An Assignment Regarding the Cell

Organelles of Plant Cell

Course Title Plant Morphology,Embryology & Taxonomy

Course Code CBOT-121

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY
Sushmita Rani Saha Fahmida Hossain Joynab
Associate Professor ID: 2202074
Department of Crop Botany and Reg: 5831
Tea Production, Level-1, Semester- 2
Sylhet Agricultural University, Faculty of Agriculture,
Sylhet-3100 Sylhet Agricultural University,
Sylhet-3100
 Sylhet Agricultural University, Sylhet-3100
CELL
A cell is defined as the very smallest structural and functional unit and a building block of any living
organism. It is always considered as membrane-bound and is made up of cytoplasm, genetic material, and
other cell organelles or components of the cell. All cells are made from the same major classes of organic
molecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Cell history:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book
Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 observations in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound
microscope. One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork.
Types of cell:

There are two main types of cells:

1. Prokaryotic Cells:
 oSimple, smaller cells.
oLack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
oFound in bacteria and archaea.
oHave ribosomes for protein synthesis.
2. Eukaryotic Cells:
o More complex, larger cells.
o Contain a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
o Found in animals, plants, fungi, and protists.
o Have various specialized organelles for different functions, like the nucleus,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts (in plant cells).

PLANT CELL
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells that vary in several fundamental factors from other eukaryotic organisms.
Both plant and animal cells contain a nucleus along with similar organelles. One of the distinctive aspects
of a plant cell is the presence of a cell wall outside the cell membrane.

History of plant cell:

1. 17th Century: Robert Hooke's discovery of "cells" in cork marked the beginning of plant
cell study.
2. 19th Century: Cell theory emerged, with Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
proposing that all organisms, including plants, are composed of cells. Chloroplasts were
discovered as the sites of photosynthesis.
3. 20th Century: Advances in microscopy and molecular biology allowed for a deeper
understanding of plant cell structure and function.
4. Modern Era: Plant cell research continues to evolve, with a focus on genomics,
proteomics, and environmental interactions, contributing to agriculture, biotechnology,
and ecological science.

Name of the organelles of plant cell:

1. Cell wall
2. Cell membrane (Plasma membrane)
3. Nucleus
4. Chloroplasts
5. Mitochondria
6. Central Vacuole
7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
8. Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body)
9. Ribosome
10. Peroxisomes
11. Microtubules and Microfilaments
12. Endosomes
13. Lysosomes
 WALL CELL:
History:
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by Robert Hooke in 1665.

Fig: Cell wall

Discovery:
A plant cell wall was first observed and named (simply as a "wall") by Robert Hooke in 1665.
However, "the dead excrusion product of the living protoplast] In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and
J.H.F. Link proved that cells had independent cell walls.

Functions of cell wall:

Protection: It acts as a barrier, protecting the cell from mechanical damage, pathogens, and
desiccation (drying out).
Regulation of Water Uptake: The cell wall regulates the entry and exit of water, helping to maintain
turgor pressure and prevent cell collapse.

Growth and Development: It plays a crucial role in cell growth and division, influencing cell
expansion and plant development.
Defense: The cell wall can contain compounds that deter herbivores and pathogens, contributing to plant
defense mechanisms.

Structure: Structural Support: It provides rigidity and shape to plant cells, helping them
maintain their form.

The plant cell wall is multi-layered and consists of up to three sections. From the outermost layer of the
cell wall, these layers are identified as the middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall.
While all plant cells have a middle lamella and primary cell wall, not all have a secondary cell wall.

CELL MEMBRANE (PLASMA MEMBRANE):

History: The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is found in all cells and separates
the interior of the cell from the outside environment. In 1890, an update to the Cell Theory stated
that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures.

Fig: Cell membrane

Discovery: In 1895, Ernest Overton proposed that cell membranes were made of lipids. The lipid bilayer
hypothesis, proposed in 1925 by Gorter and Grendel, created speculation in the description of the cell
membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations.

Functions of cell membrane:

  Protecting the cell against physical damage and invading pathogens.
 Cell wall controls and regulates the direction of cell growth.
 Providing the strength, structural support and maintaining the shape of the cell.
 Functions as a storage unit by storing carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seeds.
 It allows entry of smaller molecules through it freely.

Structure:
The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane’s
location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane,
with the remainder being proteins.

NUCLEUS
History: A nucleus, as related to genomics, is the membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that
contains the chromosomes.The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered, and was first
described by Franz Baue in 1802.

Fig: Nucleus
Discovery: Robert Brown discovered an opaque area in many plant cells when observed under the
microscope. He called it the nucleus.

Functions of Nucleus:
 Storing DNA.
 Regulating transcription.
 Producing ribosomes in the nucleolus.
 Exporting mRNA.
 Copying DNA.
 Regulating immune response to pathogens

Structure:
The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell's DNA, surrounded by a network of fibrous intermediate
filaments called the nuclear matrix, and is enveloped in a double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
The nuclear envelope separates the fluid inside the nucleus, called the nucleoplasm, from the rest of the
cell.

PLASTID:
Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of
plants and algae.

History: A. F. W. Schimper was the first to name and provide a clear definition of plastids.

Types of Plastids:

There are different types of plastids with their specialized functions.

 Chloroplasts
 Chromoplasts
 Gerontoplasts
 Leucoplasts
 Fig: Type of Plastid

CHLOROPLASTS

History: Chloroplast evolutionarily derives from a primitive cyanobacteria that was engulfed by
non-photosynthetic cells and, progressively, after losing most of its DNA, became the actual
chloroplast that retains only a fraction of the original cyanobacterial genes.
 Fig: Chloroplast
Discovery: The first definitive description of a chloroplast (Chlorophyllkörnen, "grain of chlorophyll")
was given by Hugo von Mohl in 1837 as discrete bodies within the green plant cell. In 1883, Andreas
Franz Wilhelm Schimper would name these bodies as "chloroplastids" (Chloroplastiden).

Function of Chloroplast:
Chloroplasts are organelles in plant cells responsible for photosynthesis, where they capture sunlight and
convert it into energy (ATP) and glucose, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.

Structure:
Chloroplasts have a double membrane, contain stacks of thylakoid membranes, and a fluid-filled space
called the stroma. Thylakoids are where photosynthesis occurs, while the stroma contains enzymes for
glucose synthesis.

MITOCHONDRIA
History: A mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes, such as animals, plants
and fungi. Mitochondria likely originated from a symbiotic relationship between ancient eukaryotic cells
and engulfed bacteria around 1.5 billion years ago, leading to the evolution of complex life forms with
enhanced energy production capabilities.
 Fig: Mitochondria
Discovery:
Mitochondria, often referred to as the “powerhouses of the cell”, were first discovered in 1857 by
physiologist Albert von Kölliker. Later coined name as “bioblasts” (life germs) by Richard Altman in
1886.

Function of Mitochondria:
 Mitochondria are the powerhouse of cells and produce energy.
 It has a complex structure, and each performs distinct functions.
 Like a nucleus, it has its DNA.
 The outer membrane of the mitochondria has a protein called porins which forms protein
channels to facilitate molecule transport.
 Mature red blood cells have no mitochondria.
 Liver cells have more than 2,000 mitochondria.
 It has dividing and multiplying abilities.
 In human sperm, mitochondria are spiral-shaped and provide energy for motion.

Structure:
Mitochondria have a double membrane: an outer membrane and inner membrane with folds
called cristae. The inner membrane encloses the matrix, where metabolic reactions occur.
CENTRAL VACUOLE
History: Central vacuoles are large, membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells that act as a
storage space for water and other molecules in the cell. In 1885, de Vries named the vacuole
membrane as tonoplast.
 Fig: Central vacuole

Discovery: The plant vacuole was first discovered in 1676 by a Dutch scientist Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek. Considered as the 'father of microbiology', he contributed to the development of a number
of lenses for microscopes, which allowed him to be the first to observe living cells.

Function of Central vacuole:

 Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell.
 Containing waste products.
 Containing water in plant cells.
 Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell.
 Maintaining an acidic internal PH.
 Containing small molecules.
 Exporting unwanted substances from the cell.
 Allows plants to support structures such as leaves and flowers due to the pressure of the
central vacuole.

Structure:
The central vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle containing water and other enzymes that
function during the life of the plant. Structurally, the central vacuole is surrounded by a
phospholipid bilayer. Phospholipids are molecules with a head and tail that form the majority of
membranes in our body.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Endoplasmic Reticulum is a complex network of tubular membranes exclusively present in the
cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell.
History:
The endoplasmic reticulum(ER) is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell and has many
important functions such as protein folding, packaging, etc. The endoplasmic reticulum(ER) was
discovered by Keith R. Porter and Thomson in 1945.

Fig: Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions of Endoplasmic reticulum:
As stated above, the endoplasmic reticulum is categorised into two types, and both these types of
ER perform specific functions:
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

 Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential lipids such as phospholipids and
cholesterol.
 Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
 It is also responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.
  The smooth ER store and releases calcium ions. These are quite important for the nervous
system and muscular systems.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:

 The majority of the functions of rough ER is associated with protein synthesis.

 The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
 Also ensures quality control (regarding correct protein folding).
 The second most important function after protein synthesis and protein folding is protein
sorting.

GOLGI APPARATUS (GOLGI BODY)

History: The Golgi apparatus also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or simply the
Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.The existence of the cell organelle which is
now known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, or simply as 'the Golgi", was first reported by
Camillo in 1898, when he described in nerve cells an 'internal reticular apparatus' impregnated
by a variant of his chromoargentic staining

Fig: Golgi apparatus

Discovery: Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi apparatus in 1898. He discovered them in nerve
cells as apparato reticolare interno means 'internal reticular apparatus by chromoargentic staining
and organelle was named after him in 1898. It was known as the “Golgi apparatus” in 1910 and
the “Golgi complex” in 1956.
Function of Golgi Apparatus:
The Golgi apparatus functions to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids within the
cell. It acts like a cellular post office, preparing molecules for delivery to their intended
destinations within or outside the cell.

Structure:
The Golgi apparatus is a cellular organelle consisting of a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs
called cisternae. These cisternae are stacked on top of each other, forming a structure that resembles a
stack of pancakes. The Golgi apparatus is often located near the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in the cell.

RIBOSOMES
History: Ribosomes are macromolecular machines, found within all cells, that perform
biological protein synthesis.Ribosomes were first observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian-
American cell biologist George Emil Palade, using an electron microscope, as dense particles or
granules.

Fig: Ribosome
Discovery: In 1955, George E. Palade discovered ribosomes and described them as small
particles in the cytoplasm that preferentially associated with the endoplasmic reticulum
membrane.

Function of Ribosomes:
  Procedure of creation of proteins, the deoxyribonucleic acid makes mRNA by the step of
DNA transcription.
 Hereditary information from the mRNA is converted into proteins amid DNA translation.
 The arrangements of protein assembly amid protein synthesis are indicated in the mRNA.
 The mRNA is arranged in the nucleus and is moved to the cytoplasm for an additional
operation of protein synthesis.
 Proteins which are arranged by the ribosomes currently in the cytoplasm are utilized
inside the cytoplasm by itself.

Structure:

Ribosomes are cellular structures made of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins. They consist of
two subunits: a small subunit and a large subunit. Ribosomes play a crucial role in protein
synthesis, where they read the genetic code from messenger RNA (mRNA) and assemble amino
acids into proteins through a process called translation.

Lysosomes
History: They were discovered and named by Belgian biologist Christian de Duve, who
eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974. Lysosomes are known to
contain more than 60 different enzymes, and have more than 50 membrane proteins.

Fig: Lysosome

DISCOVERY: Christian de Duve was recognized for his role in the discovery of lysosomes when
he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974. The discovery of lysosomes
led to many new questions.
Function of Lysosomes: The key function of lysosomes is digestion and removal of waste.
Cellular debris or foreign particles are pulled in to the cell through the process of endocytosis.
The process of endocytosis happens when the cell membrane falls in on itself (invagination),
creating a vacuole or a pouch around the external contents and then bringing those contents into
the cell.

Structure:

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles with an acidic interior containing enzymes, enclosed by a
lipid bilayer.