OSCILLATORS

Oscillators
An oscillator generates output without any ac input signal. An electronic oscillator is a circuit which
converts dc energy into ac at a very high frequency. An amplifier with positive feedback can be
understood as an oscillator.

Amplifier vs. Oscillator

An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal applied, whereas an oscillator generates
a signal without that input signal, but it requires dc for its operation. This is the main difference between
an amplifier and an oscillator.

Take a look at the following illustration. It clearly shows how an amplifier takes energy from DC power
source and converts it into AC energy at signal frequency. An oscillator produces an oscillating AC
signal on its own.

The frequency, waveform, and magnitude of AC power generated by an amplifier, is controlled by the
AC signal voltage applied at the input, whereas those for an oscillator are controlled by the components
in the circuit itself, which means no external controlling voltage is required.

Alternator vs. Oscillator

An alternator is a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal waves without any input. This AC
generating machine is used to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz. The output frequency depends on the
number of poles and the speed of rotation of the armature.

The following points highlight the differences between an alternator and an oscillator −

 An alternator converts mechanical energy to AC energy, whereas the oscillator converts DC

energy into AC energy.
 An oscillator can produce higher frequencies of several MHz whereas an alternator cannot.
 An alternator has rotating parts, whereas an electronic oscillator doesn’t.
 It is easy to change the frequency of oscillations in an oscillator than in an alternator.

Oscillators can also be considered as opposite to rectifiers that convert AC to DC as these convert DC
to AC.

Classification of Oscillators

Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories −

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 Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform are
called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.

 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square,

rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such
oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.

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Sinusoidal Oscillators

An oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic signal. If the oscillator produces sinusoidal
oscillations, it is called as a sinusoidal oscillator. It converts the input energy from a DC source into
an AC output energy of a periodic signal. This periodic signal will be having a specific frequency and
amplitude.

The block diagram of a sinusoidal oscillator is shown in the following figure −

The above figure mainly consists of two blocks: an amplifier and a feedback network. The feedback
network takes a part of the output of amplifier as an input to it and produces a voltage signal. This
voltage signal is applied as an input to the amplifier.

The block diagram of a sinusoidal oscillator shown above produces sinusoidal oscillations, when the
following two conditions are satisfied −

 The loop gain Avβ of the above block diagram of sinusoidal oscillator must be greater than or
equal to unity. Here, Av and β are the gain of amplifier and gain of the feedback network,
respectively.

 The total phase shift around the loop of the above block diagram of a sinusoidal oscillator must
be either 00 or 3600.

The above two conditions together are called as Barkhausen’s criteria.

Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following categories −

 Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a tuned-circuit consisting of inductors (L)
and capacitors (C) and are used to generate high-frequency signals. Thus, they are also known
as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Such oscillators are Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators etc.

 RC Oscillators − There oscillators use resistors and capacitors and are used to generate low or
audio-frequency signals. Thus, they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F.) oscillators. Such
oscillators are Phase –shift and Wein-bridge oscillators.

 Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and are used to generate highly
stabilized output signal with frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is an example of
a crystal oscillator.

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 Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use negative-resistance characteristic of the

devices such as tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an example of a negative-resistance
oscillator.

Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations

The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of two types. They
are damped and undamped oscillations.

Damped Oscillations

The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time are called as Damped
Oscillations. The frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant depending upon the circuit
parameters.

Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce power losses and
doesn’t compensate if required.

Undamped Oscillations

The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant with time are called as Undamped
Oscillations. The frequency of the Undamped oscillations remains constant.

Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory circuits that produce no power losses
and follow compensation techniques if any power losses occur.

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Tuned Circuit Oscillators

Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce oscillations with the help of tuning circuits. The
tuning circuits consists of an inductance L and a capacitor C. These are also known as LC oscillators,
resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators.

The tuned circuit oscillators are used to produce an output with frequencies ranging from 1 MHz to 500
MHz Hence these are also known as R.F. Oscillators. A BJT or a FET is used as an amplifier with
tuned circuit oscillators. With an amplifier and an LC tank circuit, we can feedback a signal with right
amplitude and phase to maintain oscillations.

Types of Tuned Circuit Oscillators

Most of the oscillators used in radio transmitters and receivers are of LC oscillators type. Depending
upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit, the LC oscillators are divided as the following types.

 Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback from the collector of

a transistor to the base. The LC circuit is in the collector circuit of the transistor.

 Tuned base Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback. But the LC circuit is in the base circuit.

 Hartley Oscillator − It uses inductive feedback.

 Colpitts Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

 Clapp Oscillator − It uses capacitive feedback.

We shall now discuss all the above-mentioned LC oscillators in detail.

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Tuned Collector Oscillator

Tuned collector oscillators are called so, because the

tuned circuit is placed in the collector of the transistor
amplifier. The combination of L and C form the tuned
circuit or frequency determining circuit.

Construction

The resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to provide DC bias

to the transistor. The capacitors CE and C are the by-
pass capacitors. The secondary of the transformer
provides AC feedback voltage that appears across the
base-emitter junction of R1 and R2 is at AC ground due
to by-pass capacitor C. In case, the capacitor was
absent, a part of the voltage induced in the secondary of the transformer would drop across R 2 instead
of completely going to the input of transistor.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the
transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and output voltages. The following circuit
diagram shows the arrangement of a tuned collector circuit.

Operation

Once the supply is given, the collector current starts increasing and charging of capacitor C takes place.
When the capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through the inductance L 1. Now oscillations are
produced. These oscillations induce some voltage in the secondary winding L 2. The frequency of
voltage induced in the secondary winding is same as that of the tank circuit and its magnitude depends
upon the number of turns in secondary winding and coupling between both the windings.

The voltage across L2 is applied between base and emitter and appears in the amplified form in the
collector circuit, thus overcoming the losses in the tank circuit. The number of turns of L 2 and coupling
between L1 and L2 are so adjusted that oscillations across L2 are amplified to a level just sufficient to
supply losses to the tank circuit.

Tuned collector oscillators are widely used as the local oscillator in radio receivers.

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Tuned Base Oscillator

Tuned base oscillators are called so, because the tuned

circuit is placed in the base of the transistor amplifier.
The combination of L and C form the tuned circuit or
frequency determining circuit.

Construction

The resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to provide DC bias

to the transistor. The parallel combination of Re and
Ce in the emitter circuit is the stabilizing circuit. CC is
the blocking capacitor. The capacitors CE and C are the
by-pass capacitors. The primary coil L and the
secondary coil L1 of RF transformer provides the
required feedback to collector and base circuits.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another 180o phase shift is provided by the
transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and output voltages. The following circuit
diagram shows the arrangement of a tuned base oscillator circuit.

Operation

When the circuit is switched on, the collector current starts rising. As the collector is connected to the
coil L1, that current creates some magnetic field around it. This induces a voltage in the tuned circuit
coil L. The feedback voltage produces an increase in emitter-base voltage and base current. A further
increase in collector current is thus achieved and the cycle continues until the collector current becomes
saturated. In the meanwhile, the capacitor is fully charged.

When the collector current reaches saturation level, there is no feedback voltage in L. As the capacitor
has been charged fully, it starts discharging through L. This decreases the emitter base bias and hence
IB and the collector current also decreases. By the time the collector current reaches cutoff, the capacitor
C is fully charged with opposite polarity. As the transistor now gets off, the condenser C begins to
discharge through L. This increases the emitter-base bias. As a result, the collector current increases.

The cycle repeats so long as enough energy is supplied to meet the losses in L.C. circuit. The frequency
of oscillation is equal to the resonant frequency of L.C. circuit.

Drawback

The main drawback of tuned-base oscillator circuit is that, due to the low base-emitter resistance,
which appears in shunt with the tuned circuit, the tank circuit gets loaded. This reduces its Q which in
turn causes drift in oscillator frequency. Thus stability becomes poorer. Due to this reason, the tuned
circuit is not usually connected in base circuit.

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Hartley Oscillator

A very popular local oscillator circuit that is mostly used in radio

receivers is the Hartley Oscillator circuit. The constructional
details and operation of a Hartley oscillator are as discussed below.

Construction

In the circuit diagram of a Hartley oscillator shown below, the

resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for the
circuit. The capacitor Ce provides AC ground thereby providing
any signal degeneration. This also provides temperature
stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block DC and to provide

an AC path. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers very high
impedance to high frequency currents which means it shorts for DC
and opens for AC Hence it provides DC load for collector and keeps
AC currents out of DC supply source

Tank Circuit

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of the inductors L 1 and
L2 along with a variable capacitor C. The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed. The coil L 1 has its one end
connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. So, L2 is in the output circuit. Both the coils
L1 and L2 are inductively coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a Hartley oscillator. The tank circuit is shunt
fed in this circuit. It can also be a series-fed.

Operation

When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit. The
oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces AC voltage across L1.

The auto-transformer made by the inductive coupling of L 1 and L2 helps in determining the frequency
and establishes the feedback. As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, another
180o phase shift is provided by the transformer, which makes 360o phase shift between the input and
output voltages.

This makes the feedback positive which is essential for the condition of oscillations. When the loop
gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency

The equation for frequency of Hartley oscillator is given as

1
𝑓= 2𝜋 √𝐿𝑇 𝐶

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𝐿 𝑇 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance; L1 and L2 represent inductances of 1st and
2nd coils; and M represents mutual inductance.

Mutual inductance is calculated when two windings are considered.

Advantages

The advantages of Hartley oscillator are

 Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an auto-transformer.

 Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor or a variable inductor.
 Less number of components are sufficient.
 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are

 It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.

 Harmonic distortions are present.

Applications

The applications of Hartley oscillator are

 It is used to produce a sinewave of desired frequency.

 Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

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Colpitts Oscillator

A Colpitts oscillator looks just like the Hartley oscillator but the
inductors and capacitors are replaced with each other in the tank
circuit. The constructional details and operation of a Colpitts
Oscillator are as discussed below.

Construction

Let us first take a look at the circuit diagram of a Colpitts

oscillator.

The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition for

the circuit. The capacitor Ce provides AC ground thereby
providing any signal degeneration. This also provides
temperature stabilization.

The capacitors Cc and Cb are employed to block DC and to

provide an AC path. The radio frequency choke (R.F.C) offers
very high impedance to high frequency currents which means it shorts for DC and opens for AC Hence
it provides DC load for collector and keeps AC currents out of DC supply source.

Tank Circuit

The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant circuit which consists of variable capacitors
C1 and C2 along with an inductor L. The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed. The capacitor C1 has its one
end connected to base via Cc and the other to emitter via Ce. the voltage developed across C1 provides
the regenerative feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

Operation

When the collector supply is given, a transient current is produced in the oscillatory or tank circuit. The
oscillatory current in the tank circuit produces AC voltage across C1 which are applied to the base
emitter junction and appear in the amplified form in the collector circuit and supply losses to the tank
circuit.

If terminal 1 is at positive potential with respect to terminal 3 at any instant, then terminal 2 will be at
negative potential with respect to 3 at that instant because terminal 3 is grounded. Therefore, points 1
and 2 are out of phase by 180o.

As the CE configured transistor provides 180o phase shift, it makes 360o phase shift between the input
and output voltages. Hence, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous Undamped oscillations.
When the loop gain |βA| of the amplifier is greater than one, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.

Frequency

The equation for frequency of Colpitts oscillator is given as

1
𝑓= 2𝜋 √𝐿𝐶𝑇

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CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Advantages

The advantages of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

 Colpitts oscillator can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.

 It can withstand high and low temperatures.
 The frequency stability is high.
 Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.
 Less number of components are sufficient.
 The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed frequency range.

The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is known to
have no specific disadvantages. Hence there are many applications of a Colpitts Oscillator.

Applications

The applications of Colpitts oscillator are as follows −

 Colpitts oscillator can be used as High frequency sinewave generator.

 This can be used as a temperature sensor with some associated circuitry.
 Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
 It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.
 It is also used in Mobile applications.
 It has got many other commercial applications.

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Clapp Oscillator

Another oscillator which is an advanced version of

Colpitts oscillator is the Clapp Oscillator. This circuit
is designed by making a few changes to the Colpitts
oscillator.

The circuit differs from the Colpitts oscillator only in

one respect; it contains one additional capacitor (C 3)
connected in series with the inductor. The addition of
capacitor (C3) improves the frequency stability and
eliminates the effect of transistor parameters and stray
capacitances.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of

a transistor Clapp oscillator.

The operation of Clapp oscillator circuit is in the same way as that of Colpitts oscillator. The frequency
of oscillator is given by the relation,

1
𝑓= 2𝜋√𝐿.𝐶

Where

1
𝐶=
1 1 1
+ +
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Usually, the value of C3 is much smaller than C1 and C2. As a result of this, C is approximately equal
to C3. Therefore, the frequency of oscillation,

1
𝑓= 2𝜋 √𝐿.𝐶3

It is understood that the Clapp oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator, however they differ in the
way the inductances and capacitances are arranged. The frequency stability though is good, can be
variable in a Clapp oscillator.

A Clapp oscillator is sometimes preferred over a Colpitts oscillator for constructing a variable frequency
oscillator. The Clapp oscillators are used in receiver tuning circuits as a frequency oscillator.

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RC OSCILLATORS

Phase Shift Oscillators

One of the important features of an oscillator is that the feedback energy

applied should be in correct phase to the tank circuit. The oscillator
circuits discussed so far has employed inductor (L) and capacitor (C)
combination, in the tank circuit or frequency determining circuit.

We have observed that

the LC combination in
o
oscillators provide 180 phase shift and transistor in
CE configuration provide 180° phase shift to make a
total of 360o phase shift so that it would make a zero
difference in phase.

Drawbacks of LC circuits

Though they have few applications, the LC circuits have few drawbacks such as

 Frequency instability
 Waveform is poor
 Cannot be used for low frequencies
 Inductors are bulky and expensive

We have another type of oscillator circuits, which are made by replacing the inductors with resistors.
By doing so, the frequency stability is improved and a good quality waveform is obtained. These
oscillators can also produce lower frequencies. As well, the circuit becomes neither bulky nor
expensive.

All the drawbacks of LC oscillator circuits are thus eliminated in RC oscillator circuits. Hence the need
for RC oscillator circuits arise. These are also called as Phase–shift Oscillators.

Principle of Phase-shift oscillators

We know that the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave input leads the input voltage. The
phase angle by which it leads is determined by the value of RC components used in the circuit. The
following circuit diagram shows a single section of an RC network.

The output voltage V1’ across the resistor R leads the input voltage applied input V1 by some phase
angle ɸo. If R were reduced to zero, V1’ will lead the V1 by 90o i.e., ɸo = 90o.

However, adjusting R to zero would be impracticable, because it would lead to no voltage across R.
Therefore, in practice, R is varied to such a value that makes V1’ to lead V1 by 60o. The following circuit
diagram shows the three sections of the RC network.

Each section produces a phase shift of 60o. Consequently, a total phase shift of 180o is produced, i.e.,
voltage V2 leads the voltage V1 by 180o.

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Phase-shift Oscillator Circuit

The oscillator circuit that produces a sine wave using a phase-shift network is called as a Phase-shift
oscillator circuit. The constructional details and operation of a phase-shift oscillator circuit are as given
below.

Construction

The phase-shift oscillator circuit consists of a single transistor amplifier section and a RC phase-shift
network. The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC sections. At the resonant frequency
fo, the phase shift in each RC section is 60o so that the total phase shift produced by RC network is 180o.

The following circuit diagram shows the

arrangement of an RC phase-shift oscillator.

The frequency of oscillations is given by

1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
Where
R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C

Operation

The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the

resonant frequency fo. The output Eo of the
amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180 o and a voltage
Ei appears at its output. This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.

The feedback applied will be

m=Ei/Eo
The feedback is in correct phase, whereas the transistor amplifier, which is in CE configuration,
produces a 180o phase shift. The phase shift produced by network and the transistor add to form a phase
shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

Advantages

The advantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 It does not require transformers or inductors.

 It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
 The circuit provides good frequency stability.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of RC phase shift oscillator are as follows −

 Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is small.

 The output produced is small.

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Wien Bridge Oscillator

Another type of popular audio frequency

oscillator is the Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
This is mostly used because of its important
features. This circuit is free from the circuit
fluctuations and the ambient temperature.

The main advantage of this oscillator is that the

frequency can be varied in the range of 10Hz to
about 1MHz whereas in RC oscillators, the
frequency is not varied.

Construction

The circuit construction of Wien bridge oscillator can be

explained as below. It is a two-stage amplifier with RC
bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has the arms R1C1, R3,
R2C2 and the tungsten lamp Lp. Resistance R3 and the
lamp Lp are used to stabilize the amplitude of the output.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of

a Wien bridge oscillator.

The transistor T1 serves as an oscillator and an amplifier while the other transistor T 2 serves as an
inverter. The inverter operation provides a phase shift of 180 o. This circuit provides positive feedback
through R1C1, C2R2 to the transistor T 1 and negative feedback through the voltage divider to the input
of transistor T2.

The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series element R 1C1 and parallel element R2C2 of the
bridge.

1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2

If R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 = C
Then,
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Now, we can simplify the above circuit as follows −

The oscillator consists of two stages of RC coupled amplifier and a feedback network. The voltage
across the parallel combination of R and C is fed to the input of amplifier 1. The net phase shift through
the two amplifiers is zero.

The usual idea of connecting the output of amplifier 2 to amplifier 1 to provide signal regeneration for
oscillator is not applicable here as the amplifier 1 will amplify signals over a wide range of frequencies
and hence direct coupling would result in poor frequency stability. By adding Wien bridge feedback

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network, the oscillator becomes sensitive to a particular frequency and hence frequency stability is
achieved.

Operation

When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces oscillations of the frequency stated above.
The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360 o so that proper positive feedback is ensured. The
negative feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is achieved by temperature sensitive
tungsten lamp Lp. Its resistance increases with current.

If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is produced and more negative feedback is
achieved. Due to this, the output would return to the original value. Whereas, if the output tends to
decrease, reverse action would take place.

Advantages

The advantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −

 The circuit provides good frequency stability.

 It provides constant output.
 The operation of circuit is quite easy.
 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
 The frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.
 The amplitude stability of the output voltage can be maintained more accurately, by replacing
R2 with a thermistor.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Wien bridge oscillator are as follows −

 The circuit cannot generate very high frequencies.

 Two transistors and number of components are required for the circuit construction.

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Crystal Oscillators

Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, its frequency stability gets affected. There occur
changes in its frequency. The main factors that affect the frequency of an oscillator are

 Power supply variations

 Changes in temperature
 Changes in load or output resistance

In RC and LC oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance

vary with temperature and hence the frequency gets affected. In order to avoid
this problem, the piezo electric crystals are being used in oscillators.

The use of piezo electric crystals in parallel resonant circuits provide high frequency stability in
oscillators. Such oscillators are called as Crystal Oscillators.

Crystal Oscillators

The principle of crystal oscillators depends upon the Piezo electric effect. The natural shape of a crystal
is hexagonal. When a crystal wafer is cur perpendicular to X-axis, it is called as X-cut and when it is
cut along Y-axis, it is called as Y-cut.

The crystal used in crystal oscillator exhibits a property called as Piezo electric property. So, let us have
an idea on piezo electric effect.

Piezo Electric Effect

The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical stress is applied across one of the faces of the
crystal, a potential difference is developed across the opposite faces of the crystal. Conversely, when a
potential difference is applied across one of the faces, a mechanical stress is produced along the other
faces. This is known as Piezo electric effect.

Certain crystalline materials like Rochelle salt, quartz and tourmaline exhibit piezo electric effect and
such materials are called as Piezo electric crystals. Quartz is the most commonly used piezo electric
crystal because it is inexpensive and readily available in nature.

When a piezo electric crystal is subjected to a proper alternating potential, it vibrates mechanically. The
amplitude of mechanical vibrations becomes maximum when the frequency of alternating voltage is
equal to the natural frequency of the crystal.

Working of a Quartz Crystal

In order to make a crystal work in an electronic circuit, the crystal is placed between two metal plates
in the form of a capacitor. Quartz is the mostly used type of crystal because of its availability and
strong nature while being inexpensive. The ac voltage is applied in parallel to the crystal.

The circuit arrangement of a Quartz Crystal will be as shown below −

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If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the

frequency of the applied voltage. However, if the frequency
of the applied voltage is made equal to the natural frequency
of the crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations
reach a maximum value. This natural frequency is almost
constant.

Equivalent circuit of a Crystal

If we try to represent the crystal with an equivalent electric

circuit, we have to consider two cases, i.e., when it vibrates
and when it doesn’t. The figures below represent the symbol
and electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal respectively.

The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with a capacitance Cm. When
the crystal mounted across the AC source is not vibrating, it is equivalent to the capacitance Cm. When
the crystal vibrates, it acts like a tuned R-L-C circuit.

Frequency response

The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below. The graph

shows the reactance (XL or XC) versus frequency (f). It is evident
that the crystal has two closely spaced resonant frequencies.

The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which occurs
when reactance of the inductance (L) is equal to the reactance of
the capacitance C. In that case, the impedance of the equivalent circuit is equal to the resistance R and
the frequency of oscillation is given by the relation,

1
𝑓= 2𝜋√𝐿.𝐶

The second one is the parallel resonant frequency

(fp), which occurs when the reactance of R-L-C
branch is equal to the reactance of capacitor Cm. At
this frequency, the crystal offers a very high
impedance to the external circuit and the frequency
of oscillation is given by the relation.

1
𝑓𝑝 = 2𝜋 √𝐿.𝐶𝑇

Where

𝐶𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶 + 𝐶𝑚

The value of Cm is usually very large as compared to C. Therefore, the value of CT is approximately
equal to C and hence the series resonant frequency is approximately equal to the parallel resonant
frequency (i.e., fs = fp).

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Crystal Oscillator Circuit

A crystal oscillator circuit can be constructed in a number of ways like a Crystal controlled tuned
collector oscillator, a Colpitts crystal oscillator, a Clap crystal oscillator etc. But the transistor pierce
crystal oscillator is the most commonly used one. This is the circuit which is normally referred as a
crystal oscillator circuit.

The following circuit diagram shows the arrangement of a transistor pierce crystal oscillator.

In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in the feedback path from collector to the
base. The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized DC bias circuit. The capacitor
CE provides AC bypass of the emitter resistor and RFC (radio frequency choke) coil provides for DC
bias while decoupling any AC signal on the power lines from affecting the output signal. The coupling
capacitor C has negligible impedance at the circuit operating frequency. But it blocks any DC between
collector and base.

The circuit frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency of the crystal and its value is
given by the relation,

1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿.𝐶

It may be noted that the changes in supply voltage, transistor device parameters etc. have no effect on
the circuit operating frequency, which is held stabilized by the crystal.

Advantages

The advantages of crystal oscillator are as follows −

 They have a high order of frequency stability.

 The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of crystal oscillator are as follows −

 They are fragile and can be used in low power circuits.

 The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.
Frequency Stability of an Oscillator

An Oscillator is expected to maintain its frequency for a longer duration without any variations, so as
to have a smoother clear sinewave output for the circuit operation. Hence the term frequency stability
really matters a lot, when it comes to oscillators, whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal.

The frequency stability of an oscillator is defined as the ability of the oscillator to maintain the required
frequency constant over a long-time interval as possible. Let us try to discuss the factors that affect this
frequency stability.

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Change in operating point

We have already come across the transistor parameters and learnt how important an operating point is.
The stability of this operating point for the transistor being used in the circuit for amplification (BJT or
FET), is of higher consideration.

The operating of the active device used is adjusted to be in the linear portion of its characteristics. This
point is shifted due to temperature variations and hence the stability is affected.

Variation in temperature

The tank circuit in the oscillator circuit, contains various frequency determining components such as
resistors, capacitors and inductors. All of their parameters are temperature dependent. Due to the change
in temperature, their values get affected. This brings the change in frequency of the oscillator circuit.

Due to power supply

The variations in the supplied power will also affect the frequency. The power supply variations lead
to the variations in Vcc. This will affect the frequency of the oscillations produced.

In order to avoid this, the regulated power supply system is implemented. This is in short called as RPS.

Change in output load

The variations in output resistance or output load also affects the frequency of the oscillator. When a
load is connected, the effective resistance of the tank circuit is changed. As a result, the Q-factor of LC
tuned circuit is changed. This results a change in output frequency of oscillator.

Changes in inter-element capacitances

Inter-element capacitances are the capacitances that develop in PN junction materials such as diodes
and transistors. These are developed due to the charge present in them during their operation.

The inter element capacitors undergo change due to various reasons as temperature, voltage etc. This
problem can be solved by connecting swamping capacitor across offending inter-element capacitor.

Value of Q

The value of Q (Quality factor) must be high in oscillators. The value of Q in tuned oscillators determine
the selectivity. As this Q is directly proportional to the frequency stability of a tuned circuit, the value
of Q should be maintained high.

Frequency stability can be mathematically represented as,

Sw=dθ/dw

Where dθ is the phase shift introduced for a small frequency change in nominal frequency fr. The circuit
giving the larger value of (dθ/dw) has more stable oscillatory frequency.

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 OSCILLATORS

Negative Resistance Oscillators

An oscillator that works on negative resistance
property can termed as a Negative resistance
oscillator. The term negative resistance refers
to a condition where an increase in voltage
across two points causes a decrease in current.
Some of the non-linear devices exhibit
negative resistance property, under certain
conditions.

Negative Resistance Property

Let us observe the behaviour when the voltage is applied to a non-linear device that exhibits negative
resistance property. To understand this property, let us observe the below graph to find out the variations
in voltage and current.

As forward voltage increases, the current increases rapidly and it increases until a peak point, called
as Peak Current, denoted by IP. The voltage at this point is called as Peak Voltage, denoted by VP.
This point is indicated by A in the above graph. The point A is called Peak Point.

If the voltage is further increased beyond VP, then the current starts decreasing. It decreases until a
point, called as Valley Current, denoted by IV. The voltage at this point is called as Valley Voltage,
denoted by VV. This point is indicated by B in the above graph. The point B is called Valley Point.

Hence the region between point A and point B indicates the Negative resistance region. Once the
valley point is reached and if the voltage is further increased, then the current starts increasing. This
means the negative resistance region was ended and the device behaves normally as per Ohm’s law.
This region is called as Positive Resistance region, which is indicated by point B to point C in the
graph.

Few oscillators exhibit negative resistance property during their operation. The uni-junction oscillator
is the best example of a non-sinusoidal oscillator (produces sweep waveform as output) that exhibit
negative resistance property, while the Tunnel diode oscillator is the best example of a sinusoidal
oscillator that exhibit negative resistance property.

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