Sets

• A set is an unordered collection of objects, called elements

or members of the set.
• We write a ∈ A to denote that a is an element of the set A.
• The notation a ∉ A denotes that a is not an element of the
set A.
• Let A={-1,0,1,3}
Then 0 ∈ A but 2 ∉ A.
• Let B={1,{1},2}
Then 1 ∈ B and {1} ∈ B but {2} ∉ B and 2 ∈ B.
1. List the members of these sets.
a) {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a real number such that 𝑥 2 = 1}
b) {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a positive integer less than 12}
Solution: a) {-1 , 1}. b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
2. Use set builder notation to give a description of each of these sets.
a) {0, 3, 6, 9, 12}
b) {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
c) {a, e, i, o, u}
Solution: a) {3 𝑥 | 𝑥 is a non negative integer less than 5}
b) {𝑥 | 𝑥 is an integer ; -3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3}
c) {𝑥 | 𝑥 is a vowel in the English alphabet}
• We see that A ⊆ B (A is a subset of B) if and only if ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B). i.e
every element of A is also an element of B.
• To show that A ⊆ B, show that if x ∈ A then also x ∈ B.
• To show that A ⊈ B, find a single x ∈ A such that x ∈ B.
• For every set S, (i) ∅ ⊆ S
Because the empty set contains no elements, it follows that x ∈ ∅ is always
false. It follows that the conditional statement x ∈ ∅ → x ∈ S is always true,
therefore ∀x(x ∈ ∅ → x ∈ S) is true. #
Anther solution:
Let by contradiction ∅ ⊈ S i.e ∃x(x ∈ ∅ ∧ x ∉ S) this is contradiction Because
the empty set contains no elements. Therefore ∅ ⊆ S.
• and (ii) S ⊆ S.
This is a trivial prove since when x ∈ S then we can conclude that x ∈ S.
Therefore ∀x(x ∈ S → x ∈ S). #
• Two sets A and B are equal (A = B) if and only if ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B). i.e
They have the same elements.
• To show that two sets A and B are equal, show that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
• Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S.
The power set of S is denoted by P(S).
• What is the power set of the set {0, 1, 2}?
Solution: P({0, 1, 2}) = {∅,{0},{1},{2},{0, 1},{0, 2},{1, 2},{0, 1, 2}}.
Note that the empty set and the set itself are members of this set of
subsets.
• What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set of the
set {∅}?
Solution: P(∅) = {∅}.
P({∅}) = {∅,{∅}}.
• Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a
nonnegative integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality
of S. The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|.
• |{0, 1, 2}|=3 , |∅|=0 , |P({0, 1, 2})|=8
• If a set has 𝑛 elements, then its power set has 2𝑛 elements.

• Prove that P(A) ⊆ P(B) if and only if A ⊆ B.

Solution: 1st : let P(A) ⊆ P(B) ∴ ∀x(x ∈ P(A) → x ∈ P(B))
∵ A ∈ P(A) ∴ A ∈ P(B) ∵ P(B) is the set of all subsets of B
∴A⊆B
2nd : let A ⊆ B and Let S ∈ P(A)
∵ P(A) is the set of all subsets of A ∴S⊆A ∴S⊆B
∵ P(B) is the set of all subsets of B ∴ S ∈ P(B) ∴ P(A) ⊆ P(B) #
• The Cartesian product of two sets A and B is donated by
A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B} ; where (a, b) is ordered pair.
• What is the Cartesian product of A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}?
Solution: A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}.
Note that A × B not equal B × A, unless A = ∅ or B = ∅ (so that A × B = ∅) or
A=B
• A1 × A2 ×···× An = {(a1, a2,...,an) | ai ∈ Ai for i = 1, 2,...,n} ; where (a1,
a2,...,an) is ordered n-tuples
Note that when A, B, and C are sets, (A × B) × C is not the same as A × B × C
Sets operations:
• The union of the sets A and is given by A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.

• The intersection is given by A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.

Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.

• The difference of A and B is given by A − B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B}.

• The complement of the set A is given by A = {x | x ∉ A}.

Note that A − B = A ∩ B and A = 𝑈 – A ; 𝑈 is the universal set.

Set Identities
 Use set builder notation and logical equivalences
to establish the first De Morgan law A∩B = A ∪ B.
Solution:
A∩B = {x | x ∉ A ∩ B} by definition of complement
= {x | ￢(x ∈ (A ∩ B))} by definition of does not belong symbol
= {x | ￢(x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B)} by definition of intersection
= {x | ￢(x ∈ A)∨ ￢(x ∈ B)} by the first De Morgan law for logical equivalences
= {x | x ∉ A ∨x ∉ B} by definition of does not belong symbol
= {x | x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} by definition of complement
= {x | x ∈ A ∪ B} by definition of union
=A∪B by meaning of set builder notation
Show that A∪ (B∩C)= (C ∪ B) ∩ A, where A, B,
and C are sets.
Solution:

A∪ (B∩C) = A ∩ (B∩C) by the first De Morgan law

= A ∩ (B ∪C) by the second De Morgan law
= (B ∪C) ∩ A by the commutative law for intersections
= (C ∪ B) ∩ A by the commutative law for unions.
 Show that A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B where A and B are sets.
• using set identities • By proving A ∪ (B − A) ⊆ A ∪ B and A ∪ B ⊆ A ∪ (B − A) .
1st A ∪ B ⊆ A ∪ (B − A)
A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ (B ∩ A)
Let x ∈ A ∪ B ∴x∈A∨x∈B
=(A ∪ B)∩(A ∪ A) ∴ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∉ A)
=(A ∪ B)∩ 𝑈= A ∪ B # ∴ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)
∴x∈A∨x∈B–A
• Using set builder notation ∴ x ∈ A ∪ (B − A) #
A ∪ (B − A) = {x | x ∈ A∨ x ∈ B - A} 2nd A ∪ (B − A) ⊆ A ∪ B
= {x | x ∈ A∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)} Let x ∈ A ∪ (B − A)
∴x∈A∨x∈B–A
= {x | (x ∈ A∨ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A∨ x ∉ A)} ∴ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∉ A)
= {x | (x ∈ A∨ x ∈ B) ∧ T} ∴ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∉ A)
= {x | x ∈ A∨ x ∈ B} = A ∪ B # ∴ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∧ T
∴x∈A∨x∈B ∴x∈A∪B #
What can you say about the sets A and B if we know that
• a) A ∪ B = A?
•B⊆A
• b) A ∩ B = A?
•A⊆B
• c) A − B = A?
•A∩B=∅
• d) A ∩ B = B ∩ A?
• No thing
• e) A − B = B − A?
•B =A