BITUMEN

Bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material, black or dark brown in colour, having adhesive
properties. It consists of hydrocarbons, derived from petroleum or occurring in natural asphalt
and soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2) it is substantially non-volatile, non – toxic and softens
gradually when heated

Categories of bitumen

 Naturally occurring bitumens

 Bitumens that are products of the fractional distillation of petroleum at a refinery

Bitumens are available in widely distributed natural asphalt deposits. “Asphalt” implies a
mixture of bitumen and mineral particles. (In US, the term asphalt is used to refer to what in
Britain is called Bitumen, i.e. the binder without any additional mineral matter) they are
subdivided into:

i) Asphalt occurring in a fairly pure state, i.e. generally small deposits consisting of
hydrocarbons with little or no mineral matter
ii) Asphalts with an appreciable proportion of mineral matter e.g. Trinidad Lake Asphalt in
the west Indies, Bermudez Lake Asphalt in Venezuela
iii) Mineral matter associated with small proportions of asphalt e.g. natural rock asphalts
found in France, Switzerland, Columbia - rock asphalts are usually limestone or
sandstones impregnated with natural bitumen.

Refinery bitumens

These are artificially produced by the industrial refining of crude petroleum oils. They are also
known residual bitumens, straight –run bitumens, steam –refined bitumens.
The composition of asphaltic base petroleum crude is shown below. The proportion in any
particular instance will vary with the crude. Bitumen is obtained from the crude by a refinery
distillation process which involves condensation in a fractionating column.

Gasoline

Kerosene

Diesel Oil
Decreasing Volatility
Light Lubricating Oil

Light Lubricating Oil

Bitumen

Asphalt is one of the two principle constituents of asphalt concrete. Asphalt functions as
waterproof, thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive. In other words, it acts as the glue that holds the
road aggregates together. Asphalt is a class of black or dark-coloured (solid, semi-solid or
viscous) cementitious substances, natural or manufactured, composed principally of high
molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts, tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are typical.
Asphalts occur I nature or are obtained in petroleum processing.

Petroleum Refining

In the simplest terms, asphalt binder is simply the residue left over from petroleum refining.
Thus, asphalt binders are produced mainly by petroleum refiners and, to a lesser extent, by
formulators who purchase blending stock from refiners. The composition of base crude oil from
which asphalt is refined can vary widely and thus the asphalt yield from different crude oil
source can also vary widely. The American institute (API) classifies crude oils by their API
gravity. API gravity is an arbitrary expression of material’s density at 15.50C (600F) and is
obtained in the following equation
 API gravity = - 131.5

API gravity can be used as a rough estimate of asphalt yield. Crudes with lower API gravity

produce more asphalt and are said to be sour, while the one with high API are sweet.

The process of distillation

Crude oils are heated in large furnace to about 3400C (6500F) and partially vaporized. It is then

fed into a distillation tower where the lighter components vaporize and are drawn off for further

processing. The residue from this process (the asphalt) is usually fed into a vacuum distillation

unit where heavier gas oils are drawn off. Asphalt cement grade is controlled by the amount of

heavy gas oil remaining. Others techniques can then extract additional oils from the asphalt.

Depending upon the exact process and the crude oil source, different asphalt cements of different

properties can be produced. Additional desirable propertiess can be obtained by blending crude

oils before distillation or asphalt cement after distillation.

BITUMEN CHEMISTRY

Origin of asphalt

Asphalt cement is refined from the crude petroleum which is primarily formed by nature from

plant life. The process of transformation from plant life to crude oil occurs over millions of

years under varied temperature and pressure conditions. Although all petroleums are basically

hydrocarbons (chemical combinations of carbon and hydrogen), the amount and nature of

hydrocarbons varies from crude to crude. Since asphalt cement is obtained by distillation from

the crude, its chemical composition and properties also vary from source to source.

 Bitumen chemistry is highly complex and therefore not well understood.

 Elemental composition:
  Principally composed of carbon and Hydrogen.

 Also has hetero-atoms namely S (next most abundant element, ) N and O (these

are present in very small amounts)

 Metallic elements e.g. Nickel (Ni), Vanadium (v) etc. (may also be present in very

trace amounts)

 The type of molecular structure is more important than the amount of each element.

 There is high diversity in molecular composition depending on the crude source, refining

source, storage etc.

 Asphalt cements contain a combination of the following three arrangements by

which the carbon atoms are linked with each other:

 Straight or branched chains: such asphalt cements are generally called “aliphatic”

or “paraffin” types.

 There is high diversity in molecular composition depending on the crude source,

refining source, storage etc.

 Asphalt cements contain a combination of the following three arrangements by

which the carbon atoms are linked with each other:

o Straight or branched chains: such asphalt cements are generally called

“aliphatic or “paraffinic” types.

o Simple or complex saturated rings. These asphalt cements are usually

referred to as naphthenic types.

o One or more stable six are called aromatic types. Benzene and

naphthalene have such structures.

Functional or polar groups

Heteroatom (S, N and O) are attached to carbon atoms in asphalt molecules in different

configurations and in form of different compounds. These configurations (molecules) are polar

because there is an imbalance of electromechanical forces within the molecule which produces a

dipole. Therefore, each polar molecule has electropositive and electronegative characteristics

similar to a magnet which has north and south poles. Since like charges repel and unlike charges

attract each other, molecules interactions are induced in asphalt cements which strongly

influence their physical or engineering properties and performance. These configurations of

heteroatom thus impart functionality and polarity to asphalt molecules and are therefore called

functional or polar groups. Functionality (presence of functional groups) relates to how the

asphalt molecules interact with each other or with surfaces and/ or molecules of other materials.

For example, selective adsorption of functional or polar group by aggregate surface is important

to understand the stripping phenomena.

Although present in small amount, these polar groups vary in characteristics from asphalt to

asphalt and have a large effect on the on the performance of asphalt cement from different

sources. Also, the non- polar components of asphalt cement, which act as solvent or dispersants

for the polar of functional groups, play a major role in determining the effect that the polar

groups will have on the physical and aging properties of the asphalt cement.

The hetero-atoms form configurations with different functional or polar groups.

o Sulphur – sulfide, polysulfides, Thiols, Thiopnenes etc

o Nitrogen- pyridinic, pyrrole, porphyrins

o Oxygen- carboxylic acids/Naphthenic acids, phenols, Ketones, esters, ethers, anhydrides,

etc
Conceptual composition model

Bitumen

Asphaltenes Maltenes (petrolenes)

Resins
Oils

Asphaltenes are insoluble (or precipitated) when the asphalt cement is dissolved in a non-polar

solvent such as pentane, hexane, or heptanes. The component which is dissolved is called

Maltenes (or petrolenes) comprised of oils and resins.

Asphaltenes

 They are generally dark brown, friable solids.

 They are the bodying agents of bitumens

 Are precipitated by non-polar solvents like n-pentane is less than in n-heptanes because

the number of carbon atoms in n-pentane is less than that in n-heptanes.

 Most complex and highly polar and hence have a high tendency to interact and associate.
 They play a major role as the viscosity-building (bodying) components of asphalt
cements.

Resins

 Are generally dark and semi-solid and solid in character

 Are fluid when heated and brittle when cooled

  They work as agents that disperse or peptize the Asphaltenes throughout the oils to

provide a homogeneous liquid. (They act as dispersers for the Asphaltenes in the oil

medium)

 Soluble in non- polar solvents

 On oxidation, they yield Asphaltenes and resin molecules.

Oils

 Are colourless white liquids

 Soluble in most solvents

 They have paraffinic and naphthenic structures with no oxygen and nitrogen usually

present.

 On oxidation, they yield Asphaltenes and resin molecules.

Bitumen as a colloidal system:

 Bitumen is considered a colloidal or micellar system

 The relative amounts and characteristics of Asphaltenes, resins and oils present in asphalt

cement influence its physical properties and performance in a mixture. These influences

make bitumen act as a “sol”, “sol-gel” or “gel”

 “Sol” is whereby the resins keep the Asphaltenes highly peptized or dispersed in the oil

phase. They exhibit Newtonian flow behavior. Nitrogen bases in asphalt cement are

primarily responsible for the “sol” characteristics.

 “Gel” is whereby the resins are not very effective in peptizing the Asphaltenes in the oil.

Excessive presence of paraffin in relation to nitrogen bases also tends to reduce

solubility, leading to increased “gel” characteristics and suggesting increased separation

 of the dispersed and dispersing phases. They exhibit non-Newtonian behavior (Visco-

elastic flow).

 Most bitumen is “sol-gel” i.e they are intermediate between “sol” and “gel”.

PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

Physical properties

Durability: Durability is a measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change with age

(sometimes called age hardening). In general, as an asphalt binder ages, its viscosity increase

and it becomes more stiff and brittle. Age hardening is a result of a number of factors, the

principle ones being:

Asphalt binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties. An asphalt

binder’ physical properties directly describe how it will perform as a constituent in a mixture the

challenge in physical property characterized is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily

characterized key asphalt binder parameters and how these parameters change through the life of

a pavement. The earliest physical tests were empirically derived tests. Some of these tests, such

as the penetration test, have been used for the better part of the 20th Century with good results.

Later tests, such as the viscosity tests, were first attempts at using fundamental engineering

parameters to describe asphalt binder physical properties. Tied between tested parameters and

field performance were still quite vague. Superpave binder tests, developed in the 1980s and

1990s were developed with the goal of measuring specific asphalt binder physical properties that

are directly related to field performance by engineering principles. These tests are generally a bit
more complex but seem to accomplish a more thorough characterization of the tested asphalt

binder.

The more common asphalt binder physical properties are:

Oxidation: This is the reaction of oxygen with an asphalt binder. The rate depends on the

character of the asphalt cement and the temperature.

Volatilization: It is the evaporation of the lighter constituents of asphalt binder. It is primarily a

function of temperature and occurs principally during mix production.

Polymerization: It is the combining of like molecules. These larger molecules are thought to

cause a progressive hardening.

Thixotropy: It is the progressive hardening due to the formation of a structure within the asphalt

cement over a period of time which can be destroyed to a degree by reheating and working the

material. Thixotropy hardening also called steric hardening is generally associated with

pavements which have little or no traffic and its magnitude is a function of asphalt composition.

This is the property of asphalt binder whereby it “sets” when un-agitated. Thixotropy is thought

to result from hydrophilic suspended particles that form a lattice structure throughout the asphalt

binder. This causes an increase in viscosity and thus, hardening. Thixotrophic effects can be

somewhat reversed by heat and agitation. Asphalt pavements with little or no traffic are

generally associated with thixotropic hardening.

Syneresis: It is the exudation reaction in which the oily liquids are excluded to the surface of the

asphalt cement film. With the elimination of these oily constituents, the bitumen becomes

harder. It is the separation of less viscous liquids from the more viscous asphalt binder molecular
network. The liquid loss hardens the asphalt and is caused by shrinkage or rearrangement of the

asphalt binder structure due to either physical or chemical changes. Syneresis is a form of

bleeding.

Separation: It is the removal of the oily constituents, resign or Asphaltenes from the asphalt

binder by selective absorption of some porous aggregates.

RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN/ ASPHALT CEMENT

Rheology

Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. It is therefore the time dependence of

deformation of properties of bitumen. It describes the stress/strain relations of materials over

time and temperature. Deformation and flow of the asphalt binder in HMA is important in

determining HMA pavement performance. HMA pavements that deform and flow too much may

be susceptible to rutting and bleeding, while those that are too stiff may be susceptible to fatigue

or thermal cracking.

a) Aging/ age hardening

In the drum mix, aggregate are mixed with hot asphalt cement. During short mixing time, the

asphalt cement, which is in very thin films, is exposed to air at temperature ranging between 275-

3250F (135 to 1630C). Rheological changes e.g. decrease in penetration and increase in viscosity

of the asphalt cement take place during this short mixing time from both air oxidation and loss of

more volatile components. Age Hardening of bitumen continues, though at a slower rate,

through surge or storage silo, transported to the paving site, laid and compacted. After the HMA

has cooled and has been opened to traffic, age hardening continues at a significantly slower rate
for the first 2-3 years until the pavement approaches its limiting density under traffic. There

after the rate of hardening is further reduced and longer time periods are needed to

discern/differentiate the changes in the rheological properties of bitumen.

Age hardening can be accelerated if the HMA pavement has higher air voids than originally

designed, which provides easy entry of air, water and light. Thicker asphalt cement films around

the aggregate also harden at a slower rate comared to thin films.

The factors that contribute to age hardening in bitumen are:

 Oxidation
 Volatilization
 Polymerization
 Thixotropy
 Syrenesis
 Separation

Penetration: It is the distance that a standard needle penetrates into bitumen at 25 oC under a

load of 100g for duration of 5 seconds. It’s basic principle, and the basic principle of the

penetration test, was to determine the depth to which a truncated No.2 seeing needle penetrated

an asphalt sample under specified conditions of load, time and temperature. In 1915, ASTM

even went as far as specifying the brand of needle (R.J. Roberts Parabola Sharps No.2) The

current penetration test, first published in 1959, describes the following basic procedure.

1. Melt and cool the asphalt binder sample under controlled conditions.

2. Measure the penetration of a standard needle into the asphalt binder sample under the

following conditions.
  Load-100grams

 Temperature=25oC(77oF)

 Time=5 Second

The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1mm and reported in penetration units (e.g. if
the needle penetrates 8mm, the asphalt penetration number is 80). Penetration at 770F or 250C
generally gives the consistency of asphalt cement near average yearly service temperature, thus it
has some influence on the overall performance of the HMA pavement. It has been observed that
aging of the HMA pavement results in progressive lower penetration with time.

Viscosity: This is a measure of the resistance to flow, expressed in poises (p). Viscosity is

normally measured at 140oF, (600C).

Temperature susceptibility: Bitumen is a thermoplastic material, whose consistency changes

with temperature. Temperature susceptibility is the rate at which the consistency of bitumen
changes with change in temperature. Asphalt cements highly susceptible to temperature change
are not desirable because

 Their viscosity at 2750C (1350C) can be very low, resulting into occasional tender mix
problems during compaction.
 Their viscosity (stiffness) at the lowest service temperatures are usually very high
resulting in low temperature shrinkage cracking.

Approaches for determining temperature susceptibility

a) Penetration Index (PI)

PI is used to predict bitumen and mixture visco-elastic properties. It is measured at two
temperatures.

Where A is the slope of straight line obtained from a plot of logarithm

of penetration against the test temperature in degrees C.

The lower the penetration index, the higher its temperature susceptibility. Asphalt cements with

a PI below -2 are said to be highly temperature susceptive since they usually exhibit brittleness at

low temperatures and are very prone to transverse cracking in cold climates (Roberts et al.,

1996). Those greater than +2 are less brittle and they exhibit high elastic properties under high

strains (Noor et al., 2011)

The acceptable range of penetration index is -1 to 1. Below -1 means a low temperature

resulting into tensile stresses developing as the pavement contracts. The friction between the

pavement and the base layer resist contraction.

b) Pen-Vis Number (PVN)

This number is based on penetration at 770F (250C) and viscosity at either 2750F or 1400F (1350C

or 600C) which are usually specification requirements for paving asphalt cements.

Use is made of McLeod chart

(-1.5) where

X=the logarithm of viscosity in centistokes measured at 2750F (1350C)

L= the logarithm of viscosity at 2750F (1350C) for a PVN of 0.0

M=the logarithm of viscosity at 2750F (1350C) for a PVN of -1.5

The Viscosity values of L and M can be read from the McLeod Chart. Alternatively, accurate

values of L and M can be obtained from equations below:

logV=4.25800-0.79670logP: For line representing a PVN of 0.0.

logV=3.46289-0.61094logP: for line representing a PVN of -1.5

Where V is the viscosity in centistokes at 2750F and P is the penetration at 770F.

The lower the PVN value, the higher the temperature susceptibility. For most bitumen’s, the

acceptable range is 0.5<PVN<-2.0. It is worth noting that PI changes on aging (during mixing

and subsequently during service) whereas the PVN remains substantially the same.

c) Viscosity- Temperature Susceptibility (VTS)

To determine VTS, a double logarithm of viscosity in centistokes is plotted against the logarithm

of the absolute temperature in degrees K.

The larger the VTS, the higher the temperature susceptibility

GRADING OF BITUMEN

PENETRATION GRADING

Penetration Grading is based on the penetration test. The penetration grading of asphalt cement is

specified in ASTM D946 and is primarily controlled by the penetration test. Five standard

penetration graded asphalt cements, 40-50, 60-70, 80-100, 120-150, and 200-300, are used in

paving mixes. The higher the penetration, the softer the asphalt cements. Therefore, 40-50 is the

hardest grade; 200-300 is the softest grade.

Advantages of penetration grading system

1. Grading is based on consistency of the asphalt cement at 77 oF, (25oC) which is close to

the average pavement service temperature. Testing at 77oF, (25oC) may provide a better

correlation with low temperature properties than the viscosity test which is measured at

140oF, (60oC).

2. Testing time is relatively short and precise

3. Penetration testing is adoptable to field conditions. It can be used by the HMA contractor

to detect contamination of the asphalt cement (Usually from other petroleum distillates or

asphalt cutbacks in the transport units)

4. Equipment costs are relatively low.

5. Precision limits for the penetration test are well established

6. Temperature susceptibility (change of asphalt cement consistency with corresponding

change if temperature) of the asphalt cement can be determined by measuring penetration

at temperatures other than 77oF, (25oC).

Disadvantages of the penetration grading system

1. Penetration is an empirical test and does not measure the constituency of asphalt cement

in fundamental units such as viscosity.

2. Shear rate is high during the test.

3. Shear rate is variable because it depends on the consistency of the asphalt cement

4. Similitude at 770F, (25oC) can be deceptive to performance at higher and lower service

temperature.

5. No viscosity is available to establish mixing and compaction temperatures.

VISCOSITY GRADING

Bitumen can be graded basing on viscosity as specified in ASTM D3381 based on:

 The Viscosity of the original asphalt cement or

 On the viscosity of the asphalt cement after aging in the rolling thin film oven

(RTFO) test both viscosities are measured at 1400F (600C) and reported in poises.

The viscosity grades based on original asphalt cement include AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20,

AC-30 and AC-40. The numerical values indicate viscosity at 1400F (600C) in hundreds of

posies.

AC 2.5 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 250pn at 600C

AC 5 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 500p at 600C

AC 10 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 100P at 60oC

AC 20 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 2000p at 600C

AC 40 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 4000P at 60oC

A poise is the standard unit if measurement for viscosity. The lower the number of poise, the

less viscous the asphalt cements. AC 2.5 (Asphalt cement with a viscosity of 250P at 600C) is

“softer” than AC 40 (Asphalt cement with a viscosity of 400P at 600C.

Advantages of viscosity grading system

1. Viscosity is a fundamental property, rather than an empirical test and therefore is

independent of the test system and sample size.

 2. It is suitable to a wide range of environments (pavement temperatures 77 to 1400F or

250C to 600C).

3. It is based on viscosity at 1400F (600C) which is near the maximum pavement surface

temperature generally experienced. This temperature is critical for pavement

performance during hot summer days.

4. A wide range of test instruments is available

5. Test standards are available with established precision limits

6. Temperature susceptibility of the asphalt cement can be determined since the consistency

is measured at three temperatures.

Disadvantages of viscosity grading system

1. Grading at 1400F (600C) is deceptive to performance at average or low service

temperature.

2. It is not adequate to safeguard against low temperature cracking.

3. The test system is slightly more expensive than the penetrometer.

4. Testing time is longer

5. TFOT residue viscosity can vary considerably within the same grade. E.g. AC20 asphalt

cements from two different sources can have TFOT residue viscosities of 3,500 and

10,000 poises. These asphalts are likely to behave differently during and after

construction.

AR Viscosity Grading System

Based on the Aged Residue (AR) from the RTFO test includes AR-1000, AR-2000, AR-

4000, AR-8000, and AR-16000. The numerical values indicate viscosity at 1400F (600C) in
poises. AR-1000 represents a viscosity of 1000 poises at 1400F (600C) of the aged reside.

Specifications require minimum penetration at 770F (250C) and minimum viscosity at 270F

(1350C) for the aged residue. Penetration of the original asphalt cement is determined to

check the specified minimum requirement for percentage of retained penetration after RTFO

test.

Advantages of AR viscosity grading system

1. It represents asphalt properties after the HMA is manufactures in a typical HMA batch

facility.

2. Reasonable uniform behavior of asphalt cement is expected from different sources but

within the same AR grade during lay down and compaction.

Disadvantages of AR viscosity grading system

1. It is highly regional

2. Requires more testing equipment

3. Testing time is longer because aged residue from the RTFO test must be obtained first

4. Detecting contamination is a problem because there are no constituency requirements on

original asphalt.

5. Aged residue may not relate to hardening that occurs in the drum mix process.

The third methods of classifying asphalt binders is performance based developed by the

SHRP known as SUPERPAVE.

SUPERPAVE PERFORMANCE GRADING

Penetration grading and viscosity grading are somewhat limited in their ability to fully

characterized asphalt binder for use in HMA pavement. Therefore, as part of the superpave

research effort new binder tests and specifications were developed to more accurately and

fully characterize asphalt binders for use in HMA pavements. These tests and specifications

are specifically designed to address HMA pavement performance parameters such as rutting,

fatigue cracking and thermal cracking.

Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the idea that HMA asphalt binder

properties should be related to the conditions under which it is used. For asphalt binders,

this involves expected climatic conditions as well as aging considerations. Therefore PG

system uses a common battery of tests (as the older penetration and viscosity grading systems

do) but specifies that a particular asphalt binder must pass these tests at specific temperatures

that are dependent upon the specific climatic conditions in the area of use. For example a

binder used in the Sonoran Desert of California/Arizona/Mexico would have different

properties than one used in the Alskan tundra. This concept is not new-selection of

penetration or viscosity graded asphalt binder follows the same logic- but the relationships

between asphalt binder properties and conditions of use are more complete and more precise

with the Superpave PG system. Information on how to select a PG asphalt binder for a

specific condition is contained in Superpave mix design method.

Table 1 shows how the Superpave PG system addresses specific penetration, AC and AR

grading system general limitations.

Table 1. Prior Limitations Vs. Superpave Testing and Specification features (after Roberts et
al, 1996)

Limitation of penetration, AC and AR Superpave Binder testing and

Grading Systems Specification that address prior
Limitations
Penetration and viscosity tests are empirical The physical properties measured are directly
and not directly related to HMA pavement related to field performance by engineering
performance principles.
Tests are conducted at one standard Test criteria remain constant, however, the
temperature without regard to the climate in temperature at which the criteria must be met
which the asphalt binder will be used. changes in consideration of the binder grade
selected for the prevalent climatic conditions.
The range of pavement temperatures at any The entire range of pavement temperatures
one site is not adequately covered. For experienced at a particular site is covered.
example, there is no test method for asphalt
binder stiffness at low temperatures to
control thermal cracking.
Test methods only consider short-term Three critical binder ages are simulated and
asphalt binder aging (thin film oven test) tested.
although long-term aging is a significant 1. Original asphalt binder prior to
factors in fatigue cracking and low mixing with aggregate.
temperature cracking. 2. Aged asphalt binder after HMA
production and construction.
3. Long-term aged binder.
Asphalt binders can have significantly Grading is more precise and there is less
different characteristics within the same overlap between grades.
grading category.
Modified asphalt binders are not suited for Tests and specifications are intended for
these grading systems. asphalt “binders” to include both modified
and unmodified asphalt cements.
Superpave performance grading is reported using two numbers-the first being the average

seven day maximum pavement temperature (oC) and the second being the minimum

pavement design temperature likely to be experienced (oC). Thus, a PG 58-22 is intended for

use where the average seven-day maximum pavement temperature is 58oC and the expected

minimum pavement temperature is -22oC. NOTICE THAT THESE NUMBERS ARE

PAVEMENT TEMPERATURES AND NOT AIR TEMPERATURES. (These pavement

temperatures are estimated from air temperatures using an algorithm contained in the [LTPP

bind ] program)

BITUMEN TESTS

a) Penetration

 Load=100g, time(duration)=5s, Temperature=25oC

b) Viscosity tests-measures using viscometers

 Absolute viscosity measured at 140oF or 60oC-Viscosity is simply a measure of a

fluid’s resistance to flow and is described by the following equation:

Where: Viscosity (in cgs units of poise). Poise=dyne-sec/cm2 =g/cm-sec(the SI unit of

viscosity is the Pa-sec=Sec=N-sec/m2=10poise)

Shear stress
 Shear rate

Asphalt binder viscosity is typically measured at 60oC (140oF) because it approximates the

maximum asphalt pavement surface temperature during summer. The basic absolute viscosity

test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to be drawn up through a

capillary tube by means of vacuum, under closely controlled conditions of vacuum and

temperature. Although absolute viscosity is an improvement over the penetration test, it still

only measures viscosity at one temperature and thus does not fully characterize an asphalt

binder’s consistency over the expected range of construction and service conditions.

 Kinematic Viscosity or high temperature viscosity measured at 270F or 135oC

bitumen is sufficiently fluid to flow by gravity.

The Kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity divided by the

density of the liquid at the temperature of measurement. The 135oC (275oF) measurement

temperature was chosen to simulate the mixing and lay down temperatures typically encountered

in asphalt pavement construction. The basic Kinematic viscosity test measures the time it takes

for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to flow through a capillary viscometer under closely

controlled conditions of head and temperature.

c) Softening point-determined using the Ring and Ball (R&B) test (AASHTO t53 and

ASTM D36):

The softening point is defined as the temperature at which a bitumen sample can no longer

support the weight of a 3.5-g steel ball. Basically, two horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in

shouldered brass rings, are heated at a controlled rate in a liquid bath while each supports a steel
ball. Softening point is reported as the mean of the temperatures at which the two disks soften

enough to allow each ball, enveloped in bitumen, to fall a distance of 25mm (1 in)

d) Ageing tests

There is direct measure for asphalt binder aging. Hence, aging effects are accoutered for by

subjecting asphalt binder samples to stimulate aging then conducting other standard physical

tests (such as viscosity, dynamic shear rheometer (DRS), bending beam rheometer (BBR) and

the direct tension test (DTT). Simulating the effects of aging is important because an asphalt

binder that possesses a certain set of properties in its as-supplied state may possess a different set

of properties after aging.

Asphalt binder aging is usually split up into two categories:

Short-term aging: This occurs when asphalt binder is mixed with hot aggregates in an HMA

mixing facility.

Long-term aging: This occurs when asphalt pavement construct and it generally due to

environmental exposure and loading.

Aging tests

Thin-film oven (TFO) test

The thin-film oven (TFO) test simulates short-term aging by heating a film of asphalt binder in

an oven for 5hrs at 1630C (3250F). The effects of heat and air are determined from changes

incurred in physical properties measured before and after the oven treatment by other test
procedures. (AASHTO T 179 and ASTM D 1754: Effects of Heat and Air on Asphalt

Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)

Rolling thin film oven (RTFO) test

The Rolling Thin-Film Oven (RTFO) procedure provides simulated short term aged asphalt

binder for physical property testing. Asphalt binder is exposed to elevated temperatures to

simulate manufacturing and placement aging. The RTFO also provides a quantitative measure of

the volatiles lost during the aging process. The basic RTFO procedure takes unaged asphalt

binder samples in cylindrical glass bottles and places these bottles in a rotating carriage within an

oven. The carriage rotate within the oven while the 3250F (1630C) temperature ages the samples

for 85 minutes. Samples are then stored for use in physical properties tests or the PAV. The

standard rolling Thin-Film Oven test is: AASHTO T 240 and ASTM D 2872. Effect of Heat and

Air on a moving film of Asphalt (Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test)

Pressure aging vessel (PAV)

The pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) provides simulated long term aged asphalt binder for physical

property testing. Asphalt binder is exposed to heat and pressure to simulate in service aging over

7 to 10 years period. The basic PAV procedure takes RTFO aged asphalt binder samples, places

them in stainless steel pans and then for 20 hours in a heated vessel pressurized to 305 psi (2.10

MPa or 20.7 atmospheres). Samples are then stored for use in physical property tests. The

standard pressure Aging Vessel procedure is found in: AASHTO R 28: Accelerated aging of

Asphalt Binder Using a pressurized Aging vessel (PAV)

e) Purity tests
Asphalt cement, as used for HMA paving, should consist of almost pure bitumen. Impurities are

not cementing constituents and may be detrimental to asphalt cement performance. Mineral

impurities can be qualified by dissolving a sample of asphalt cement in trichloethylene or 1,1,1,

trichloroethane through a filter mat. Anything remaining on the mat is considered an impurity.

Water impurities are qualified through distillation. Related tests in determining purity include

the following:

 AASHTO T 44 and ASTMD 2042: solubility of Bituminous Materials.

 AASHTO T 55 and ASTMD 95: Water in petroleum products and Bituminous

Materials by Distillation.

 AASHTO T 110 and ASTMD 1461: Moisture or Volatile Distillates in Bituminous

paving mixtures.

Procedure:

i) Dissolve bitumen of known weight in trichloroethane

ii) Filter through a glass fiber tube
iii) The insoluble material retained on the pad is washed, dried and weighed
iv) Dissolve bitumen is taken as a percentage of the original total weight
v) It is required that bitumen should have minimum 99% purity.

f) Ductility test (AASHTO T51 and ASTM D113)- pull test

The ductility test measure asphalt binder ductility by stretching a standard-sized briquette

of asphalt binder to its breaking point. The stretched distance in centimeters at breaking

is then reported as ductility. Like the penetration test, this test has limited use since it is

empirical and conducted at only one temperature [250C (770F)]

g) Safety tests- Flash or Ignition Point

Asphalt cement like most other materials, volatilizes (give off vapor) when heated. At

extremely high temperatures (well above those experienced in the manufacture and

construction of HMA) asphalt cement can release enough vapour to increase the volatile

concentration immediately above the asphalt cement to a point where it will ignite (flash)

when exposed to a spark or open flame. This is called the flash point. For safety reasons,

the flash point, is the temperature at which the material (not just the vapours ) will sustain

combustion.

A typical flash point test involves heating a small sample of asphalt binder in a test cup.

The temperature of the sample is increased and at specific intervals a test flame is passed

across the cup. The flash point is the lowest liquid temperature at which application of

the test flame causes the vapours of the sample to ignite. The test can be continued up to

the point the point at which the test flame causes the sample to ignite and remain burning

for at least 5 seconds.

 AASHTO T 48 and ASTM D 92: Flash and fire points by Cleveland Open CUP (more

common for asphalt cement used in HMA).

 AASHTO T 73 and ASTMD 93: Flash point by pensky-Marktens Closed Cup Tester.

h) Specific Gravity-ASTM D70

Specific Gravity is defined as the ratio of the mass of the material at a given temperature to

the mass of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific gravity of asphalt

cements changes when the asphalt cement expands on heating. Therefore, its determination
 helps in making temperature-volume corrections or determining the weight per unit volume

of asphalt cement heated to its application temperature.

It is determined using the pycnometer method, and results are expressed in terms of specific

gravity (Sp.Gr.) at a given temperature for both the asphalt cement and the water used in the

test. E.g Sp. Gr. 1.02 at 600/15.60F) means that the asphalt cement

PRODUCTS OF BITUMEN/ MODIFIED BITUMENS

Bitumen is normally straight run if it is not treated with any chemical solvent. Other products of

bitumen after treatment include:

i) Cutbacks: Are liquid asphalts manufactured by adding (cutting back) petroleum solvents

(also called cutter stock or diluents) to asphalt cements. – Are a combination of bitumen and

a petroleum solvent.

Cutbacks differ from penetration grade bitumens in that the bitumen is dissolved in a liquid

solvent which makes it suitable for direct application and manipulation in road construction.

While the solvent is primarily a substitute for heat, in man instance it is more useful than heat

since its liquefying effect lasts over a longer period of time.

After a cutback has been spread on the particles it is intended to bind, the solvent will

dissipate itself by evaporation and or photo oxidation, leaving behind the cementitious

bitumen to tie the particles together. Thus the character and behaviour of cutback bitumen is

largely dependent upon the character and amount of the solvent present. The more volatile the

solvent is, the shorter will be the curing period necessary after using the cutback before the

cohesive properties of the binder are utilized. The less volatile the solvent, the greater will be
 quantity required to bring the bitumen to a given degree of fluidity. They are made to reduce

the asphalt viscosity for lower application temperatures. Application to aggregate or pavement

causes the solvent to escape by evaporation, thus leaving the asphalt cement residue on the

surface. Based on the relative rate of evaporation, cutbacks asphalts are divided into three

types:

 Rapid-curing (RC) cutbacks: produced by adding a light diluents (solvent) of high

volatility, generally gasoline or naphtha, to asphalt cement. These are used primarily for

tack coat and surface treatments.

 Medium curing cutbacks (MC): produced by adding a medium diluents (slightly low

volatile solvent) of intermediate volatility (general kerosene) to asphalt cement.

These are generally used for prime coat, stockpile patching mixtures and road mixing

operations.

Slow-curing cutbacks (SC): produced by adding oils of low volatility (generally diesel or

other gas oils) to asphalt cement. They are also called road oils. They are generally used

for prime coat, stockpile patching mixtures and as dust palliatives.

Cutbacks asphalts are commercially available in different grades, the thinnest and most fluid

grade designated by the suffix number 30, which is available in MC type only. Other suffix

numbers, 70, 250,800 and 3000 denoting increasing higher viscosities, are available in all types.

These suffix numbers represent the minimum kinematic viscosity in densities at 140oF for the

particular grade.
 ii) Emulsified Asphalts

Emulsified asphalt (also called emulsion) is a mixture of asphalts cement (bitumen), water and

an emulsifying agent. Because asphalt cement will not dissolve in water, asphalt cement and

water exist in separate phases as shown below:

Asphalt Cement in form

of Perfect Spheres

Water containing
emulsifying agent

Hot asphalt cement and water containing the emulsifying agent (e.g soap) are passed under

pressure through a colloid mill to produce extremely small (less than 5-10 microns) globules of

droplets of asphalt which are suspended in water. The emulsifying agent imparts an electric

charge to the surface of the droplets which causes them to repel one another, and thus the

globules do not coalesce. Emulsified asphalts are categorized as liquid asphalts because, unlike

asphalt cements, they are liquid at ambient temperature. Emulsions are made to reduce asphalt

viscosity for lower application temperatures.

Types of emulsions

i. Anionic-electro-negatively charged droplets.

ii. Cationic-electro-positively charged asphalt droplets.

If the emulsifying agent is anionic, the asphalt droplets bear a negative charge and if it is

cationic, the droplets bear a positive charge. Cation type emulsions are therefore mixed with

negatively charged aggregate while anionic ones are mixed with positively charged aggregates.

Emulsified asphalts are also graded according to their “setting” rate. The anionic emulsified
asphalts include Rapid setting (RS), Medium Setting (MS) and slow setting (SS) as a specified in
ASTM D977). The setting rate is controlled by the type and amount of the emulsifying agent.

The anionic grade are RS-I, HFRS-2, RS-2, MS-I, HFMS-2, MS-2, MS-2h, SS-1h. The h
designation means harder base asphalt cement is used in the emulsion. The HF designation
refers to a high float residue, which is an indication of chemical gelling of the emulsion residue.

The cationic emulsified asphalts which are specified in ASTM D2397 also include rapid setting
(CRS), Medium Setting (CMS), and slow setting (CSS) grades. The cationic grades are CRS-1,
CRS-2, CMS-2, CMS-2h, CSS-1, and CSS-1h.

Selection and uses of emulsified asphalt are as follows:

1. Rapid - Setting Grades: Surface treatments and penetration macadam.

2. Medium - Setting Grades: Open- graded cold asphalt-aggregate mixtures
3. Slow - Setting Grades: Tack cot fog seal dense grade cold asphalt-aggregate mixtures and
slurry seals.

Factors affecting the production, storage, use and performance of emulsions

 Chemical properties of the base asphaltic bitumen

 Hardness and quality of the base asphaltic bitumen

 Bitumen particle size emulsion

 Type and concentration of the emulsifying agent

 Manufacturing conditions such as temperature, pressures and shear

 The ionic charge on the emulsion particles

 The order of addition of the ingredients

 The type of equipment used in manufacturing the emulsion

 The properties of the emulsifying agent

 Addition of the chemical modifiers.

Emulsified asphalts are increasingly being preferred to cutbacks asphalt for the following

reasons:

1. Environmental regulations: Emulsions are relatively pollution free. Unlike cutback

asphalts there are relatively small amounts of volatiles to evaporate into the atmosphere

other than water.

2. Loss of high energy products. When cutback asphalts cure, the dilutes which are high

energy, high price products are wasted into the atmosphere.

3. Safety: Emulsion are safe to use. There is little danger of fire as compared to the cutback

asphalts, some of which have very low flash points.

4. Lower application temperature. Emulsions can be applied at relatively low temperatures

compared to cutback asphalts, thus saving fuel costs. Emulsions can also be applied

effectively to a damp pavement, whereas dry conditions are required for cutback asphalts.
MIX DESIGN

Mix design has the following primary purposes

i) Preliminary study or evaluation of materials

ii) Determination of Job Mix Formula (JMF)
iii) Quality control in placement of large quantities of mixtures
iv) In some cases may involve pavement evaluation in service

Objectives of Mix design

HMA mix design should be developed with the following objectives in mind

i) Resistance to permanent deformation (cracking): The mix shouldn’t distort or displace when
subjected to traffic especially at elevated temperatures during hot season when the viscosity
of asphalt cement binder is low and the traffic load is primarily carried by the mineral
aggregate structure. The resistance to permanent deformation is controlled by selection of
aggregates with proper gradation and selecting the asphalt content so that adequate voids
exist in the mix
ii) Fatigue resistance: The mix should not crack when subjected to repeated loads over a period
of time
iii) Resistance to low temperature cracking: The mix property is important in cold regions which
experience low ambient temperatures. Low temperature cracking of HMA pavements is
primarily influenced by the low temperature properties of the asphalt cement binder.
iv) Durability: Asphalt cement hardening or aging during production and in service should be
minimized. The compacted mix should not have very high air voids (Increased permeability)
which accelerating the aging process.
v) Resistance to moisture induced damage: Some HMA mixes when subjected to moisture or
water loose adhesion between the aggregate surface and asphalt cement binder. The aggregate
properties are primarily responsible for this phenomenon, although some asphalt cements are
more prone to moisture induced damage (stripping) than others. If HMA is prone to stripping,
anti-stripping agents should be used making the mix impermeable to water.
vi) Skid resistance: This is applicable to surface mixes which must be designed to provide
sufficient resistance to skidding to permit normal turning and braking movements to occur.
Aggregate characteristics such as texture, shape, size and resistance to polish are primarily
responsible for skid resistance. However the mix should not contain too much Asphalt
cement binder to cause HMA to flush out and create a slippery surface.
vii) Workability: The mix must be capable of being placed and compacted with reasonable effort.
No test method is currently available to quantify workability during the laboratory mix design
stage. Workability problems are most frequently discovered during the paving operations.
Suitable adjustments to the mix design can be made quickly to overcome the workability
problems.
 The methods commonly used in the design of dense graded Hot Mix Asphalt concrete include:-

i) Marshall method
ii) Hveem method
iii) Super pave method

The basic principles behind the method to involve

- Provision of suitable air voids content

- Provision of adequate stability
- Accounting for aggregate absorption
The Marshall procedure is given in detail in the following step:

1) Choose a suitable binder and well graded aggregate. This involves two steps that is A –
Aggregate evaluation and B – Asphalt cement evaluation.
Aggregate Evaluation:
- Determine the acceptability of aggregates for use in HMA mix by carrying out the following test:
Los Angeles Abrasion, Sulfate soundness, Sand equivalent, presence of deleterious substances,
polishing, crushed face count, flat and elongated particle count
- Perform other aggregate tests such as gradation specific gravity and absorption
- If the aggregates do not meet the specifications, carry out blending to meet the required
specifications
Asphalt Cement Evaluation
- Determine the asphalt cement grade for type and geographical location of mixture being
designed.
- Check the specification properties, they should be acceptable.
2) Prepare about three specimens for each of seven test points, each test point having different
binder content. Most aggregates call for 1200g to be mixed with bitumen

98% - 1200g
1% - 1200/98
2% - 2* 1200/98 = 24.5g of bitumen

3) The binder and aggregate are heated to above mixing temperature and mixed when hot for about
two minutes
 4) The mixture is poured into a hot mould and compacted with 75 blows using a marshall hammer
on both the top and the bottom of specimen
5) The specimen is kept for 24 hours to cool, extrude from mould and determine the bulk density for
all the specimens using Archimedes principle of submersion.
6) For each specimen, determine the percent air voids using the formula
( )
Where = bulk specific gravity of compacted mix
= Rice specific gravity = maximum specific gravity
7) Determine Marshall Stability and flow using the marshall testing machine at failure. Marshal
stability is given in KN while flow or vertical displacement is expressed in (0.01 in)
Loading frame

LVDT to measure vertical flow

Specimen first conditioned in H2O

For 30min at 60oc before teting

- testing temperature is 60oc

- Rate of loading = 50mm/min.

The following plots are made

% air voids

Stability (KN)

Binder content Binder content Binder content

BC= binder content

Design Blinder Content =

Note:

Stability: Maximum load carried by a compacted specimen tested at 140oF (60oC) at a loading rate of
2inches/minute (50.8mm/minute). It is a measure of the mass viscosity of the aggregate – asphalt cement
mixture and is affected significantly by the angle of internal friction of the aggregate and the viscosity of
the asphalt cement at 140oF (60oC).

Flow: It is the vertical deformation of the sample, measured from the start of loading to the point at which
stability begins to decrease, in hundreds of an inch. Higher flow values indicate a plastic mix that will
experience permanent deformation under traffic, whereas flow values may indicate a mix with higher than
normal voids and insufficient asphalt for durability and one that may experience premature cracking due
to mixture brittleness during the life of the pavement.