Lecture notes

Course Title: Computer Science I

Topic: Computer Hardware/Software

Lecturer: ASONGAFACK PATRICK

The computer system essentially consists of three components: input devices, central processing unit
and output devices. In the computer terminology, a device can be referred as a unit of hardware, which
is capable of providing input to the computer or receiving output or both. The input devices are used to
provide data to the central processing unit (CPU) for processing. After processing, the input data are
converted into meaningful information and this output is presented to the user with the help of output
devices. When the term 'device' is used, it includes keyboard, mouse, display monitors, printers and
other hardware units.
The aim of this chapter is to familiarize you with various types of output and output devices along with
their advantages, disadvantages and applications.
Learning objectives.
At the end of this chapter, student will be able to
- Describe common input and output devices and their functioning
- Describe common primary and secondary storage devices and their functioning
- Classify primary and secondary storage devices in order of performance and capacity

In this topic
I. INPUT DEVICES ........................................................................................................................... 2
II. OUTPUT DEVICES ....................................................................................................................... 4
III. GENERALITIES ON COMPUTER MEMORY ........................................................................ 9
IV. PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICE ............................................................................................. 11
V. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES ......................................................................................... 14
EXERCISE ON HARDWARE............................................................................................................. 19

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I. INPUT DEVICES
An input device can be defined as an electromechanical device that allows the user to feed data into
the computer for analysis and storage, and to give commands to the computer. The computer accepts
input in two ways; manually and directly. In the case of manual data entry, the user enters the data into
the computer by hand, for example, by using the keyboard and the mouse. A user can also enter the data
directly by transferring information automatically from a source document (like from check using
MICR) into the computer.
Some of the commonly used input devices are keyboard, pointing devices like mouse and joystick,
speech recognition system, digital camera, scanners and so on.

I.1 Keying devices

These are devices that convert typed numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable
form examples: keyboard and keypad

I.1.1 Keyboard
A keyboard is the most common data entry device. The keyboard is designed like a regular typewriter
with a few additional keys. The data are entered into the computer by using various keys. There are
different types of keyboard layouts such as QWERTY, DVORAK and AZERTY, but the most common
layout is the QWERTY.
I.1.2 Keypad

This is a small keyboard used with hand held devices i.e. cell phones, calculators, notebooks, etc.

I.2 Pointing Devices

These are devices used to control the pointer/cursor on the screen. Some commonly pointing devices
are: mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen, touch screen and trackpad.
I.2.1 Mouse
A mouse is a small rectangular-shaped hand-held pointing device, it usually contains two or three
buttons, which can be used to input commands or the data. The mouse may be classified as a
mechanical mouse or an optical mouse, based on the technology it uses.
→ A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball at the bottom surface, which rotates as the mouse is
moved along a flat surface to move the cursor.
→ An optical mouse uses a light beam instead of a rotating ball to detect the movement across a
specially patterned mouse pad.
I.2.2 Trackball
A trackball is another pointing device that resembles a ball nestled in a square
cradle and serves as an alternative to a mouse. In general, the trackball is like a
mouse turned upside down. It has a ball, which can be rotated by fingers in any
direction, and the cursor moves accordingly.
I.2.3 Joystick
A joystick is a device that moves in all directions and controls the movement of the
cursor. The basic design of a joystick consists of a stick that is attached to a plastic
base with a flexible rubber sheath. This plastic base houses a circuit board beneath the
stick.
I.2.4 Light Pen
A light pen (sometimes called a mouse pen) is a hand-held electro-optical pointing
device, which when touched or aimed closely at a connected computer monitor will allow
the computer to determine the position of the pen on the screen. It facilitates drawing
images and selects objects on the display screen by directly pointing to the objects. It is
a pen-like device, which is connected to the machine by a cable.
I.2.5 Touch Screen
A touch screen is a special kind of display screen device, which is placed on the computer
monitor to allow direct selection or activation of the computer when the user touches the screen.
I.2.6 Trackpad

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A trackpad (also referred to as touchpad) is a stationary pointing device that works by sensing the
movement of fingers across a small sensitive surface and translating them into the pointer movement
on the screen. It is generally used in laptops, but can also be connected to the PC through a cord.
NOTE: The device manufactured by Apple is referred to as trackpad while the device manufactured by
others is known as touchpad.

I.3 Scanning devices

These are devices that capture data directly into the computer. They can also be defined as devices that
use a magnetic or photo-electric source to scan and convert images into electric signals that can be
processed by an electronic apparatus, such as a computer. They are commonly used to:
- Convert a text document into an electronic file;
- Convert a photograph into an electronic graphic file;
- Sense an image to be sent over a voice frequency
- Circuit, such as a fax machine;
- Reproduce text and images, as with a copier.
Scanners are classified according to technology used to capture data namely: optical and magnetic
scanners.
II.3.1 Optical scanners
These scanners capture data using optical or light technology. Examples of optical scanners

a) Bar Code Reader

A bar code is a machine-readable code in the form of parallel vertical lines of varying
widths. It is commonly used for labelling goods that are available in super markets
and numbering books in libraries. This code is sensed and read by a bar code reader
using reflective light. The information recorded in the bar code reader is then fed into
the computer, which recognizes the information from the thickness and spacing of the
bars.

b) Optical mark recognition

Optical mark recognition (OMR) is the process of detecting the
presence of intended marked responses. A mark registers significantly
less light than the surrounding paper. The optical mark reading is done
by a special device known as optical mark reader. Generally, this
technology is used to read answer sheets (MCQ tests).

c) Optical Character Recognition

A scanner converts an input document into an electronic format that can
be stored on the disk. If the document to be scanned contains text,
optical character recognition (OCR) software is needed to translate the bitmap image of the text to the
ASCII codes that the computer can interpret as letters, numbers and special characters.
d) Scanner
A scanner is an input device that converts a document into an electronic format that can be stored on
the disk. Moreover, they can store images in both gray scale and color mode. The two most common
types of scanners are hand-held scanner and flat-bed scanner.
→ Hand-held Scanner: A hand-held scanner consists of light-emitting diodes, which are
placed over the document to be scanned. This scanner performs the
scanning of the document very slowly from the top to the bottom with its
light on.
→ Flat-bed Scanner: A flat-bed scanner is similar to a photocopier
machine. It consists of a box containing a glass plate on its top and a lid
that covers the glass plate. This glass plate is used for placing the
document to be scanned.

II.3.2 Magnetic scanners

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These scanners use magnetic technology to capture handwritten and magnetic strip data. Some
examples of optical scanners are:
a) Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR):
You must have seen special magnetic encoding using characters, printed on the bottom of a check. The
characters are printed using a special ink, which contains iron particles that can be magnetized. To
recognize these magnetic-ink characters, a magnetic-ink character reader (MICR) is used. It reads
the characters by examining their shapes in a matrix form and the information is then passed on to the
computer.
The banking industry prefers MICR to OCR as the MICR gives extra security against forgeries such as
colour copies of payroll checks or hand-altered characters on a check. If a document has been forged,
say a counterfeit check produced using a colour photocopying machine, the magnetic-ink line will either
not respond to the magnetic fields or will produce an incorrect code
when scanned using a device designed to recover the information in the
magnetic characters.
b) Digital camera:
Also known as a digicam, A digital camera stores images digitally rather
than recording them on a film. Once a picture has been taken, it can be transferred to a computer system
and then manipulated with an image editing software and printed.
c) webcam
Short form of web camera, is a portable video camera, which captures live video or images that
may be viewed in real time over the network or the Internet. It is just a small digital camera
that is either in-built in your computer (in most laptops) or can be connected through a USB
port.
I.4 Other input devices
Other input devices of computer include:
 Touch screen: It is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and
location of a touch within the display area
 Interactive whiteboard (IWB): This is a large interactive display that connects to a computer
and projector. A projector projects the computer's desktop onto the board's surface where users
control the computer using a pen, finger, stylus, or other device. The board is typically mounted
to a wall or floor stand.
 Speech Recognition System: Speech recognition is one of the most interactive systems to
communicate with the computer. The user can simply instruct the computer with the help of a
microphone (along with speech recognition software) what task to be performed. It is the
technology by which sounds, words or phrases spoken by the individuals are converted into
digital signals, and these signals are transformed into computer-generated texts or commands.

II. OUTPUT DEVICES

An output device is an electromechanical device, which converts machine-readable information into
human-readable form. The basic functioning of output device is just the opposite of the input device,
that is, the data are 'fed into' the computer system through the input device, while the output is 'taken
out' from the computer through the output device.

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 II.1 Types of Output
Output is the data that has been processed into useful information. It can be displayed or viewed on a
monitor, printed on a printer or listened through speakers or a headset. Generally, there are two basic
categories of output: Hard copy output and soft copy output
→ Hard Copy refers to the recorded information copied from a computer onto the paper or
some other durable surface such as microfilm. Hard copy output is permanent and a
relatively stable form of output.
→ Soft Copy is the electronic version of an output, which usually resides in the computer
memory and/or on the disk. Unlike hard copy, soft copy is not a permanent form of output
and is not tangible, that is, it cannot be touched.

II.2 Printers
A printer prints information and data from the computer onto a paper. The quality of a printer is
determined by its resolution. Resolution is used to describe the sharpness and clarity of an image. The
higher the resolution, the better the image. For printers, the resolution is measured in dots per inch
(dpi). The more dots per inch, the better will be the quality of image. Printers are divided into two basic
categories: impact printers and non-impact printers. Impact printers use some sort of physical contact
with the paper to make a mark onto it, while non-impact printers use techniques other than to transfer
ink onto it.
II.2.1 Impact Printers
An impact printer uses pins or hammers that press an inked ribbon against the paper to make a mark on
the paper. Some impact printers can print only one character at a time, while others can print an entire
line. The three most commonly used impact printers are dot matrix printers, daisy wheel printers and
drum printers.
Some characteristics of impact printers are as follows:
• In impact printers, there is physical contact with the paper to produce an image.
• They are relatively cheap. The primary recurring costs for these printers are the ink ribbons and
paper.
• Due to being robust and low cost, they are useful for bulk printing.
• They can withstand dusty environment, vibrations and extreme temperature.
• They are ideal for printing multiple copies (i.e. carbon copies) because they can easily print
through many layers of paper.
• Due to its striking activity, the impact printers are very noisy.
• Since they are mechanical in nature, they tend to be slow.

a) Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printer (also known as the wire matrix printer) uses the oldest printing
technology and it prints one character at a time. It prints characters and images as
pattern of dots. The speed of dot matrix printers is measured in characters per second
(cps).
b) Daisy Wheel Printer
Daisy wheel printers produce high-resolution output and are more reliable than dot
matrix printers. They can have speed up to 90 cps. However, daisy wheel printers give
only alphanumeric output. They cannot print graphics and cannot change fonts unless the
print wheel is physically replaced. Daisy wheel printers are slower and more expensive
than dot matrix printers.
c) Drum Printers
The dot matrix and daisy wheel printers are character or serial printers, that is, they
print one character at a time. However, drum printer is a line printer; it can print a line
in a single operation. Although such printers are much faster than character printers, they
tend to be quite loud, have limited multifont capability and often produce lower print
quality than most recent printing technologies. Line printers are designed for heavy
printing applications.
II.2.2 Non-impact Printers

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In this printer, the print head does not make any contact with the paper, and no inked ribbon is
required. Ink can be sprayed against the paper and then heat and pressure are used to fuse a fine black
powder into the shape of a character. The major technologies competing in the market of non-impact
printers are ink-jet and laser.
Some characteristics of non-impact printers are as follows:
• They are faster than impact printers because they have fewer moving parts.
• They are quieter than impact printers
• They possess the ability to change typefaces automatically.
• They produce high-quality graphics.
• They cannot print carbon copies.

a) Ink-jet Printers

An inkjet printer is a printer that places extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to create
an image. Ink-jet printers are costlier than dot matrix printers, but the quality is much better.
These printers can print any shape of character, which a user can specify as they produce
printed output as pattern of tiny dots. Ink-jet printers typically print with a resolution of
600 dpi or more. Due to the high resolution, these printers produce high quality graphics
and text printouts.

b) Laser Printers

A laser printer provides the highest quality text and images for personal computers today. It is a very
fast printer, which operates on the same principle as that of a photocopy machine. They are also known
as page printers because they process and store the entire page before they actually print
it. Today, the resolution of most printers is 600 dpi. They are quiet and fast, able to print
4–32 text-only pages per minute for individual microcomputers and up to 200 pages/min
for mainframes (more than 2000 lines/min). Laser printers are often faster than ink-jet
printers but are more expensive to buy and maintain than the other printers.

c) Hydra Printer

Hybrid document reproduction apparatus (HYDRA) printer, popularly

known as all-in-one printer, is a device that consolidates the capabilities
of multiple devices in one machine. It may include some or all of the
devices like printer, scanner, photocopier and fax machine. Following
are the features that must be considered while evaluating these printers:
Print speed, Maximum resolution, Memory card compatibility,
Scanner resolution, Fax speed

II.3 Plotters
A plotter is a pen-based output device that is attached to a computer for making vector graphics, that is,
images created by a series of many straight lines. It is used to draw high-resolution charts, graphs,
blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams and other line-based diagrams. It is similar to a
printer, but it draws lines using a pen. They are mainly used for computer aided
design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) applications such as
printing out plans for houses or car parts.

II.4 Monitor
The monitor is the most frequently used output device for producing soft copy
output. A computer monitor is a TV-like display attached to the computer on which the output can be
displayed and viewed. Monitors are available in various sizes like 14, 15, 17, 19 and 21 inches. The
larger the size of the monitor, the more expensive it is. The size of the display is described based on
two parameters: aspect ratio and screen size. Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width of the display screen

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to the height, that is, the ratio of vertical points to the horizontal points necessary to produce equal-
length lines in both directions on the screen.
The screen clarity depends on three basic qualities, which are as follows:
• Resolution: It refers to the number of pixels in the horizontal and vertical directions on the
screen. A pixel (px) is the smallest portion of an image or display that a computer is capable of
printing or displaying. In medium-resolution graphics, pixels are large, whereas in high-
resolution graphics, pixels are small.
• Dot Pitch: It is the measurement of the diagonal distance between the two like-coloured (red,
green or blue) pixels on a display screen. It is measured in millimetres and common dot pitches
are 0.51, 0.31, 0.28, 0.27, 0.26 and 0.25 mm. Smaller the dot pitch, sharper will be the image
when displayed on the monitor. Generally, a dot pitch of less than 0.31 mm provides clear
images.
• Refresh Rate: It is the number of times per second the pixels are recharged so that their glow
remains bright. A refresh rate of 60 Hz means the image is redrawn 60 times a second. The
higher the refresh rate, the more solid the image looks on the screen, that is, it does not flicker.
II.5.1 Cathode Ray Tube Monitors
CRT is the electron beams within a monitor that move across your screen either interlaced
or non-interlaced hitting phosphor dots on the inside glass tube. Within the CRT are three
electron guns, red, green, and blue. Each of these guns streams a steady flow of electrons,
left to right, for each line of your monitor.
II.5.2 Liquid Crystal Display Monitors
LCD is a flat display technology used in laptops, cell phones, calculators and, flat
screen displays. The LCD is made of two sheets of a flexible polarizing material with
a layer of liquid crystal solution between the two. The LCD does not refresh like a
traditional CRT monitor, Instead, the display is created by sending various voltages
of electricity to cells of liquid crystal causing the liquid crystal to untwist at the rate
of electricity applied, generating 64 different shades per cell.
Comparison between LCD and CRT
• Size: An LCD is lightweight and compact, which saves desktop space as compared to a CRT.
• Resolution: An LCD is designed to work in a single resolution, while CRT is designed for many
resolutions.
• Pixel Density: Pixel density of LCD is generally not as tight as the dot pitch in CRT, but for
most applications, the density is acceptable.
• Brightness: The illuminated phosphor of a CRT is not nearly as bright as what the LCD can
produce with its florescent backlight.
• Power Consumption: An LCD consumes significantly less power than CRT and has a low
emission risk. Typically, the LCD consumes approximately half of the power of a typical CRT.
• Cost: Prices for LCD screens are quite high but they are coming down. They are still much more
expensive than a CRT.
• Viewing Angle: A CRT can be viewed at almost any angle, but an LCD is best viewed 'head
on'.
• Viewing Area: The frame around the glass screen of the monitor causes the viewable area of
the screen to be smaller than an LCD.
• Weight: A CRT monitor can weigh 40 pounds or more depending on the size of the monitor.
II.5.3 Other Types of Monitors
Although CRT and LCD displays are the most commonly used, other kinds of displays also exist. Some
of them are as follows:
• Plasma Display: A plasma display (also known as thin-panel) is constructed by filling a gas (neon or
xenon) between the two glass plates. One glass plate consists of vertical conductors and the other
consists of horizontal conductors. The advantage of plasma display is that it has the capability of
producing more than 16 million colors and is lighter and less bulky than CRT. However, it is heavier
than LCD display and requires more power.
• Thin-film Electroluminescent Display: This display is similar to the plasma display except the fact
that the space between the glass plates is filled with phosphorescent substance (usually zinc sulfide

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doped with manganese) instead of gas. The main problem with thin-film electroluminescent displays is
that they require more power.

II.5. Projectors
projector is an output device, which is used to project information from a computer
onto a large screen, so that it can be simultaneously viewed by a large group of people.
Projection display is commonly used for classroom training or conference room or for
multimedia presentations with a large audience. Like monitors, projectors provide a
temporary, soft copy output.

II.6 Electronic Whiteboard

Electronic whiteboard is an interactive presentation device that
works electronically to display digital images, drawings and text in
different colors. The whiteboard is generally mounted on the wall
and is connected to a computer and a projector. The projector
projects the computer desktop on the whiteboard and the user can
interact with it using electromagnetic pens, fingers or other pointing
devices. The electromagnetic pens can be configured to any color or
width. A user can activate programs, applications and menus, as
well as can enter text using either onscreen keyboard or handwriting
recognition utility.

II.7 Headphones and Headsets

Headphone is an audio device equipped with a pair of speakers, which are attached to a headstrap worn
by the users. For such applications, headset is used instead of headphone. A headset is a combination
of one or two speakers and a microphone with both the speaker and the microphone attached to a
headstrap

II.8 Terminals
Computer terminal is a special unit that can perform as both input and output. A terminal is an I/O
device that uses a keyboard for input and a monitor for output. Hence, a terminal is also known as video
display terminal (VDT). The terminals can be categorized into the following types
• Dumb Terminal: It refers to a terminal that has no processing or programming capabilities. It
is designed to communicate exclusively with a host computer. Usually, it consists of a screen
and keyboard used to access a host computer.
• Smart Terminal: Smart terminal has built-in processing capability and memory, but does not
have its own storage capacity. In comparison to the dumb terminal, smart terminal can
communicate and retrieve the data and can perform a limited processing of its own, that is,
editing or verification of the data.
• Intelligent Terminal: An intelligent terminal has memory and in-built microprocessors, hence
also known as user-programmable terminal. This terminal can independently perform a certain
number of jobs without even interacting with the mainframe. Although they are intelligent
terminals, some workstations are designed without disk drives. Due to this, the restricted data
cannot be downloaded or copied.

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III. GENERALITIES ON COMPUTER MEMORY
III.1 What is a computer memory?
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information temporarily or permanently.
III.2 Memory representation
For measuring computer memory, a standard unit is required. Although the smallest unit of data that a
computer can deal with is a bit, the computers generally do not deal with a single bit. Instead, they deal
with a group of eight bits, which is referred as 'byte'. Various units used to measure computer memory
are as follows:
• Bit: It is the smallest unit of data on a machine and a single bit can hold only one of two values:
0 or 1. Bit is represented by lower case b.
• A nibble is a collection of 4 bits.
• Byte: A unit of eight bits is known as a byte. Hence, a byte is able to contain any binary number
between 00000000 and 11111111. It is represented by upper case B.
• Kilobyte: In a decimal system, kilo stands for 1000, but in a binary system, kilo refers to 1024.
Therefore, a kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes. It is usually represented as KB.
• Megabyte: It comprises 1024 kilobytes or 10,48,576 bytes. However, since this number is hard
to remember, a megabyte can be thought of as million bytes. Megabyte is the standard unit of
measurement of RAM and is represented as MB.
• Gigabyte: It consists of 1024 megabytes (10,73,741,824 bytes). It is the standard unit of
measurement for hard disks and is often represented as GB.
• Terabyte: It refers to 1024 gigabytes and is often represented as TB. Terabyte memory is
usually associated with only super computers

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NOTE: In modern computers, groupings of bytes (usually 2 or 4) called computer words can represent
larger 'chunks' of information.
Exercise using notebook
(calculations on storage units)
III.3 Memory characteristics
Computer memories can be differentiated by evaluating certain core characteristics. These core
characteristics are volatility, mutability, accessibility, and addressability.
III.3.1. Volatility
→ Non-volatile memory will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied
with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
→ Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored information. The fastest
memory technologies of today are volatile ones.
III.3.2. Mutability
→ Read/write storage or mutable storage allows information to be overwritten at any time.
→ Read only storage retains the information stored at the time of manufacture
→ Write once storage (Write Once Read Many) allows the information to be written only once
at some point after manufacture. These are called immutable storage. Examples include CD-
ROM and CD-R
→ Slow write, fast read storage : Read/write storage, which allows information to be overwritten
multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation.
Examples include CD-RW and flash memory.
III.3.3. Accessibility
Access Mode: Access mode refers to the way the data are accessed from the memory.
→ Random access: Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the
same amount of time. Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage.
→ Sequential access: The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after
the other; therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which
piece of information was last accessed. Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
→ Direct access: In some cases, the data are accessed neither in a random nor in a sequential
fashion, but using a combination of both the modes.This type of semi-random mode exists in
the magnetic disk.
III.3.5. Addressability
→ Location-addressable: Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected
with its numerical memory address.
→ File addressable: Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is
selected with human-readable directory and file names. In modern computers, secondary,
tertiary and off-line storage use file systems.
→ Content-addressable: Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on
the basis of (part of) the contents stored there. Content-addressable storage can be implemented
using software (computer program) or hardware (computer device), with hardware being faster
but more expensive option. Hardware content addressable memory is often used in a computer's
CPU cache.
Other characteristics of computer memory involve
• Access time: Access time is the time required between the request made for read/write
operation and the time it takes for the completion of the request. Generally, the access time is
measured for read operations only. Disk access time depends on the following three
parameters:
→ Seek Time: It is the time required to position the read/write head over the desired
track, as soon as a read/write command is received by the disk unit
→ Latency: It is the time required to spin the desired sector under the read/write head,
once the read/write head is positioned on the desired track
→ Transfer Rate: the transfer rate is the number of characters or words that a device can
transfer per second after it has been positioned at the beginning of the record. As the
transfer rate is negligible as compared to seek time and latency,
Average access time = Average seek time + Average latency

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 • Storage capacity: Storage capacity refers to the size of the memory, that is, the amount of data
that can be stored in the memory.
• Cost: The cost of memory is valued by estimating the cost per bit of storage, that is, the cost of
a storage unit for a given storage capacity.
III.4 Types of Memory
These are the fundamental types of memory in a computer system:
a) Primary storage device: The primary memory allows the computer to store data for
immediate manipulation and to keep track of what is currently being processed. There are two
main types of primary storage:
- Main memory (RAM and ROM) and
- Internal processor memories (Cache memory and registers).
b) Secondary Memory: This is also known as auxiliary memory. It differs from primary storage
in that it is not directly accessible by the CPU.
c) Tertiary Storage: Tertiary storage is very large storage which is separate from the computer.
The most obvious example of tertiary storage is an automated storage facility where
mechanical arms retrieve media and load it into large computers. Other tertiary storage may
simply be off-grounds locations which allow vital data in various mediums to be safe-guarded
for security purposes- fire, theft, etc.
d) Off-line Storage: Offline storage is storage media which can be inserted into the computer
and used but which can then be removed from the computer and stored elsewhere. Floppy
drives, CD drives, and DVD drives might also alternately be considered secondary storage
because their drives are usually installed in the computer but the key here is the media the data
is stored on.
III.5 Storage technologies
Most commonly used data storage technologies are semiconductor, magnetic, and optical, while paper
still sees some limited usage. Some other fundamental storage technologies have also been used in the
past or are proposed for development.
 Magnetic storage media: Magnetic storage uses different patterns of magnetization on a
magnetically coated surface to store information. In modern computers, magnetic storage will
take these forms: Magnetic disk (Floppy disk, Hard disk drive) and Magnetic tape data storage.
 Optical storage media: The typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface
of a circular disc and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and
observing the reflection.
 Semiconductor storage media: Semiconductor memory uses semiconductor-based integrated
circuits to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny
transistors or capacitors. Both volatile and non-volatile forms of semiconductor memory exist.
 Magneto-optical disc storage media: Magneto-
optical disc storage is optical disc storage where the
magnetic state on a ferromagnetic surface stores
information. The information is read optically and
written by combining magnetic and optical methods.
III.6 Memory hierachy
A "memory hierarchy" in computer storage distinguishes
each level in the "hierarchy" by response time. Since
response time, complexity, and capacity are related, the
levels may also be distinguished by the controlling
technology. The figure below illustrates the memory hierarchy.

IV. PRIMARY STORAGE DEVICE

The primary memory allows the computer to store data for immediate manipulation and to keep track
of what is currently being processed. There exist two main types of primary storage device: Main
memories and internal processor memories

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 II.1 Main memory
Broadly primary memory can be of two types RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read only
memory). Every computer comes with a small amount of ROM, which contains the boot firmware
called BIOS (Basic Input Output System).
II.1.1 Random Access Memory (RAM)
1. What is RAM?
RAM is the place where the computer temporarily stores its operating system, application programs
and current data so that the computer's processor can reach them quickly and easily. RAM allows the
computer to store data for immediate manipulation and to keep track of what is currently being
processed. RAM is much faster to read from and write to than the other kinds of storage in a computer
(like hard disk or floppy disk). The major limitation of this type of memory is that it is volatile. It means
that when the power is turned off, the contents of the primary memory are lost forever.
NOTE: Random access memory is also called read/write memory because, unlike read-only memory
(ROM) that does not allow any write operation, random access memory allows CPU to read as well as
write data and instructions into it.
2. Types of RAM
There are two types of random access memory, which are as follows:
a) Dynamic RAM (DRAM):
This RAM must be continually refreshed (pulse of current through all the memory cells) to maintain
the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. Some of the
most popular DRAM technologies are briefed as follows:
b) Static RAM (SRAM):
This RAM retains the data as long as power is provided to the memory chip. It need not be 'refreshed'
periodically. It is very fast but much more expensive than DRAM. SRAM is often used as cache
memory due to its high speed.

3. Main memory organisation

The main memory of computer system is organized into an array of small storage areas known as cells,
which are serially linked together. Each cell is indexed by a unique number, called the address of the
cell and is capable of storing a fixed number of bits, called the word length of the memory.

The word length is an important architectural factor, which typically relates to the CPU and is usually
the size of its registers in bits. The word lengths typically range from 8, 16, 32 bits to 64 bits and
accordingly the computers are termed as 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit computers. The higher the word
length, the more powerful a computer is.
The total number of memory cells that can be uniquely addressed by CPU depends on the total number
of address lines in an address bus. If there are n lines in the address bus then there are 2 n addressable
locations in the memory.
4. Fixed and Variable Word Length Memory
The main memory of a computer can be designed in two ways: fixed word length and variable word
length.
→ In fixed word length memory system, each memory location stores a fixed number of
characters, which are equal to the word length of the computer. The computers that employ
fixed word length memory approach are called word-addressable computers. In such
computers, the storage space is always allocated in multiples of word length.
→ In variable word length memory system, the memory is designed in such a way that each
memory location can store only one character. Hence, the word 'HI' will occupy only 2 bytes,
'MIKE' will occupy 4 bytes, and 'COMPUTER' will occupy 8 bytes of memory. The computers
that employ variable word length memory approach are called character-addressable
computers
II.1.2 Read Only Memory
1. What is ROM?
Short for Read-Only Memory, ROM is a type of "built-in" memory that is capable of holding data and
having that data read from the chip, but not written to. Unlike Random Access Memory (RAM), ROM

12
is non-volatile which means it keeps its contents regardless if it has power or not.

NB: The term ROM is used to describe any type of memory or media that is read only. For example, a
CD-ROM
2. Types of ROM
Memories in the ROM family are distinguished by the methods used to write data on them and the
number of times they can be rewritten. There are different types of ROMs, which are as follows:
• Masked ROM: The very first ROMs, known as masked ROMs, were hard-wired devices that
contained a preprogrammed set of data or instructions.
• Programmable ROM (PROM): This form of ROM is initially blank. The user or manufacturer
can write data/program on it by using special devices. However, once the program or data is
written in PROM chip, it cannot be changed.
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): An EPROM is programmed in exactly the same
manner as a PROM. However, unlike PROMs, an EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed
repeatedly. It can be erased by simply exposing it to a strong source of ultraviolet (UV) light for
a certain amount of time.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): This type of ROM can be erased by
an electrical charge and then written to by using slightly higher-than-normal voltage. EEPROM
can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip with UV light. Hence, the
process of re-programming is flexible, but slow.
• Flash ROM: flash ROM, also called flash BIOS or flash memory, is a type of ROM that can be
erased and re-programmed in blocks.

II.2 Internal Processor Memories

These memories are placed within the CPU (processor) or is attached to a special fast bus. Internal
memory usually includes cache memory and special registers, both of which can be directly accessed
by the processor. This memory is used for temporary storage of data and instructions on which the CPU
is currently working. Processor memory is the fastest among all the memories, but is most expensive
also.
II.2.1 Cache Memory
Cache memory is used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to access
memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores
copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory
locations. As long as most memory accesses are to cached
memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will
be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main
memory.
Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness
and accessibility to the microprocessor. There are three main
types of cache memory:
→ L1 cache: It is small and is built inside the CPU. It is fast as compared to L2 cache
→ L2 cache: It is large but slower and is mounted on the motherboard
→ Most computers today come with L3 cache which is built out of the CPU
II.2.2 Registers
The central processing unit (CPU) contains a number of memory locations which are individually
addressable and reserved for specific purpose. These memory locations are called registers. CPU
instructions operate on these values directly. Registers are at the top of the memory hierarchy, and
provide the fastest way for a CPU to access data. On RISC processors, all data must be moved into a
register before it can be operated. On CISC (Intel) chips, there are a few operations that can load data
from RAM, process it, and save the result back out, but the fastest operations work directly with
registers.

13
The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help determine the
power and speed of a CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each register is 32 bits wide.
Therefore, each CPU instruction can manipulate 32 bits of data.
Some characteristics of CPU registers are:
 Very fast (access times of a few nanoseconds)
 Low capacity (usually less than 200 bytes)
 Very limited expansion capabilities (a change in CPU architecture would be required)
 Expensive (more than one dollar/byte)
Types of register
Types of Registers are as Followings
→ Memory Address Register(MAR) : This register holds the memory addresses of data and
instructions. This register is used to access data and instructions from memory during the
execution phase of an instruction.
→ Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the memory location of the next instruction
when the current instruction is executed by the microprocessor.
→ Accumulator Register: This Register is used for storing the Results those are produced by the
System. When the CPU will generate Some Results after the Processing then all the Results
will be Stored into the AC Register.
→ Memory Data Register (MDR) : MDR is the register of a computer's control unit that contains
the data to be stored in the computer storage (e.g. RAM), or the data after a fetch from the
computer storage.
→ Index Register (IR) : Also known as base register. An index register in a computer's CPU is a
processor register used for modifying operand addresses during the run of a program.
→ Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This register holds the contents of data or instruction read
from, or written in memory. It means that this register is used to store data/instruction coming
from the memory or going to the memory.
→ Data Register: A register used in microcomputers to temporarily store data being transmitted
to or from a peripheral device.

V. SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

This is also known as auxiliary memory. It differs from primary storage in that it is not directly
accessible by the CPU. The secondary memory provides backup storage for instructions (computer
programs) and data. The instructions and data stored on secondary storage devices are permanent in
nature. They can only be removed if the user wants it so or the device is destroyed.

14
 III.1 Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic material,
used for recording analogue or digital data. Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape. The
frames are grouped into blocks or records which are separated from other blocks by gaps. Magnetic
tape is a serial access medium, similar to an audio cassette, and so data (like the songs on a music tape)
cannot be quickly located. However large amounts of information can be stored within magnetic tape.
This characteristic has prompted its use in the regular backing up of hard disks.
Advantages and disadvantage of Magnetic Tapes
The following are advantages and disadvantages of magnetic tape
Advantages of magnetic tape Disadvantages of magnetic tape
Probably the cheapest form of storage
Serial access so can be quite slow to access data
per megabyte of storage
Can store large amounts of data - up to 1 Need a special piece of equipment to record and read the
Terabyte per tape cartridge data on the tape
Can be set up to do the back up The data may be corrupted if the tape is placed near a
overnight or over the weekend strong magnetic field e.g. a large speaker or magnet
They are portable because they are
the data on such devices are difficult to recover even if a
compact in size, lightweight and
minor bit error occurs.
removable.
They are not flexible as compared to other media types
when file updating requires record insertion or deletion.

III.2 Magnetic Disk

III.2.1 What is a Magnetic Disk?
The magnetic disks are the most widely used and popular medium for direct access secondary storage.
They offer high storage capacity and reliability and have capability to access the stored data directly. A
magnetic disk comprises a thin piece of plastic/metal circular plate/platter, which is coated with a
magnetic oxide layer. The data are represented as magnetized spots on the disk. Data are recorded on
the disk in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots (representing 1s and
0s) on the coated surfaces of the disk
III.2.2 Storage Organization of a Magnetic Disk
A disk’s surface is divided into a number of invisible concentric circles called tracks The tracks
are numbered consecutively from outermost to innermost starting from zero. The number of tracks
on a disk may be as few as 40 on small, low-capacity disks, to
several thousand on large, high-capacity disks. Each track of a disk
is subdivided into sectors
There are 8 or more sectors per track. A sector typically contains 512
bytes. Disk drives are designed to read/write only whole sectors at a
time.The track sectors are grouped into a collection known as
cluster. It refers to the basic allocation unit for storage on a disk,
consisting of one or more track sectors. The number of track sectors
that make up one cluster depends on the type and size of the media.
The term 'cluster' also refers to the minimum amount of disk space
used by a single file. Even if the file occupies only part of a cluster, the entire cluster is allocated to the
file and marked as used space.
III.2.3 Disk formatting
Disk formatting is the process of preparing a new disk by the computer system in which the disk is to
be used. There exist two type of formatting:
a) Low-level disk formatting
- Disk drive’s read/write head lays down a magnetic pattern on the disk’s surface
- Enables the disk drive to organize and store the data in the data organization defined
for the disk drive of the computer

15
 b) OS-level disk formatting
- Creates the File Allocation Table (FAT) that is a table with the sector and track locations
of data
- Leaves sufficient space for FAT to grow
- Scans and marks bad sectors
III.2.4 Master Boot Record (MBR)
The Master Boot Record, created when you create the first partition on the hard disk, is probably the
most important data structure on the disk. It is the first sector on every disk. The location is always
track (cylinder) 0, side (head) 0, and sector 1.The Master Boot Record contains the Partition Table
for the disk and a small amount of executable code. The Master Boot Record then finds the system
partition's starting location on the disk, and loads a copy of its Partition Boot Sector into memory. The
Master Boot Record then transfers execution to executable code in the Partition Boot Sector.
III.2.5 Storage Capacity of a Magnetic Disk
Several parameters must be considered while finding out the capacity of a magnetic disk. These
parameters include number of recording surfaces, number of tracks per surface, number of sectors per
track and number of bytes per sector. Therefore, one can define storage capacity of a disk as a
multiple of all the above parameters.

III.2.6 Advantages of Magnetic Disks

→ More suitable than magnetic tapes for a wider range of applications because they support
direct access of data
→ Random access property enables them to be used simultaneously by multiple users as a
shared device.
→ Suitable for both on-line and off-line storage of data
→ the cost per bit of storage is low for magnetic disks.
→ An additional cost benefit is that magnetic disks can be erased and reused many times
→ Floppy disks and zip disks are compact and light in weight. Hence they are easy to handle
and store.
→ Very large amount of data can be stored in a small storage space
→ Data transfer rate for a magnetic disk system is normally higher than a tape system
III.2.7 Limitations of Magnetic Disks
→ A disk crash or drive failure often results in loss of entire stored data. It is not easy to
recover the lost data.
→ Some types of magnetic disks are not so easily portable like magnetic tapes
→ the cost of magnetic disks is low, but the cost of magnetic tapes is even lower
→ Must be stored in a dust-free environment
→ They possess slow data access speed as compared to the magnetic disks.
III.2.8 Types of Magnetic Disk
All magnetic disks come in the form of round platters. These disks are available in different sizes,
shapes and designs. Some are attached to the read/write head assembly, whereas some are available in
the form of removable disks. Broadly, magnetic disks can be classified into three types: floppy disk,
hard disk and zip disk.
1) Floppy disks
A floppy disk, or diskette, is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic
storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier lined with fabric that removes dust particles.
Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy
disk drive (FDD). Floppy diskettes are small,
inexpensive, readily available, easy to store
and have a good shelf life, if stored properly.
The two types of floppy disks in use today
are:
→ 5¼-inch diskette, whose
diameter is 5¼-inch.It is
encased in a square, flexible
vinyl jacket

16
 → 3½-inch diskette, whose diameter is 3½-inch.It is encased in a square, hard plastic
jacket
Size N° of N° of N° of N° of Capacity Approximate
(Diameter surfaces tracks sectors/tracks bytes/sector in bytes capacity
in inches)
5¼ 2 40 9 512 368640 360 KB
3½ 2 80 36 512 2949120 2.88 MB
3½ 2 80 18 512 1474560 1.44 MB

2) Hard disk
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information
using rapidly rotating disks (platters) coated with magnetic material. An HDD retains its data even when
powered off. Data is read in a random-access manner, meaning individual blocks of data can be stored
or retrieved in any order rather than sequentially. An HDD consists of one or more rigid ("hard") rapidly
rotating disks (platters) with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm to read and write data
to the surfaces. Depending on how they are packaged, hard disks are of three types: Zip/Bernoulli disks,
Disk packs, Winchester disks
3) Zip disk
A Zip drive is a small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and archiving personal
computer files. Zip drives and disks come in two sizes. The 100 megabyte size actually holds
100,431,872 bytes of data or the equivalent of 70 floppy diskettes. There is also a 250 megabyte drive

and disk.

III.3 Optical Disk

III.3.1 What is an Optical Disk?
An optical disk is a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. The
typical optical disc, stores information in deformities on the surface of a circular disc and reads this
information by illuminating the surface with a laser diode and observing the reflection. The optical disk
storage system consists of a rotating disk coated with a thin layer of metal (aluminum, gold or silver)
that acts as a reflective surface and a laser beam, which is used as a read/write head for recording the
data onto the disk. There are three basic types of optical disks:
 CD-ROM : Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded onto them. The
data is permanent and can be read any number of times, but CD-ROMs cannot be modified.
 WORM : Stands for write-once, read -many. With a WORM disk drive, you can write data
onto a WORM disk, but only once. After that, the WORM disk behaves just like a CD-ROM.
 Erasable: Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data, just like magnetic disks.
These are often referred to as EO (erasable optical) disks.

III.3.1 Types of Optical Disks

a) Compact Disk

Compact disk is the most popular and the least expensive type of optical disk. It was originally intended
only for storing music (in the form of digital audio) and can record about 80 minutes of uninterrupted
playing time. A CD is capable of being used as a data storage device along with storing of digital audio.
Compact disks are available in various formats: CD-ROM (compact disk-read-only memory), CD-R
(compact disk-recordable) and CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable) disks.

- A CD-ROM disk comes with pre-recorded data by the manufactures and can be read but
cannot be altered.

17
 - CD-R is a type of WORM (write once-read many) disk that allows you to record your own
data. Once written, the data on the CD-R can be read but cannot be altered.
- A CD-RW disk is rewritable version of CD-R, which means, it allows writing, erasing and
rewriting of the data several times.

The data recorded on all CD formats can be read using the CD-ROM drive; however, to write data on
CD-R and CD-RW disks, one needs a special peripheral device known as CD-writer (or CD-burner)
b) Digital Versatile Disk
DVD, initially called digital video disk, is a high-capacity data storage medium.
NOTE: Like CDs, DVDs are also available in different formats: DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW.
c) Blu-ray Disk
A Blu-ray Disc is a high density optical disc storage medium, which is used for the
storage of all high-definition digital formats like audio, video, and play-station
games and so on. They have the same physical appearance as a DVD. The name
“BLU-RAY” is actually a combination of the colour “blue” and “ray”. Here blue
refers to the blue colour of the laser that is used for its reading and ray refers to the
optical ray.
Like CDs and DVDs, Blu-ray disks are also available in different formats:
• BD-ROM: It comes with pre-recorded content that can only be read.
• BD-R: It is a WORM type of disk on which you can record data only once.
• BD-RW: It is similar to BD-R disk, but the difference is that it is rewritable. This means that
the data can be erased and recorded a number of times on the same disk.
• BD-RE: It is also a rewritable disk, but is used only for high-definition audio/video and
television recording
Blu-Ray Disc (BD) vs DVD
• Both of them have the same physical appearance. [Thickness = 1.2 mm]
• The single layer Blu-ray disc can store up to 27 GB data. A singe layer DVD can hold only 4.7
GB of data.
• A DVD needs two substrates and they should be bonded. But a Blu-ray disc requires only one
substrate.
• The production cost of Blu-ray is lesser than that of a DVD because there is no need for bonding
of substrates..
• The Blu-Ray disc uses violet-blu laser with improved lens specifications, while a DVD uses red
laser.

III.4 Magneto-Optical Disk

As implied by the name, these disks use a hybrid of magnetic and optical technologies. A magneto-
optical disk writes magnetically (with thermal assist) and reads optically using the laser beam. A
magneto-optical disk drive is so designed that an inserted disk will be exposed to a magnet on the label
side and to the light (laser beam) on the opposite side.

III.5 Memory Stick

Memory Stick also known as 'Memory Card' is a digital storage device, which is designed to be used
with portable electronic devices such as mobile phone, digital camera, PDA, iPod and so on. It was
launched in 1998 by Sony and immediately gained popularity due to its support for fast data transfer
speed and large storage capacity.
Nowadays, several different standards or formats of Memory Stick are available in the
market, which are as follows:

18
 III.6 Universal Serial Bus
Universal Serial Bus (USB) (developed by Intel) is a set of connectivity specification that establishes
communication between personal computers and devices such as mouse, keyboard, pen drive and
external hard disk drives.
a) Pen Drive
The flash drive is a high storage (ranging from 1 to 512 GB) capacity device and is
physically small enough to fit into a pocket. In addition, it is fast, robust and reliable,
and requires very less power to operate, which it gets through USB port and hence no
battery is required.
b) External Hard Disk Drive
External hard disk drive is a type of hard drive that resides in its own
enclosure (called hard drive cage) outside the computer case and is
connected to the system through interfaces like USB.
The internal structure and functioning of external hard disk drive is similar
to the internal hard disk drive. Hence, external hard disk drive is a reliable and high-capacity storage
media. In addition, it is portable and provides plug and play feature.

III.7 Mass Storage Devices

To get a vast amount of storage capacity in a computer system, a different kind of storage system is
used. In such type of system, multiple units of similar kinds of storage media are associated together to
form a chain of mass storage devices. These storage media may include multiple magnetic tape reels or
cartridges, multiple arrays of magnetic disks or multiple CD-ROMs as storage devices.
However, they have huge amount of storage capacity and possess minimum cost per bit storage. Mass
storage devices are cost-effective option to the online tapes and disks storage in situations where large
storage capacity is required and where prompt data access is not essential. When used as offline storage,
they are referred as an archival storage.
Broadly speaking, mass storage devices are categorized into three types:
• Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID): The basic idea of RAID is to combine
multiple hard disks into an array of disk drives to obtain high performance, large capacity
and reliability. These arrays of drives appear to the host computer as a single logical drive.
• Automated Tape Library: An automated tape library comprises numerous sets of
magnetic tapes along with their drives and controllers mounted in a single unit. The unit
comprises one or more tape drives to perform read/write operations on the tapes in the
tape library.
• CD-ROM Jukebox: A CD-ROM jukebox comprises numerous sets of CD-ROM disks along with
their drives and controllers mounted in a single unit. The unit comprises one or more CD-ROM drives
to perform read/write operations on the CD-ROM in the jukebox. In the multiple CD-ROM drive
environments, these CD-ROMs can be simultaneously read or written, resulting in the speedy rate of
data transfer.
EXERCISE ON HARDWARE
1. When referring to storage devices name the two types of access and describe how they operate?
2. A mail order company keeps details of transactions stored on magnetic disc. A backup copy is
also held on magnetic tape.
i) Why does the company make a backup copy of the transactions?
ii) Why can the company hold the back up on tape and not need to use disc?
3. Fred saves his report to disc and decides to print it out using the school’s laser printer. The
school has the same type of pc as Fred and uses the same type and format of disc. However, Fred
finds he cannot load his report on the school computer. Why is this?
4. Describe the differences between hard disc, CD ROM and WORM as methods of backing store?
5. Staff in a store carry out a stock check every week and input the data using OCR. The store is
considering using palm top computers for the stock checks. Suggest 2 advantages palm tops have
over OCR forms?
6. Sandie buys a new computer. It is described as a multimedia computer. Suggest one input and
one output device it may have to warrant this description?
Question

19
1. The diagram bellow shows coded data that could be input into a computer

76143072497
(a) What is the name of the above method of input
(b) Where would the above method of 3 input be applied?
(c) For the application you have given in the above question, state two items of information this
type of input may represent.
2- with reasons, briefly describe the most appropriate type of printer or output device for the output
of:
(a) customer invoices on multi-part stationery
(b) letters to customers
(c) detailed engineering designs
3- What is a terminal? Name two types of terminal with short description of each
4- State what is meant by each of the following and give an example of where each is used.
(a) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
(b) Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
5- Distinguish LCD monitor and CRT monitor

Computer hardware is only as effective as the instructions we give it, and those instructions are
contained in software. Software not only directs the computer to manage its internal resources,
but also enables the user to tailor a computer system to provide specific business value. This
chapter aims to:

- Define software and state the main difference between hardware and software
- give the main differences between application software and system software
- Classify the different type of application software by categories with examples in each
category

Table of Contents
I. INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE............................................................................................ 21
I.1 Definition of software .................................................................................................................. 21
I.2 Relation between hardware and software .................................................................................... 21
I.3 Ways of acquiring computer software ......................................................................................... 21
II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE.......................................................................................... 23
II.1 Classification of software based on task .................................................................................... 23
II.2 Classification of software based on source ................................................................................ 28
II.3 Classification of software based on licence................................................................................ 28
II.4 Other type of software ................................................................................................................ 29
EXERCISES ON SOFTWARE ............................................................................................................ 30

20
VI. INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE

I.1 Definition of software

Software, by definition, is the collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that
performs different tasks on a computer system. It actually tells the computer what to do and how to
do it. Software may enter the computer through one of following three ways.
(i) I may be build into the computer circuit in the form of firmware.
(ii) It may be loaded into the computer from a secondary storage device such as CD-ROM or
hard disk drives
(iii) It is also be typed into the computer with the aid of the keyboard and programming tools

I.2 Relation between hardware and software

Software refers to the computer programs that are loaded into a computer system, and hardware refers
to all the visible devices, which are assembled together to build a computer system. The blending of
software and hardware gives life to a computer system. Even though hardware is the physical part of
a computer, it is nothing unless it has software to control it. Hardware and software then share a
special relationship. If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, software is its 'soul'. Both are
complimentary to each other. Hardware is of no use without software and software cannot be used
without hardware.

I.3 Ways of acquiring computer software

Software can enter the computer through different channels. Some of the common ways of
acquiring computer software include:
(i) Buying the computer: when you buy a new computer from the shop, you are usually
supplied with some software for free, from the computer manufacturer
(ii) Buying the software from a shop:
(iii) Downloading the software from a website for free (freeware) or after paying some money
to the vendor
(iv) Ordering from the vendor either by email, fax or postal letter. Here you also need to pay
for the product before it is sent to you.
(v) Copying from other people’s machines: This is what most Cameroonians do and it is what
referred to as software piracy. Software piracy is illegal and therefore punishable by law
Qualities of a Good Software
The attributes of quality software in the above categories are as below:

 Correctness: It means the required functionality and correct results. Customer satisfaction

depends on the degree to which customer requirements and expectations have been met. It

should provide all the functionality desired by the customer.

 Efficiency: It means the efficient use of resources. Software is said to be efficient if it uses

all its resources ( memory, storage, processor) inefficient manner. The software design and

21
 architecture should be such that it gives you a response in the least processing time, using

the resources in the best possible way.

 Reliability: It means bug-free execution.

 Integrity: Integrity is related to extent of access to the software by unauthorized users that

can be controlled.

 flexibility: The software should be developed so that if the user demands any changes in the

system at the coding or testing phase. i.e. in the middle of the software development life

cycle, then it should be easy to insert these challenges in the existing modules.

 Usability: It means that the software must be user-friendly. The software should have hood

documentation and user manual which may include the installation and the process of

using the software. This makes it easy for the new to learn and operate just says studying

the manual.

 Testability: It should need less effort to test the program so that it performs its intended

function. As the complexity of the program increase, the efforts to test the software also

increase.

 Portability: It means the software should have the ability to transfer the software from one

environment to another.

 Reusability: It gives you the concepts of write once and uses many times. For example,

writing functions or subprocedures to receive variable parameters. The calling code passes

the value to the parameters and the called procedure processes them as needed.

 Interoperability: The software development should be so that it can interact with other

products. For example, the word processor can interpolate charts from Excel or data from

databases. It deals with the interface between software products over a communication

network.

22
  Cost effective: The development of the software within cost and budget depends on

efficient design and a high level of project management effort.

 Maintainability: For all the changes desired by the customer or the user, the developer has

to respond fast. And this is possible only if the software design and its architecture are so

chosen that changes can be carried out tin the shortest time without affecting the overall

integrity of the software. The change could be to correct the mistake, expand its

scope.

VII. CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE

Computer software can be organized into categories based on common function, task, or field of
use. We can then categorize software in different ways.

II.1 Classification of software based on task

Based on the kind of task they perform, software can be divided into two
major groups: System software and application software. The diagram
below gives a simplified hierarchical organization of the main parts of
software in a general-purpose computer. At the highest level of this
hierarchy lies the application software, whose services are carried out by the
underlying system software.
Computers operate by executing software programs. This involves passing
the instructions from the application software, through the system software
to the hardware that ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the
computer to carry out an operation such as data transmission, data processing, data storage or data
control.
II.1.1 System software
System software is a type of computer software that controls the operation of the computer and
provides facilities that extend the general capabilities of the machine. This provides the basic
functions for computer usage and helps to run the computer hardware and system. It includes a
combination of the following:
1) Operating system
An operating system is a group of computer programs that coordinates all the activities among
computer hardware devices. This is the most important type of system software in a computer. A user
can’t run an application program on the computer except it is self booting without the Operating
System. Operating systems are contained in almost all devices including mobile phones. (to be
extended in the next chapter)
Functions of an operating system

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An operating system executes many functions to operate computer system efficiently. Among them,
four essential functions are the followings.
 Resource Management: An operating system manages a collection of computer hardware
resources by using a variety of programs. It manages CPU, primary memory, virtual memory,
secondary storage devices, input/output peripherals, and other devices.
 Task Management: The function of the operating system that controls the running of many
tasks. It manages one program or many programs within a computer system simultaneously.
That is, this function of operating system manages the completion of users' tasks.
 File management: This is a function that manages data files. An operating system contains
file management programs that provide the ability to create, delete, enter, change, ask, and
access of files of data. The operating system keeps track of where files are located on the hard
drive through the type of file system. The type two main types of file system most used in
windows OS are File Allocation table (FAT) or New Technology File system (NTFS).
 User Interface: It is a function of an operating system that allows users to interact with a
computer. The two main types of user interfaces are: command line and a graphical user
interface (GUI). With a command line interface, the user interacts with the operating system
by typing commands to perform specific tasks. An example of a command line interface is
DOS (disk operating system).
Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux (ubuntu,
Knoppix, Dreamlinux, …) OS X, QNX, Microsoft Windows(Windows 95, 2000, Vista, 7, 8, …),
Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these, except Windows, Windows Phone and z/OS, share roots
in UNIX.
2) Utility program
This is system software designed to help analyse, configure, optimise or maintain a computer. A
single piece will be called a utility or tool. Some Well-known utility software include:
 Antivirus programs: They are used to detect and eliminate computer viruses and related
malicious software. Some examples are: avast, AVG, Avira, BitDefender, Norton
 Backup programs: They help to make copies of all information valuable to a computer or
information system and store it safe. The information can be restored in the event of disk
failure or other accidents that will lead to data loss.
 Data Recovery: As the name implies, data recovery programs are used to recover data. Since
disk drives or other hardware may fail, these utilities are essential to recover data in such a
scenario.
 Data Compression programs: They make the data more compact, reducing the space
occupied by the data.
 Disk management program : These are program involving formatting and arranging disk
files in an orderly manner.
 Memory management software : It handles locations in RAM where data put their current
data. It can move certain memory-resident items out of the way so as to increase the memory
space.
 The Server: In the context of client-Server architecture, a server is a computer program
running to serve the requests of other programs – “the clients”. The clients may run on the
same systems or through networks.

3) Programming software

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It is the type of software that is used for creating other software. Another name for programming
software is Integrated Development Environment (IDE). An IDE normally consist of a source code
editor, a translator (compiler or interpreter) and a debugger.
- Editor: It is a programming tool that is used for creating and modifying application programs.
It helps the computer user to enter, search, delete, replace, copy and insert text or sections of
a text in a desired position.
- Compiler: It is used to convert a complete program written in a high-level language (such as
Pascal and C) into a program in machine language.
- Interpreter: A program which translates the program statements into machine language one
line at a time as the program is
running.
- Assembler: A programming tool
that convert a program in assembly
language into program in machine
language.
- Debugger: It is a program that is
used for locating and correcting
programming errors.
- Linker: A linker or link Editor is a
program that takes one or more
objects generated by the compiler
and combines them to a single
executable program..
- Loader: Loader is a kind of system
software, which is responsible for
loading and relocation of the
executable program in the main
memory. The functions of a loader
include assigning load time space
for storage, that is, storage allocation
and assisting a program to execute
appropriately.

4) Device driver
Device drivers are computer programs that allow higher level computer programs to communicate
and interact with a hardware device. All hardware devices have the devices drivers that communicate
with them through the computer bus to which the hardware is connected. Drivers are hardware
dependent and operating system specific. Some specific categories of device drivers are
Logical Device Drivers (LDD) which are written by the Operating System vendors
Physical Device Drivers (PDD) which are written and implemented by the hardware vendor. To
solve device driver crises, Microsoft has created the Windows Drivers Foundation (WDF) which
collects and keeps all device drivers as a database.
II.1.2 Application software
Although system software has the vital job of controlling and managing the computer, it is the
application software that lets you carry out the tasks for which the system was purchased. It enables
the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks. Business software, databases and educational
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software are some forms of application software. Different word processors, which are dedicated to
specialized tasks to be performed by the user, are other examples of application software.
a) General purpose software

A general purpose application, sometimes known as ‘off-the-shelf’ is the sort of software that you
use at home and school. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, databases, desktop
publishing packages, graphics packages etc.

This type of software tries to be a ‘jack-of-all-trades’. It provides many features that the majority of
users will want e.g. formatting text, creating charts, organising tables. But it does try to be’ all things
to all people’ and so there will be a vast number of features that you may never use e.g. statistical
functions, mail merge. This makes the storage size of these applications fairly large.

There are several good reasons for using general purpose software:

 It is relatively cheap
 It is easily available from most computer shops
 It will have been thoroughly tested so there won’t be any serious problems or bugs
 There will be lots of user support i.e. books, user guides, online help and discussion forums
on the Internet

Examples of General Purpose Application Software:

 Desktop Publishing Software - Often used to create graphics for point of sale displays,
promotional items, trade show exhibits, retail package designs and outdoor signs. In very
simple words, it could be said that it is a page maker application.
 Word-Processing Software - Used for the production (including composition, editing,
formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable material. This software enables users
to create, format, edit and print electronic documents (Letters, reports, articles, …). The most
popular examples of this type of software are MS-Word, WordPad and Word Perfect,
Libreoffice writter.
 Spreadsheet Software - Used for any kind of spreadsheet work including analysis, planning
or modeling. This is a general purpose software with many functions. Spreadsheet software
are used for creating documents to manage and organize numerical data. It is used to perform
calculations on rows and columns of data Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers
are some examples of spreadsheet
 Database Database is a structured collection of data. A computer database relies on database
software to organize data and enable database users to perform database operations. Database
software allows users to store and retrieve data from databases. Examples are Oracle,
MSAccess, EasyPhp, etc.
 Graphic package Allow you to create pictures and edit photographs. Example software:
CorelDraw. Paint Shop Pro.
 Presentation Software: The software that is used to display information in the form of a slide
show is known as presentation software. This type of software includes three functions,
namely, editing that allows insertion and formatting of text, methods to include graphics in
the text and a functionality of executing slide shows. Microsoft PowerPoint and Micromedia
director are the best example of presentation softwareWeb design application

b) Specific purpose software

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Function-specific software are highly specialized software that are designed to handle specific tasks.
They're more limited in what they can do, but they usually perform much better than a general purpose
program in a specific task.
For example, TurboTax (a tax preparation package) is a special purpose application. Sure, it adds and
subtracts numbers like a spreadsheet, but you can't use it to plan your monthly budget. It does only
one thing - prepare tax returns. Other examples of special purpose application software are web
browsers, calculators, media players, calendar programs etc. Again, make sure that you don't use
brand names!
 Communications software: Used to send messages and emails Example software: MS
Outlook Express. MS Messenger.
 Desktop publishing programs: Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single
document. Example software: Adobe PageMaker. MS Publisher.
 Web browser: Computer program that enables internet users to access, navigate, and
search World Wide Web sites. It is also called browser. Ex: Mozilla Firefox, Internet
explorer, Opera, Google chrome
 Enterprise Software: It deals with the needs of organization processes and data flow.
Customer relationship management or the financial processes in an organization are carried
out with the help of enterprise software. Ex: Sage Saari
 Multimedia Software: They allow users to create and play audio and video files. They are
capable of playing media files. Audio converters, audio players, burners, video encoders
and decoders are some forms of multimedia software. Examples of this type of software
include Real Player and Windows Media Player.

c) Bespoke software

Although most organisations use general purpose software, some organisations will find that it just
doesn’t do exactly what they want or it doesn’t work with their current systems. In this case, they
might decide to have the software system they need designed and developed specifically for
them. This is called ‘tailor-made’ or ‘bespoke’ software. Bespoke application software is tailor made
for a specific user and purpose. For example a factory may require software to run a robot to make
cars; however, it is the only factory making that car in the world, so the software required would have
to be specially built for the task.

The main advantages are:

 the company will get the exact software/system that they need
 the software will work exactly how they want it to work
 the software will only have the features that they specifically need in their business.

The main disadvantages of this approach are:

 it takes a long time to develop such a system, between a few months to years
 it costs a great deal of money to develop such a system.
 the company may need to employ a team of people such as business analysts, programmers,
testers etc
 there will be little in the way of user support and online help

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Other examples might include software for the military, missile/UAV operations, software for
hospitals and medical equipment, software being written inside banks and other financial institutions.

II.2 Classification of software based on source

Based on code source, we distinguish two types of software: Open Source Software and Closed
Source Software.
II.2.1 Closed source software
Also called proprietary software, it is software with restricting on using, copying and modifying the
source code as enforced by the proprietor. In other words, computer users do not have any access to
the source code of the proprietary software. Well known examples of proprietary software include:
Windows, RealPlayer, Adobe Photoshop, Mac OS, ...
II.2.2 Open source software
It is the type of software that has no proprietary restriction attached to it, particularly the restriction
about the access to the source code. In other words, open source software is designed in such a way
that computer users can freely access and modify the source code to suit their individual need. It is
also called non-proprietary software. E.g. Linux, Open Office

II.3 Classification of software based on licence

The term licence refers to a legal document or agreement giving someone permission to do and use
something. A software licence comprises the permissions, rights and restriction imposed on a piece
of software. Under a software licence, the Licensee is permitted to use the licence software in
compliance with a specific term on the licence. Based on licence, computer software may be divided
into the following:
II.3.1 Public Domain Software.GPL
The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a free software license, originally
written by Richard Stallman for the GNU project (a project to create a complete free software
operating system). It has since become one of the most popular licenses for free software. The latest
version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991. The GNU Lesser General Public License
(LGPL), another commonly-used license, is a modified version of the GPL intended for software
libraries.
The GPL grants the recipients of a computer program the following rights, or "freedoms":
 The freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
 The freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source
code is a precondition for this)
 The freedom to redistribute copies.
 The freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public.
(Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
. II.3.2 Freeware
This is a Copyrighted software given away for free by the author. Although it is available for free,
the author retains the copyright, which means that you cannot do anything with it that is not expressly
allowed by the author. Usually, the author allows people to use the software, but not sell it.
You are also free to distribute it to anyone you want, provided the distribution is an unmodified
version of what you downloaded from the provider’s web site. In fact they encourage you to distribute
their Freeware. Freeware is provided on an "as is" basis and no technical support is usually available.
II.3.3 Shareware

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This may be copyrighted software, regularly in trial version, but generally the developer allows users
to make copies without an initial charge. However, if the user intends to use it beyond a brief tryout,
the developer requests that the program be paid for. A marketing method for software, whereby a trial
version is distributed in advance and without payment. A user tries out the program, and thus
shareware has also been known as 'try before you buy', demoware, trialware and by many other
names.
II.3.4 Crippleware
The shareware version of a program whose most advanced and most desirable features have been
disabled with the intention of increasing users apetite for the better version. If the fee is paid, a code
is acquired, which uncripple the program.
II.3.5 Nagware:
Nagware (also known as annoyware) is a type of shareware, that reminds —or nags— the user to
register it by paying a fee. It usually does this by popping up a message when the user starts the
program or, worse, intermittently while the user is using the application. These messages can appear
as windows obscuring part of the screen or message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware
keeps the message up for a certain time period, forcing the user to wait to continue to use the program
II.3.6 Adware:
Advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or
downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the
application is being used.
II.3.7 Liteware
This is the free version of a program, that does not contain those features that are attractive to frequent
or heavy user.
II.3.8 Vapoware
Vaporware (or vapourware) is software or hardware which is announced by a developer well in
advance of release, but which then fails to emerge, either with or without a protracted development
cycle.

II.4 Other type of software

Custom Software: Software that is developed for a specific user or organization is custom software.
Since it is built for a specific user, its specifications and features are in accordance with the user's
needs.
Off-the-Shelf Software: As opposed to custom software, off-the-shelf software is standard software
bought off the shelf. It has predefined specifications that may or may not cater to any specific user's
requirements. When you buy it, you agree to its license agreement.
Tailor Made Software: Tailor made software is software that is made to the specifications of a client.
In other words it is custom made, bespoke, or 'tailored' to address a specific need
Retail Software: While shareware is provided as a trial version to users, retail software is sold to end
users.
Firmware: Firmware is a combination of software (generally, system software) permanently stored
in the memory (hardware). As the name suggests, it is a program or data that has been written onto
the read-only memory (ROM). For example, the BIOS (which is installed inside a computer on a
chip) checks different parts of the system before loading the operating system into the memory.
Liveware: People who write programs, operate and maintain the computers are collectively known
as liveware, humanware or peopleware; for example, programmers, system analysts and hardware
engineers.
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 EXERCISES ON SOFTWARE
Exercise 1: State whether each of the following operations is carried out by the operating system or
by an application software
delete a file, format a disk, play a game, load from a disk, write a letter, enter a list of
names, create a new folder, print a file, draw a picture, double click the mouse
button, select from a menu, carry out a single field sort, get a directory listing, do a
calculation, select QUIT.
Exercise 2: State whether the following task is carried out by a word processor, a spreadsheet, a
database or a graphic software
1) Typing articles for a club newsletter
2) Keeping track of income and expenditure in a shop
3) Storing information about members of a youth club
4) Analysing sales figures and trends in sales
5) Designing a business card for a small firm
6) Typing a letter to members of a youth club
7) Making changes to a photograph
8) Creating a 'No Smoking' sign
9) Preparing the year accounts for a small business
10) Storing details of 500 CDs in a music collection
11) Drawing a map for a treasure hunt
12) Preparing an essay for English class
13) Recording details of products in a supermarket
14) Drawing a picture of a house
15) Scanning a picture in a book
Exercise 3:
A secondary school has been using several versions of office automation software packages which
consist of a word-processing software and spreadsheet software. This years the school plans to
upgrade the office automation software packages so as to increase the use of information technology
in teaching, to improve daily communication among its staff, and students and to computerize
students' attendance record system.
1. Name three additional types of software that should be included in this upgrade exercise. State
one corresponding application for each type of software.
2. The teacher makes use of an upgraded word-processing software to prepare a computer test paper
in school. However he cannot open the document at home with its old version of word-processing
software. Explain why the teacher cannot open the document and suggest one method the teacher
can use to avoid the problem without any additional cost.
Vocabulary: To upgrade = to improve what was old or outdated. Upgrade a software implies
adding new functionalities.
Exercise 4: ‘Hardware is of no use without software and software cannot be used without hardware.’
Explain.
1. What is the difference between an Open source Software and a Freeware. Write one example of
each.
2. What is an operating system? Names of any two popular operating systems.
3. Name and explain any two main functions of an operating system
Exercise 5: For each type of software, copy the correct description along with two examples:

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 Application Software Example Applications
1. Word processors - Internet Explorer - MS Outlook Express
2. Spreadsheets - Real Player - Windows Media Player
3. Databases - Adobe PageMaker - Lotus 123
4. Desktop publishing programs - Firefox - MS PowerPoint
5. Presentation applications - Word Perfect - MS Messenger
6. Web design applications - MySQL - MS Word
7. Graphics programs - CorelDraw - MS FrontPage
8. Multimedia display programs - MS Publisher - DreamWeaver
9. Web browsing applications - MS Excel - MS Access
10. Communications software - Macromedia Director - Paint Shop Pro

Descriptions
 Used to combine and control graphics and text in a single document
 Used to perform calculations on rows and columns of data
 Allow you to create pictures and edit photographs
 Used to send messages and emails
 Enable you to write, edit and print letters, articles and reports.
 Used to design and edit pages of information for the internet
 Allow you to view videos and animations with sound
 Use to organise and search through collections of data
 Used to view websites on the internet
 Allow you to present information to an audience

1. Describe how bespoke software is different from the normal software packages
purchased in shops.
2. Give a short description (or definition) of the following words or expressions (no more
than 2 lines per word): Loader, Crippleware, Open source software

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