LED screens:
negatively charged areas which match the text/image  Made up of tiny LEDs which are either red, green or blue.
3. Drum is then coated with positively charged toner, it only sticks to  Varying electric current sent to LED controls brightness and produces
negatively charged parts of the drum vast range of colours.
4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum LCD screens:
5. Toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce copy of page  Are made up of tiny liquid crystals that make up an array of pixels that
6. Electric charge is removed after one rotation of drum (to prevent page are affected by changes in applied electric fields.
sticking to drum)  LCD’s don’t produce light so they are back-lit using LEDs.
7. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated rollers); heat melts  LCD monitors are back lit using Light Emitting Diode (LED) because:
the ink so it is permanent  LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
8. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the drum, ready to  LEDs sharpens image (higher resolution), CCFL has yellow tint
print next page  LEDs produces bright light that improves colour definition.
3D Printers  Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL.
 Produce solid objects that work using inkjet or laser technology.  LED’s can last indefinitely (reliable)
 Direct 3D – builds up layer by layer using inkjet technology using resin,  LEDs consume very little power (less heat)
paper, metal or ceramic.  Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
 Binder 3D – sprays dry powder and then glue layer by layer.  CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supplies
 A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD) the light source
 E.g. prosthetic limbs, cars, surgery, aerospace, fashion, art, making OLED screens:
parts no longer in production  Uses organic LEDs which use organic materials to create semi-
Actuators conductors that are flexible.
 Organic films are placed between two charged electrodes (metallic
 Used in many control applications involving sensors and devices (ADC
cathode, glass anode) which gives off light when electric field applied.
and DAC). Converts electrical energy to mechanical force. E.g. motors
 No backlighting required, allowing for very thin screens which can be  This creates a coloured image which passes through a projector lens
bend to different shapes. onto the projection screen.
 Advantages compared to LEDs and LCDs: ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
o Thinner, light, more flexible Higher contrast ratio Image suffers from ‘shadows’
o Can be made from lighter plastic than glass Higher reliability/longevity (moving images)
o Bright light than LEDs Quieter Not AS good color
o Does not require backlighting (generates own light) No issues lining up image (1 DMD) saturation/definition
o Can be made into large, thin sheets (advertisement) Smaller and lighter No grey components
o Very large field of view (angle) Suited to dusty/smoky locations
Light Projectors:
LCD Projectors
 Two common types of light projectors:
 Digital Light Projector (DLP)
 LCD Projector
 Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger
screens/interactive whiteboards
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)

 Older technology than DLP

 A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
 Uses DMD (Digital Micromirror Device) containing millions of micro
 This beam of light is then sent to dichromic (organic) mirrors; these
mirrors.
reflect the light back at different wavelengths (colours).
 The number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the
 When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has
DLP chip determines the resolution of the image
wavelengths corresponding to red, green and blue.
 A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way to
 These three different light pass through three LCD screens; these
the DMD chip.
screens show the image to be projected as millions of pixels in
 White light splits into primary colours.
grayscale.
 When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source they are on
 When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source they are off
 When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green Needs to be constantly refreshed Isn’t constantly refreshed.
and blue version of the grey image emerges which re-combine into Less expensive to manufacture Faster data access time
one Has higher memory capacity CPU memory cache makes use
 Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto the screen. Main memory made from DRAM of SRAM.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES Consumes less power
Sharper image Not AS good contrast ratios
Better colour saturation Yellowish tinge over time Read Only Memory (ROM)
Efficient energy use (less heat) Limited life/less longevity
 Features of ROM:
Organic panels degrade over time
 Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain even when
ROM is turned off)
Memory, Storage Devices & Media  Used to store start up instructions (basic input/output systems)
 Data storage: information kept in a digital format to be accessed later.  Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read, cannot be
 Can be primary memory or secondary storage. changed.

Primary Memory: Secondary Storage:

 Not directly addressable by the CPU.
 Directly addressable by the CPU (Found on motherboard)
 All are non-volatile devices.
 Contains RAM, ROM and Cache memory.
 Can be external or internal to computer.
Random Access Memory (RAM)  Stores more data than primary memory but data access time is
 Features of RAM: slower.
 Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is turned off)  HDD, SSD, DVD, Blu-Ray Disc, Memory Stick
 Used to store; data, files, part of application or OS (currently in  Magnetic storage: uses platters divided into tracks and sectors. Data is
use) read and written using electromagnets.
 Can be written to/read from; memory contents can be changed  Optical storage: uses lasers to create and read pits and lands.
 Larger the size of the RAM, faster the computer will operate.  Solid State: uses NAND or NOR technology. Transistors used as control
 RAM never runs out of memory, continues to run slow. and floating gates.
 As RAM becomes ‘full’, the processor has to continually access the Internal Secondary Storage:
hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with new data. Hard Disk Drives (HDD) (Magnetic)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) Static RAM (SRAM)
 Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of the disks
Consists of transistors (switch) and Uses flip flops to hold each bit
(platters).
capacitors (0 or 1) of memory
 Read/write heads can access all of the surfaces of the disk. External Secondary Storage:
 Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the
CD/DVD Disks (Optical)
data
 Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks.  Laser (red) light is used to read and write data in the surface of the
 HDD have very slow data access compared to RAM. disk
 Latency: time taken for specific data block on data track to rotate  Use a thin layer of metal alloy to store data.
around a read-write head. (Impacted by large number of head  Both systems use a single, spiral track which runs from the center of
movements) the disk to the edge.
 Data is stored in sectors which may not be all adjacent to each other,  Data stored in pits and lands on a spiral track divided into sectors.
meaning HDD undergoes many deletions and edits and so, sectors  DVD (650 nm λ) [4.7 GB] uses Dual-Layering which increases the
become increasingly fragmented resulting in deterioration of the HDD storage capacity (two individual recoding layers) unlike CD (780 nm λ).
performance (longer to access data).  DVD data transfer rate of 10 Mbps.
 Defragmentation software allows data in sector to be read in order Blu-ray Disks (Optical)
with direct head movements.  Uses blue laser (405 nm λ) to carry out read and write operations
Solid-State Drive (SSD) (Solid State)  Pits and lands are much smaller therefore, it stores up to five times
 No moving parts and all data is received at the same time (unlike more data than DVD.
HDD).  Data transfer rate of 36 Mbps.
 Store data by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND or  Single-layer use one 1.2mm thick polycarbonate disk. (27 GB)
NOR chips, as 1s and 0 within floating and control gates.  Dual-layer use two 0.6mm polycarbonate disks. (50 GB)
 Non-volatile rewritable memory  Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent piracy and
 Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD: copyright infringement)
 More reliable (no moving parts)  Used as back-up systems.
 Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)  Can record HD TV programs; skip quickly; create playlists; edit/re-
 Don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ to work properly order programs; automatically search for empty space in disc; access
 Lower power consumption websites and download subtitles
 Run much cooler than HDDs USB Flash Memories (Solid State)
 Very thin (no moving parts)  Very small, lightweight, suitable for transferring files through USB
 Data access is faster than HDD ports
 Removes issue of latency  Small back-up devices for photo, music
 Drawback – SSD endurance: bad longevity (20GB per day for 3 years).  Solid state so need to be treated with care.
 Used as a dongle, contains additional files needed to run an important  Thrashing reduced by installing more RAM, reducing number of
office software to prevent copying or illegal use of the software programs running, reducing size of swap file or using SSD.
Removable Hard Drive (Magnetic) Cloud Storage
 Essentially HDDs, external to computer and connected using USB  Method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers.
ports.  Data redundancy: Same data stored in more than one server in case
 Used as a back-up device or another way of transferring files. of repair/maintenance, allowing clients to access data at any time.
Virtual Memory  Public cloud: Environment where customer/client and storage
 Uses hardware and software to temporarily transfer files from RAM provider are different companies.
(when its ‘full’) to HDD/SSD as though it was primary memory.  Private cloud: Environment behind company firewall; customer/client
 Virtual memory = RAM + swap space on HDD/SSD. storage provider are integrated and operate as single entity.
 Oldest data on RAM is moved to HDD/SSD and data from HDD/SSD  Hybrid cloud: combination of two above environments.
moved to RAM in a continuous cycle. BENEFITS DRAWBACKS
 Data blocks (pages) are moved in and out of HDD/SSD. Can be accessed any time (if Slow/unstable internet affects
 Paging: used by memory management to store/retrieve data from internet available) downloading/accessing
HDD/SSD and copy it into RAM. No need of external storage High costs for extra storage/faster
 Page: fixed length, consecutive block of data utilized in virtual memory Cloud provides remote back-up data transfer
BENEFITS: Allows recovery of data if lost Risk of storage company failing
 Enables more applications to be used at once. Provides ~unlimited storage
 Frees applications from managing shared memory and saves user
from adding additional memory. Network Hardware
 Increased speed when only part of program is to be executed.
 Internet Service Provider: These are companies/providers that
 Increased security due to memory isolation
provide user with access to the internet
 Allocating memory is relatively inexpensive
 Data can be moved automatically. Internet Protocol (IP) Address
Drawback:  IP address is a global address given to each device on the internet.
 Disk Thrashing: as main memory fills, more and more data is swapped  It is allocated by the ISP (internet service provider)
in and out of virtual memory leading to high rate of read/write head  32-bit (IPv4) number using 4 groups of 8 bits divided by ‘.’ OR
movements.  128-bit (IPv6) number using 8 groups of hex digits divided by ‘;’
 Thrash Point: Point where execution is halted since more time is spent - IPv6 removes risk of IP address collisions
in moving data in and out than processing/executing. - Built-in authentication checks
 - Allows more efficient packet routes  To ensure they follow the correct format
 IP address gives the location of a device on the internet whereas the  To bypass MAC address filter on a router or a firewall
MAC address identifies the device connected to the internet  To get past certain types of network restrictions
 IP address changes, MAC address remains unchanged Routers
DYNAMIC IP STATIC IP
 Routers enable data packets to be routed between networks by taking
Changes each time user logs in Doesn’t change (fully traceable)
data in one format from network (using specific protocol) and
(greater privacy)
converting data to another protocol and format to be understood by
VolP connection can fail since it Faster upload/download speed
another network, allowing them to communicate. E.g. LAN to WAN
can disconnect to change IP. More expensive (constantly running)
 Has internet cable and other cables connecting to devices on LAN.
Done using DHCP (Dynamic Used in remote severs (website
 Broadband routers sit behind a firewall which protects computers on
Host Configuration Protocol) hosts); online databases; FTP (File
network.
They assign temp IP to be used Transfer Protocol) servers
 FUNCTION: transmit internet and transmission protocols between
to open a webpage.
networks and allow private networks to be connected together.
 It can be used in place of a URL.
 Can be wired or wireless.
Media Access Control (MAC)  Router inspects data sent to it from any connected device/network.
 MAC address refers to a number which uniquely identifies a device on  Every computer on same network has same part of IP address, so
the internet. router is able to send data packet to appropriate switch/node using
 Refers to the network interface card (NIC) [enables hardware to MAC destination address.
connect to a network] which is part of the device.  If MAC address doesn’t match any device on switch, it passes onto
 If NIC replaced, MAC address also changes. another switch until appropriate device is found.
 Usually made up of 48 bits shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits
 NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD Software
(NN:NN:NN) first half is the identity number of the manufacturer of the
device
Application Software
(DD:DD:DD) second half is the serial number of the device  Used to perform various applications on a computer
 Types of MAC Address:  Allows a user to perform specific tasks using the computer’s resources
 Universally Administrated MAC Address (UAA)  Either a single program or a suite of programs (Microsoft Office)
 Locally Administrated MAC Address (LAA)  User can execute the software as and when they require.
 UAA is the most common type set by the manufacturer
Word Processor:
 Reasons to change MAC address using LAA
 Used to manipulate a text document by typing, copying, deleting.
 FUNCTIONS: creating, editing, saving, manipulating text; copy and  Manipulates videos to produce a new video.
paste; spell checkers and thesaurus; import photos/images into a  FUNCTIONS: rearranging, adding/removing video/audio clips; colour
structured page format; translation into a foreign language. correction, filters, enhancements; transitions
Spreadsheet: Graphics Manipulation Software:
 Used to organize and manipulate numerical data organized on a grid  Allows bitmap and vector images to be changed by changing pixels of
of lettered columns and numbered rows with each grid cell uniquely bitmaps and changing lines, curves, text of vectors.
identified.
 FUNCTIONS: calculations using formulas; produce graphs; modeling
System Software
and ‘what if’ questions.  Programs to control and manage operations of computer hardware
 Provides a platform on which other software can run
Database:
 Required to allow hardware and software to run without problems
 Used to organize, manipulate and analyze data in tables of records  Provides a human computer interface (HCI)
and fields.
 Controls allocation and usage of hardware resources
 FUNCTIONS: Carry out queries and produce a report; add, delete and
 Compilers; Linkers; Device Drivers; Utilities; Operation Systems
modify data in a table.
Compilers:
Control and Measuring Software:
 A computer program that translates a program written in a high-level
 Allows a computer/microprocessor to interface with sensors.
language into machine code to be used by a computer to form a task.
 FUNCTIONS: Measure physical quantities; allows control of
 The original program is called the source code and the compilation is
applications by comparing sensor data with stored data.
the object code.
Applications:  Once program is compiled, machine code can be used over and over
 Runs on mobile phones and tablets by being downloaded from the again without being recompiled.
‘App Store’ and range from games to useful software (phone banking)  High level languages: Java; Python; Visual Basic; Fortan; C++; Algol
 EXAMPLES: Video/Music streaming; GPS; camera facilities Linkers:
Photo Editing Software:  A computer program that takes one or more object files produced by
 Allows user to manipulate digital photographs on a computer. a compiler and combines them into a single program to be run on a
 FUNCTIONS: change brightness, contrast, colour saturation; remove computer.
‘red eye’; combine photos to give effects Device Drivers:
Video Editing Software:
 Software that allows hardware devices to communicate with o So, defragmentation software allows files to be stored in
Operating System by translating data into an understandable format. contiguous sectors, thereby reducing HDD read-write head
 USB device drivers contain descriptors which are a collection of movements and allows for faster data access and retrieval.
information about the device allowing the USB bus to ask what it is  Back-up software:
based on vendor ID, product ID and unique serial numbers. o Allows a schedule for backing up files
 Examples: mice; printers; memory sticks. o Only carry out a back-up procedure if there are changes to the file.
Utilities: o Restores data, files or computer from back-up.
o Creates a restore point (Like a time machine)
 Software that are designed to carry out specific tasks on a computer
o Provides options of where to save back-up files.
to manage, maintain and control computer resources.
o For total security, three versions of a file are stored:
 Anti-virus (virus checkers):
 Current (working) version (stored on internal HDD/SSD)
o Runs in the background to maintain ability to guard against
 Locally backed up copy (stored in portable storage)
malware due to constant checks.
 Remote back-up copy (stored in cloud storage)
o They check software/files before being run/loaded.
 Security Software:
o Compares possible virus against database of known viruses.
o Manages access control and user accounts (using User IDs and
o Carry out heuristic checking which indicates possible virus by
passwords)
behaviour of software.
o Links into other utility software like virus and spyware checkers.
o Possibly infected files/programs are put under quarantine to be
o Protects network interfaces (using firewalls)
automatically deleted or manually deleted (due to a false positive
o Uses encryption and decryption
(User may know that file isn’t infected))
o Oversees software updates.
o Should be kept up to date due to new viruses
o Full system checks should be carried out once a week.  Screensavers:
o Programs that supply moving and still images on the monitor
 Defragmentation Software:
screen after a period of inactivity to be automatically logged out
o As the HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become scattered all
and locked and call allow background tasks such as virus scans.
over the disk surface (in different sectors and tracks) since files are
 Anti-spyware
deleted, partially-deleted, extended and so on over time. This
results in slower data access since the read-write head requires  Disk contents repair and analysis
several movements to retrieve the data from HDD.  File management and compression
Operating Systems
 Enable computer systems to function correctly and allow users to
communicate with computer systems.  Security Management:
 Provides an environment in which applications are run and a useable o Ensures integrity, confidentiality and availability of data.
interface between user and computer. o Carries out operating system updates on time.
 Usually stored on HDD or in SSD in case of mobile phones and tablets. o Ensures security software is up-to-date.
Functions: o Communicating with firewall to check traffic to and from computer.
o Uses privileges to prevent users entering ‘private areas’
 Human Computer Interface (HCI): o Maintain access rights of all users
o In the form of Command Line Interface (CLI) or Graphical User o Offers ability of data recovery
Interface (GUI) o Helps prevent illegal intrusion into computer system.
o CLI allows communication with computer by typing in commands
 Interrupt Handling:
using a keyboard.
o Interrupts are signals that causes the operating system to stop what
o GUI uses icons to represent apps and tasks that user can
it’s doing and service a task.
select/launch using touch screen or mouse.
o Interrupts are caused by a timing signal; I/O process; hardware fault;
o GUIs use WIMP (Windows Icons Menu and Pointing device) where a
user interaction; software errors
mouse is used to control a cursor and icons to open/run windows.
o Ensures important tasks are dealt on priority basis
Command Line Interface (CLI) Graphical User Interface (GUI) o Data is passed in and out of memory very rapidly, allowing multiple
Allows direct communication No need to learn commands. functions to be serviced appearing as though functions are being
Not restricted to pre-determined More user-friendly; icons used to carried out at the same time.
options. represent applications. o Interrupts are achieved by utilizing buffers which are memory areas
Possible to alter computer Pointing device used to click on that store instructions and data temporarily until hardware acts.
configuration settings icons (much simpler) o Interrupts are serviced when received. The status of the current task
Uses a small amount of memory needs to be saved and THEN contents of Program Counter (PC) and
Need to learn commands Uses more memory other registers are saved THEN the interrupt service routine (ISR) is
Commands need to be typed in User limited to icons on screen executed by loading the start address into the PC.
Commands need to be in correct Needs an Operating system to o Once the interrupt has been fully serviced, status of the interrupted
format, spelling, etc. operate task is reinstated (and contents of registers are retrieved) and
Used by programmer, technician, Used by end-user who uses process continues.
analyst to develop new software; computer to run software to play o Buffers and interrupts are often used together to perform functions.
locate and remove errors; initiate games and has no real knowledge  Memory Management:
memory dumps on how computers work.
 o Manages primary storage (RAM) and allows data to be moved o BIOS is often referred to as firmware which is a program that
between RAM and HDD/SSD during program execution. provides low level control for devices.
o Keeps track of all the memory locations. o BIOS is stored in EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable
o Carries out memory protection to ensure that two competing ROM) which is a flash memory chip where contents remain even
applications don’t use same memory locations at the same time. when computer is off and can be rewritten, updated, deleted.
 Hardware Peripheral Management (including drivers): o Application software is under control of OS and accesses system
o Communicates with all input/output devices using drivers. software while running such as device drivers.
o Uses device driver to take data from file and translate it to an  Multitasking:
understandable format. o Allows computers to carry out more than one task at a time.
o Ensures each hardware resource has a priority to be used. o Each process shares hardware resources under control of OS.
o Manages input/output devices by controlling queues and buffers.  Resources are allocated to a process for a specific time limit.
 File Management:  Process can be interrupted while running.
o Uses file naming conventions. i.e. filename.docx  Process has resources according to its priority.
o Performing specific tasks (create, open, delete, close, rename, copy) o Main memory, HDD/SSD and virtual memory are better managed to
o Maintaining directory structures make effective use of CPU time.
o Ensuring access control mechanisms are maintained High- & Low-Level Languages
o Ensuring memory allocation for a file by reading it from HDD/SSF and
 Computer program: list of instructions that enable computer to
loading it into memory.
perform a specific task and can be written in high-level languages and
 Management of User Accounts:
low-level languages.
o Computers allow multiple users to log onto the system so user’s data
is stored in separate parts of memory for security reasons allowing High-Level Languages
user to customize settings and use private folders/files.  Programming language that is independent of computer hardware
o An Administrator oversees management of these accounts. They can which has to be translated into machine code before execution.
create, delete, restrict. Low-Level Languages
 Running of application software:
 Programming language that is dependent on computer hardware.
o When computer starts up, part of OS is loaded into RAM (booting
 Refers to machine code (computer-understandable binary
up/bootstrap loader).
instructions) or assembly language which is translated to machine
o Start-up of motherboard is handled by BIOS which tells computer
code.
where storage device that holds OS can be found and loads part of
Language PROS CONS
OS it needs and executes it.
High- Easier to read, write, understand Programs can be larger
 Can be used on different types of Can take longer to can be translated into several machine code is usually translated
computers (portable) execute several machine code instructions to be into one machine
Quicker to write instructions. executed. code instruction.
level May not be able to
Easier/quicker to debug Compiled programs Interpreted programs Assembled programs
make use of special
Easier to maintain programs in are run without cannot be run without are used without
hardware
use compiler. interpreter. assembler.
Can make use of special hardware Used to translate final Used when program is General use
Takes longer to
Includes special machine- program being developed
write/debug programs
Low-level dependent instructions Error report produced Execution stops when
Code doesn’t take up much space Programs are more instead of program error detected
Code performs task quickly difficult to understand Program can be used Program needs to be Program can be used
repeatedly without interpreted each time it repeatedly without
re-compilation is run. re-assembly
Assembly Language
 A low-level language that uses mnemonics which needs an assembler Translator PROS CONS
to translate it into machine code. Easier/quicker to debug and Programs cannot be run
Translators: test programs during without interpreter
Interprete
development.
 A program must be translated into binary before a computer can use r
Easier to edit programs during Programs can take
it.
development longer to execute
 Types of translators; Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler
Compiler Program can be stored, ready
for use
Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Program can be executed Takes a longer time to
Translates high-level Executes high-level Translates low-level
without compiler write, test and debug
program into machine program one statement assembly program
Program takes up less space in programs during
code at once. at a time. into machine code.
memory when executed development.
Executable file of No executable file of Executable file of
Program executed in a shorter
machine code machine code machine code
time
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level One high-level language One low-level Integrated Development Environment (IDE):
language statement statement may require language statement
 Used by programmers to aid the writing and development of o Domain name (website name)
programs. o Domain type (.com, .org, etc.)
 FEATURES: o Country code (.uk, .de, etc.)
o Code Editors Path: [web page (often omitted)]
o Translator File Name: [item on the webpage]
o Runtime environment with a debugger protocol://websiteaddress/path/filename
o Error diagnostics HTTP HTTPS
o Auto-completion  Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
o Auto-correction  Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
o Auto-documenter (explain code) and Prettyprinting (colour coding)  A set of rules (protocol) that must be obeyed when transferring files
across the internet and accessing websites.
The Internet and its uses  HTTPS is more secure as it uses encryption methods like SSL/TLS
Internet World Wide Web (WWW)  HTTPS have a padlock next to their URL
Worldwide collection of Collection of multimedia webpages and  HTTPS has a verification certificate and HTTP doesn’t
interconnection networks other information on websites accessed Web Browser:
and devices (infrastructure) using the internet  It is a software used to connect to the internet.
Allows online chatting http(s) protocols are written using HTML  Interprets HTML and displays webpages
Makes use of transmission Uniform resource locators (URLs) are  ensures SSL & TLS security can be established.
protocols (TCP) and used to specify location of web pages  FUNCTIONS:
Internet protocols (IP) Web resources are accessed by web o Storing bookmarks and favorites
browsers o Recording user history
Users can send and receive Uses the internet to access information o Allowing use of multiple tabs
emails from web servers o Storing cookies
Uniform Resource Locators (URL): o Providing navigation tools

 Unique text addresses for webpages used to access websites. o Providing address bar

 friendly version of IP addresses HTML:

Protocol: [http or https]  Hyper Text Markup Language
Website Address:  It is a syntax used to make websites (NOT a programming language)
o Domain host (www)  It is uses presentation and structure
 Used when writing and developing pages 6. Browser interprets HTML, which is used to structure content and then
 Mark-up language is used in the processing displays information on user’s computer.
 Html use to bracket piece of codes (colour codes) Cookies
 Different intensity of colours is determined by its hexadecimal value
 A packet of information sent by a web server to a web browser
HTML Structure & Presentation:  Generated each time the user visits the website
 Presentation is used to format color  Every time a user visits a website, cookies will have collected some key
 Structure is used to create meaning of the document information about the user
 Presentation is stored in CSS (cascade style sheet)  They are able to carry out user tracking and maintain user preferences
 CSS file is linked with the HTML  Information gathered by cookies doesn’t contain personal information
 Presentation and structure kept separate  Session cookies:
Retrieval and location of web pages o It ceases to exist on a user’s computer once the browser is closed or
 HTML is a language used to display content on web browsers. the website session is terminated.
 All websites are written in HTML and hosted on a web server which o Stored in temporary memory and doesn’t collect any information
has its own IP address. Browser needs to know this IP address to from the user’s computer and doesn’t personally identify the user.
retrieve pages from a website. o E.X. When making online purchases and user’s items are in a virtual
 Domain Name Server (DNS) is a system for finding IP addresses for a shopping basket.
domain name given in a URL by converting URL into computer-  Persistent (permanent) cookies:
understandable IP address using a database of URLs with matching IP o Stored on hard drive of a user’s computer until expiry date reached
addresses. or the user deletes it and remains in operation even after the
 URLs and DNS eliminates need for users to memorize IP addresses. browser is closed or the website session is terminated.
1. Browser sends typed-in URL to DNS server for IP address of website o Removes the need to type in login details each time.
2. If 1st DNS server doesn’t have URL in database, it sends a request to a o Efficient way of carrying data from one website session to another
2nd DNS server. without having to store massive amounts of data on web server
3. 2nd DNS server finds URL and maps it to an IP address which is sent itself.
 Stores login details
back to 1st DNS server to be stored into cache/database along with
 Saves personal details
URL
 Serves as a memory, allowing websites to recognize user.
4. IP is sent to browser if it exists.
 Saves user’s items in virtual shopping basket/cart
5. Browser sets up communication with website server and required
 Track internet habits and stores histories/bookmarks/favorites
pages are downloaded, HTML files are sent from server to browser.
 Store user’s preferences.
  Used in online financial transactions  USED IN:
 Allows progress in websites (games) to be stored o Cryptocurrency exchanges
 Remember language preferences o Smart contracts
Internet Service Provider: o Research (pharmaceutical companies)
 Company which offers you internet connection o Politics
 They assign you with an IP address o Education
 They connect to you via broadband  When a new transaction takes place, a new block is created
 They ban a list of websites which are malicious containing:
o Data (name of sender/recipient, amount of money etc.)
Digital Currency
o Hash value (contains timestamp acting as a fingerprint)
 Digital Currency exists purely in a digital format as a form of payment
o Previous hash value (points back to previous block in chain)
to pay for goods or services which can be transferred between
 It is impossible to hack into the blockchain since it would be necessary
accounts when carrying out transactions.
to attack every single block in the chain at the same time.
 Relies on a central banking system which doesn’t maintain
confidentiality and security and exchange rates are determined by Cyber Security
central banks and governments.  Need to keep data safe from accidental damage, including corruption
 Decentralization is done using cryptocurrency: and human errors.
o Uses cryptography to track transactions to address problems  Need to keep data safe from malicious actions, including unauthorized
associated with centralization of digital currency. viewing, deleting, copying and corruption.
o Has no state control and the rules are set by community itself. Security Threats
o Transactions are publicly available and all transactions are tracked
Brute force attacks
and amount of money in the system is monitored.
o System works by being within a secure blockchain network.  Hackers can systematically try all the different combinations of
Blockchaining characters to eventually ‘crack’ your password.
 Blockchain is a decentralized database which stores all transactions  TO REMOVE RISK:
made by networked members and consists of a number of o Check if password is very common
interconnected computers which aren’t connected to a central server o Use a strong word list and test your password
and instead, transaction data is stored on all computers of network. o Use a longer password with greater variation of characters
 Whenever a new transaction is made, all the networked computers Data interception
get a copy of the transaction and cannot be changed without the
consent of all the computers which removes security issues of hacking.
 Form of stealing data by tapping into a wired/wireless communication  SIGNS of attack:
link with intent to compromise privacy or obtain personal information. o Slow network performance
 Carried out using packet sniffer which examines data packets being o Inability to access certain websites
sent over a network, intercepted data is sent back to hacker. o Large amounts of spam email
 OR, carried out using wardriving (or Access Point Mapping) where Hacking
data is intercepted using a laptop/smartphone, antenna, GPS device  The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without user’s
and other software outside a building/house to intercept Wi-Fi signal permission.
to reveal personal data to the hacker.  Ethical hacking done to test security of computer systems.
 TO REMOVE RISK:  Effect:
o Utilizing encryption to make data incomprehensible to hacker o Leads to identity theft, gaining personal information
using wired equivalency privacy (WEP) and a firewall. o Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
o Complex passwords  To remove risk:
o Avoid usage of Wi-Fi in common places like airports. o Firewalls
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS) o Strong passwords/ user IDs
o Use of anti-hacking software/intrusion-detection software
 An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a network
 Difference between hacking and cracking
 Usually temporary but may be damaging
o Hacking breaks into computer system to steal data
 Can be done by flooding network with useless spam traffic since
o Cracking is where someone edits a program code, malicious.
servers can be overloaded by attacker’s countless requests and server
isn’t able to service user’s legitimate request. Malware
 Spam traffic originates from multiple computers in DDoS attacks.  Programs installed on a user’s computer with the aim of deleting,
 Can also be done by sending out many spam messages to user’s email. corrupting or manipulating data illegally.
 Attacker may be able to prevent user from: Viruses:
o Accessing their emails  Program that can replicate itself with the intention of deleting or
o Accessing websites corrupting files, cause computer malfunction
o Accessing online services  Needs an active host program on the target computer to run.
 TO REMOVE RISK:  Often sent as email attachments, reside on infected
o Using up-to-date malware checker websites/software.
o Firewalls to restrict traffic to and from web  Effect:
server/computer  Can cause computer to crash
o Email filters  Can delete or corrupt files/data
 To remove risk:  Use of anti-spyware software
 Install anti-virus software  Use a mouse to select characters from passwords rather than
 Don’t use software from unknown sources typing them
 Be careful when opening emails from unknown Adware:
Worms:  Malware that attempts to flood an end-user with unwanted
 Type of stand-alone malware that can self-replicate with the intention advertising usually in the form of pop-ups or redirects search requests.
to spread to other computers and corrupt whole networks without  Effects:
the need of an active host program.  Highlight weakness in user’s security
 They replicate without targeting specific files and instead rely on  Hard to remove
security failures.  Hijack browser and create its own search requests
 Frequently arrive as message attachments with one user potentially Ransomware:
able to infect a whole network.  Programs that encrypt data on a user’s computer with the decryption
Trojan Horse: key sent back to the cybercriminal and ask that the user pays a
 Program often disguised as legitimate software but with malicious ransom to get back their data.
instructions embedded within it.  Often sent via Trojan horse or by social engineering.
 Replaces all or part of the legitimate software with the intent of  To remove risk:
carrying out harm to the computer system.  Ensure regular back-ups of key files
 Need to be executed by end-user and so, arrive as email attachments  Avoid phishing emails
or website downloads. Phishing
 Firewalls and other security systems are often useless.
 Cybercriminal sends out a legitimate-looking email; as soon as
 EFFECTS:
recipient clicks on link, user is sent to a fake website
o Gives access to personal information
 Spear phishing is where cybercriminals targets specific groups/people.
o Installs spyware and ransomware
 Effect:
Spyware:  Creator of email can gain personal data; bank account
 Software that gathers info by monitoring key presses on the user’s  Can lead to fraud
keyboard and info is sent back to cybercriminal.  To remove risk:
 Effects:  Many ISPs filter out phishing emails
 Access to all data entered  User should be cautious about new scams
 Software is able to install other spyware, read cookie data  Don’t click on unknown email links
 To remove risk:  Run anti-phishing toolbars on browsers
  Use websites on https with padlock symbol Access Levels
 Regular checks of online accounts (maintaining passwords)
 Different levels of access in a computer system allowing a hierarchy of
 Ensure up-to-date browser with good firewall
access levels depending on user’s level of security.
 Be vary of pop-ups
 Usually four access levels (public, friends, custom, owner)
Pharming  Use privacy settings rather than passwords to decide access levels.
 Malicious code installed on a user’s hard drive or on the web server,
Anti-malware
code will redirect the user to a fake website without user’s knowledge.
 Effect:  Anti-virus [system software [utilities]]
 Creator of malicious code can gain personal data; bank account  Anti-spyware
 Can lead to fraud or identity theft o Detects and removes spyware programs installed illegally on user’s
 DNS cache poisoning (altering IP addresses on DNS server to computer system based on rules and file structures.
redirect user’s browser to a fake website)  Detects and removes spyware installed on device
 To remove risk:  Prevents user from downloading spyware
 Anti-virus software can warn user of risks  Encrypt files to make data more secure
 Modern browsers alert users to attacks  Encryption of keyboard strokes
 Check spelling of web addresses  Blocks access to user’s webcam/microphone
 Use of https and padlock symbol in address symbol  Scans for signs that user’s information has been stolen
Social Engineering: Authentication
 Occurs when cybercriminal creates a social situation that can lead to a  Used to verify that data come from a trusted source
potential victim dropping their guard while involving manipulation.  Works with encryption to strengthen internet security
 DONE BY:  Passwords:
 Instant messaging embedded with malicious links
o Usually a user id/name and password are used to log on to systems
 Scareware in the form of pop-ups (fake anti-virus that looks real)
to restrict access to data/systems.
 Emails/phishing scams containing malicious links
o Passwords are protected by:
 Baiting (e.g. malware-infected memory stick)
 Anti-spyware
 Phone calls (fake IT professionals claiming user has security
 Changing passwords constantly
issue)
 Make sure It is not easy to crack
 Exploitation of human emotions (Fear/curiosity/empathy/trust)
 Strong passwords with capital letters, numerical values, characters
Security Protocols  Biometrics:
o Relies on the unique characteristics of human beings
 Biometric PROS CONS o Can be used to log all incoming/outgoing ‘traffic’
One of the most developed Very intrusive o Firewall can keep a list of all undesirable IP addresses
Fingerprin
Very easy to use Can make mistakes o Helping to prevent viruses or hackers entering the user’s computer
t
Small storage requirements o User is warned if software is trying to access external data source
Very high accuracy Very intrusive  Circumstances where firewall can’t prevent harmful ‘traffic:
Retina Cant replicate Slow verification o Cannot prevent individuals on internal networks using their own
Very expensive hardware devices to bypass firewall.
Non-intrusive Affected by environment o Employee misconduct/carelessness
Face
Relatively inexpensive o User’s on stand-alone computers can choose to disable firewall.
Non-intrusive Can be recorded Proxy Servers
Voice Fast verification Low accuracy  Proxy servers act as an intermediary between the user and a web
Relatively inexpensive Voice can change server
 Two-step verification:  Functions of proxy servers:
o Requires two methods of authentication to verify user. o Allowing the internet ‘traffic’ to be filtered

Automatic software updates o By using cache, access to information from a website is sped up.
o Access to web server depends on validity of ‘traffic’
 Software on devices are always kept up-to-date.
o Keeping the user’s IP address secret
 Vital since they might contain patches which update software security
o Prevents direct access to web server
or improve performance.
o Attacks hits proxy server which prevents hacking, DoS, etc.
 CON: disrupts current device activity.
o Acting as a firewall
Checking spelling/tone of communication and URLs o Can direct invalid traffic away from web servers.

 Check spellings in email and in links (uses organization address) Privacy Settings
 Check tone used in email (check if email is rushing you)  Controls available on web browsers, social networks and other
website to limit who can access and see user’s personal profile.
Firewalls
 Can refer to:
 A firewall sits between the user’s computer and an external network o ‘do not track’ setting
(internet) and filter information in and out of the computer o Check if payment methods are saved on websites
 Tasks carried out by firewall: o Safer browsing
o Examining ‘traffic’ o Web browser privacy options
o Checking whether incoming or outgoing data meets criteria o Website advertising opt-outs
o If data fails the criteria, the firewall blocks ‘traffic’
 o Apps (e.g. location data can be switched off) o Sensors are input devices that take readings from surroundings and
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) send this data to microprocessors. Analogue readings are
converted to digital format using ADC (analogue-to-digital
 Type of protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely
converter).
over the internet based on a set of rules.
o Microprocessor processes the data and takes necessary action.
 When a user logs onto a website, SSL encrypts the data
o Signals are then sent to actuators for a form of output.
 https or padlock in the status bar
 SSL certificate is a digital certificate used to authenticate a website.
 When user wants to access a secure website:  Industrial stations use a DCS with access to a large database
o User’s web browser sends a message so it can connect with
containing instructions and parameters to send signals to control
required website which is secured by SSL actuators that operate pumps, valves, heaters, etc. along with a
o Web browser requests that the web server identifies itself
monitoring station.
 Distributed Control System (DCS): Essentially a powerful computer
o Web server responds by sending a copy of its SSL certificate
o Web browser checks if certificate is authentic
that has been programmed to monitor and control the whole process
o Sends signal back to web browser
with no human interaction required.
o Starts to transmit data once connection is established
PROS CONS
o If not secure, browser will display an open padlock Faster than human to take necessary
Constant maintenance
action
Transport Layer Security (TLS)
Much safer Cyber attacks
 Form of protocol that ensures the security and privacy of data Run in optimum conditions Expensive to set up and needs
between devices and users when communicating over the internet Less expensive in the long run testing
 Designed to provide encryption, authentication and data integrity in a More efficient use of materials Much safer
more effective way than SSL Higher productivity Faster than human to take
 Possible to extend TLS by adding new authentication methods
More consistent results necessary action
Automated and emerging technologies Keeps humans away from potentially Unconsidered conditions can
dangerous environment occur
Automated Systems
 A combination of software and hardware (like sensors,  Transport systems refer to robotic systems like autonomous vehicles
microprocessors and actuators) designed and programmed to work utilizing microprocessors and sensors for an automatic signal control
automatically without the need of any human intervention (but with system for self-parking cars and adaptive cruise control.
human monitoring).
 Adaptive Cruise Control: Uses sensors, on-board computer and
actuators to allow car to remain safe distance from another vehicle.  Gaming devices use accelerometers and proximity sensors to allow a
PROS CONS more immersive games experience.
Allows same no. of cars to use fewer Over-reliance by driver  Lighting systems use light, motion and infrared sensors, actuators,
parking spaces microprocessors, user interface and power supply.
Avoids traffic disruption Faulty sensors PROS CONS
Cars fit into smaller spaces Kerbing of tire Automatic control Expensive to set up
Fewer damages Expensive Reduced energy consumption Wireless connections can be less
Safer system Additional maintenance Wireless connections make it safer reliable than wired system
Consistent results Longer bulb life More maintenance
Unique light displays
 Agriculture systems use automated systems with robotics for
irrigation systems using sensors, transmitters, controllers and  Science research uses automated systems with sensors,
actuators. microprocessors and actuators.
PROS CONS PROS CONS
Different growing conditions can be maintained Additional More consistent results Less flexible with “ideas”
Better/efficient control of process maintenance Less dangerous Security risks with global data
Better control of resources High maintenance Faster results sharing
Faster response than human cost Automatic result analysis Expensive equipment
Safer Expensive Fewer staff required AI can cause a change in skills
Reduced labor costs Results can be monitored set (control to humans or AI?)
AI can store large amounts of facts AI is dependent on data which
 Weather stations use sensors for temperature, humidity, wind speed, AI learns from available data trains it
level (rainfall), light and pressure. Also uses microprocessor, storage, AI can observe patterns in results
battery and actuators.
PROS CONS
Robotics
Saves labor costs Removes observer from real
 A branch on computer science that brings together the design,
Gathers info in remote regions or when elements that are measured
construction and operation of robots.
constant weather data is needed
 Robots are mechanical devices that can carry out human tasks.
Accurate measurements
 Robots has three basic laws:
 They can’t injure a human through action or inaction
o o Dependent:
o They must obey orders from humans unless it is in conflict of law 1.  Has human interfacing directly with robot
o They must protect themselves unless it is in conflict of law 1.  Can help/supplement human activity
 Robotics used in: Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots
o Domestic home robots
Industry
o Factory robots
 Robots are used for tasks such as heavy lifting to delicate procedures,
o Drones
controlling them by utilizing embedded microprocessors or directly
Characteristics of Robots: linking them to a computer system.
 Ability to sense their surroundings: PROS of Robots CONS of Robots
o Utilizing sensors Can work in hazardous conditions Can find it difficult to do ‘non-
o Sensors allow robot to recognize environmental factors Work 24/7 standard’ tasks
 Have a degree of movement: Less expensive in long run can lead to higher unemployment
o Makes use of wheels, cogs, pistons, gears etc. More productive than humans Risk of deskilling humans
o They are mechanical structures made up of parts such as motors, More consistent Factories can moved anywhere
pipes, actuators, circuit boards, etc. Better suited to repetitive tasks (increases unemployment)
o Contains many electrical components to allow function Less cost in heating/lighting Expensive to buy/set up
o Uses end effectors to carry out specific tasks Transport
 Programmable:  Utilizes sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors.
o Uses a programmable “brain” called a controller that determines  Autonomous trains use LiDaR for light detection and ranging.
action to perform a task based on data sent from sensors. PROS of autonomous vehicles CONS of autonomous vehicles
 Usually don’t possess Artificial Intelligence (AI): Safer due to less human error Very expensive to set up
o Since they tend to do repetitive tasks rather than adaptive actions. Better for environment Risk of hacking
 Should be not be confused with software robots like: Reduced traffic congestion Security/safety issues
o Search engine bots or WebCrawlers which roam the internet Increased lane capacity Needs to be well-maintained
scanning websites and categorizing them for search purposes. Reduced travel times Driver/passenger reluctance
o Chat bots which pop up on websites to converse with user. Self-parking Unemployment in taxi drivers
 Can be independent or dependent: PROS of autonomous trains CONS of autonomous trains
o Independent: Improves punctuality of trains Risk of hacking
 No direct human control (autonomous) Reduced running costs High capital/operational costs
 Can totally replace the human activity Safer due to less human error Works poorly with busy services
 Lesser energy consumption Passenger reluctance  Humanoid robots for “stunts”
Increased frequency of trains CCTV needed to monitor  Capable of producing special effects
Easier to change train schedule Cant ensure passenger behaviour Artificial Intelligence (AI)
PROS of pilotless airplanes CONS of pilotless airplanes  A branch of computer science dealing with simulation of intelligent
Better passenger comfort Security issues human behaviour (cognitive functions) by a computer.
Reduced running costs Difficult to deal with emergencies
Characteristics of AI:
Improved safety Risk of hacking
 General AI: occurs when machine has similar performance to a human
Improved aerodynamics due to Passenger reluctance
doing a specific task.
removed pilot cockpit Software glitches
 Narrow AI: occurs when machine has superior performance to a
Agriculture human when doing one specific task.
 Harvesting and picking  Strong AI: occurs when machine has superior performance to a
 Weed Control human doing multiple tasks.
 Phenotyping (plant growth/health)  Reasoning is the ability to draw reasoned conclusions based on given
 Seed-planting and fertilizer distribution data/situations.
 Autonomous labor-saving devices  Deductive Reasoning is where a number of correct facts are built up
Medicine to form a set of rules which can be applied to other problems.
 Surgical procedures Examples of AI:
 Monitoring patients  News generation based on live news feeds
 Disinfecting  Smart home devices (Siri, Alexa, Cortana)
 Taking blood samples o Interacts with human by verbal commands
 Target therapy using microbots o Learns from environment and data it receives
 Prosthetic limbs o Automated repetitive learning due to more sophisticated responses
Domestic (home) use  Chatbots
 Autonomous vacuum cleaners  Autonomous cars
 Autonomous grass cutters (mowers)  Facial expression recognition
 Personal assistants AI Systems:
Entertainment Expert systems
 Robots in theme parks to entertain visitors
 Computer system that mimics decision-making ability of a human
 Immersive music festivals (lighting, visual effects, animation, music)
using AI to stimulate judgement and behaviour of person that has
 Controlling cameras
expert knowledge and experience.
 Uses: oil/mineral prospecting; patient/equipment diagnostics;  Collection of objects and attributes
financial calculations; strategy games; logistics; identification of o Rules base:
organisms Set of inference rules

PROS CONS  Rules are used by inference engine to draw conclusions
High level of expertise needs considerable training  Follows logical thinking, usually involving ‘IF’ statements
High accuracy high set-up and maintenance costs  Setting up an expert system:
Consistent results Only as good as info entered into o Info needs to be gathered from human experts/resources
Large storage of ideas/facts the system o Info populates knowledge base to be created
Logical solutions/diagnostics Users assume they are foolproof o Rules base should be created made up of inference rules
Can have multiple expertise o Inference engine is set up to make reasoned conclusions
Very fast response time o User interface set up to allow user to expert system communication
Unbiased reports/analysis o Needs to be fully tested using possible/known outcomes
Can indicate probabilities Machine Learning
 Made up of:  Sub-set of AI in which algorithms are ‘trained’ and learns from past
o User Interface: experiences and examples to allow system to make predictions or take
 Method where expert system interacts with user decisions based on previous scenarios.
 Done using dialogue boxes, command prompts and other inputs  Offers very fast and accurate outcomes due to powerful processing
 Questions being asked are usually Yes/No questions capability.
o Inference Engine:  Ability to manage and analyze considerable volumes of complex data.

 Main processing element of expert system AI Machine Learning

 Acts like a search engine by examining the knowledge base for Represents stimulated Practice of getting machines to make
info/data that matches queries intelligence in machines. decisions without programming to do so.
 Responsible for gathering info from user by asking questions Aim is to build machines Aim is to make machines that learn through
 Problem-solving part of expert system by using inference rules that are capable of data acquisition so they can solve new
in the rules base thinking like humans. problems.
 Attempts to use info gathered from user to find objects and
attributes that match from the knowledge base.
o Knowledge base:
 Repository of facts
 Stores all knowledge on an area of expertise found from sources