Chapter 2:

Fundamentals of C
Language

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Chapter outcomes
• By the end of this chapter, the students will
• get familiar with a C program structure
• know about the fundamentals required to write a C program:
primitive types, syntax rules, etc.
• be able to translate simple algorithms into a C programs

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 Structure of a C program
Library
Function main

Algorithm ADD
Variables declaration

Head Var a,b,c: integer

BEGIN
1− read(a , b )
Body/Statements
2−c←a+b …
Body 3 − write(c)
END

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Program analysis
• #include: includes a set of functions from the header file
(stdio.h) specified between (<,>).
• main() is a special function which indicates the beginning
of the program.
• Every C program must contain the main() function. The
execution starts from this function.
• The left brace { indicates the beginning of the body of
the main function. A corresponding right brace } must
end the body of the function.
• Each statement in C needs to be terminated with
semicolon (;) 4
C Program Structure
• A C program basically consists of the following parts :

• Preprocessor Commands : tells a C compiler to include

stdio.h file (and others) before going to compilation.

• Functions : The main() function is where the program

execution begins.

• Declaration : The part of the program that tells the

compiler the names of memory cells in a program.

• Executable statements : Program lines that are converted

to machine language instructions and executed by the 5
computer.
C Libraries
• stdio.h is the library which contains the standard
input/output functions.

• math.h defines various mathematical functions.

• stdlib.h defines numeric conversion functions, memory

allocation and process control functions.

• string.h is the library which contains various functions for

manipulating arrays of characters.

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• time.h defines date and time handling functions.
Variables
• Variable : is a name associated with a memory cell whose
value can change.

• Variable Declaration : specifies the type of a variable

 Example: int nb;

• Variable Definition: assigning a value to the declared variable

 Example: nb = 6;

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Variables
• All variables must be declared before the use of the program.

• Variable names must be valid identifiers. A valid identifier can

contain letters, digits and underscore “_“characters. Also, it
must not begin with a digit.

• A declaration may contain a list of one or more variables:

int x, y, z, sum;

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Rules for naming variables

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Basic Data Types
 There are 4 basic data types : Int, float, double, char

 int
• used to declare numeric program variables of integer type
• whole numbers, positive and negative
• keyword: int
int number;
number = 12;
 float
• fractional parts, positive and negative
• keyword: float
float height;
10
height = 1.72;
Basic Data Types
 double
• used to declare floating point variable of higher precision
or higher range of numbers
• exponential numbers, positive and negative
• keyword: double
double valuebig;
valuebig = 12E-3;
 char
• Example of characters:
• Numeric digits: 0 – 9, Lowercase/uppercase letters
• Space (blank), Special characters: , . ; ? “ / ( ) [ ] { } * & % ^ < >
etc
• single character
• keyword: char
char my_letter; The declared character must be
my_letter = 'U'; enclosed within a single quote! 11
Constants
 Entities that appear in the program code as fixed values.
 Any attempt to modify a CONSTANT will result in error.
 Examples:
• Integer constants
• const int MAX_NUM = 10;
• Floating-point constants (float or double)
• const double VAL = 0.5877e2; (stands for 0.5877 x 102)
• Character constants
• const char letter = ‘n’

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Arithmetic operations in C
This table contains useful arithmetic operations in C and examples:

Operation C operator Example

Addition + X+Y

Subtraction - Z-1

Multiplication * X*Y*3

Division / X/2

Modulus % Z%X
(remainder of the integer
division)

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Relational and Logical operators
This table contains relational and logical operators in C:

Relational Operators C operator Action

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal

< Less than

<= Less than or equal

== Equal

!= Not Equal

Relational Operators C operator Action

&& AND
|| OR 14
! NOT
 Example: Arithmetic operations
Algorithm Arithmetic_operations Program in C
x, y, z, sum: integer #include <stdio.h>
p, q, m: real main()
Begin {
int x, y, z, sum; /* declaration of variables*/
1. z  2 float p, q, m;
2. p  10.2 z =2;
3. q  20.43 p= 10.12; /* initialization*/
q= 20.43;
4. write(”Enter the first integer”)
5. Read(x) printf (”Enter the first integer: \n ”);
6. write(”Enter the second integer”) scanf(” %d ”,&x); //read value x
7. read(y) printf (” Enter the second integer: \n ”);
scanf(” %d ”,&y); //read value y
8. sum  x+y;
9. write(x , ”+”, y, ” =”, sum) sum = x+y; //assignment 15
printf(” %d + %d = %d \n ”, x, y, sum);
//print sum of integers
 Example: Arithmetic operations

10. mq –p m = q - p; //assignment

11. write (q, ”– ”, p, ”=”, m ) printf(”%2.2f - %2.2f = %2.2f \n ”, q, p, m);
// print substraction’s
12. write(p, ”/”, z, ”=”, (p/z) ) printf(” %f / %d = %f \n ”, p, z, p/z);
//print division result
13. write(p, ”*”, z, ”=”, (p*z)) printf(” %2.2f * %d = %2.2f \n ”, p, z, p*z);
//print multiplication result
End }
About 2.2f%

including the floating point 16

Format Specifiers Example

Printing the PI with different widths.

• For the first two lines; no added spaces because the total length is 4
which is greater than or equal to w (2 and 4 respectively)
• However when we used %5.2f, it added one space (since total length
again is 4).
• For %8.3f, it added 3 spaces, because now the total length is 5
(precision is 3 here).
• We use (-) in order to make it left aligned, and the extra spaces (if 17
any) will be added after the number. The default (+) is right aligned.
• In order to have 0s instead of spaces use %0w.pf (ex. %08.3f)
 Operators precedence and associativity in C
The following table summarizes the precedence and associativity of C operators, listing them in order of precedence from
highest to lowest.
Where several operators appear together, they have equal precedence and are evaluated according to their associativity.

Operator Type Category Precedence Associativity

prefix ++expr --expr +expr - Right to left
expr
Unary
postfix expr++ expr-- Left to right

multiplicative * / % Left to right

Arithmetic
additive +- Left to right
Relational comparison < > <= >= Left to right
equality == != Left to right
logical AND && Left to right
Logical
logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ternary ?: Right to left
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Assignment assignment = += -= *= /= %= Right to left
 Operators precedence and associativity in C
• Example 1:Try the following example to understand operator precedence in C,
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{ The output is:
printf("%d\n",12+2*3);
printf("%d\n",11*3%2+12/5); 18
printf("%d\n",11>2 || 10<12 && 1>3); 3
} Note: 1 is used for True and 0 for False 1
Example 2: Solve 12 + 3 – 4 / 2 < 3 + 1

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The standard Input/Output functions

• A few functions that are pre-defined in the

header file stdio.h such as :
• printf()
• scanf()
• getchar() & putchar()

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 Output Function: printf
• printf : is a subprogram allowing to show its message
on the screen.

Example: printf(“Type a number : ”);

printf(“The result is %d\n”, sum);

 \n is an escape sequence , moves the cursor to

the new line
 %d is a placeholder (conversion specifier), marks
the display position for a type integer variable. 21
Input function: scanf
• scanf : allows reading data from the keyboard.
Example : scanf (“%d”, &x)
• The conversion specifier %d indicates the type of the
input data: % is an escape character and d stands for
decimal integer
Note: %f corresponds to double.
%c corresponds to a character.
Ampersand & is the address operator. &x gives the
location in memory (address of the variable x) where the
value should be stored.
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Input function: scanf
 If you want the user to enter more than one value, you serialize
the inputs.
 Example:
float height, weight;
printf(“Please enter your height and weight:”);
scanf(“%f%f”, &height, &weight);
 Common Conversion Identifier used in printf and scanf functions.

printf scanf
int %d %d
float %f %f
double %f or %lf %lf
char %c %c 23

string %s %s
getchar() and putchar()
• getchar() : read a character from standard input
• putchar() : write a character to standard output
 Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{ char my_char;

printf(“Please type a character: ”);

my_char = getchar (); \* equivalent to: scanf(“%c”,&my_char);*\

printf(“\nYou have typed this character: ”);

\* equivalent to: printf(“\nYou have typed this character: %c ”, my_char); *\
putchar(my_char); 24
}
Few notes on C program
• C is case-sensitive
 Word, word, WorD, WORD, WOrD, worD, etc are all different
variables / expressions

• Comments are inserted into the code using /* to start

and */ to end a comment; or using two slashes (//) for
single line comments
 /* This is a comment */
 // This is a comment

• Reserved Words should be written in lowercase.

 Example: const, double, int, main, void, printf, while, for, 25
else
Exercises
Exercise 1: Write a program that asks the user to enter the
radius of a circle, computes the area and the circumference
 define variables and initialize them
 use scanf to input radius variable
 compute the values
 formatted input on screen

Exercise 2: Write a program that asks for two integer numbers a

and b, computes the quotient and the remainder, and prints
them on screen.

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