Ecosystem-

Concept, Types &

Functions
पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र
प्रकाि औि कार्य
Ecology, Ecosystem and Environment
● Ecosystem is a unit which has living and non-living
components and their interactions while being
dependent on one another.

● Ecology is the study of ecosystems. It studies

the organisms and their relations with each
other and the environment.

● Environment usually refers to the physical

surroundings in which an organism lives. An
ecosystem functions with the environment to make a
big unit.
 Ecosystem

● The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley in1935.

● An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of biosphere.

एक पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र जैवमंडल की संिचनात्मक औि

कार्ायत्मक इकाई है

● An ecosystem consists of a community of living beings and their physical

environment, which interact and exchange materials between them. (Open
System)

समुदार्ों की जीवो की िचना कार्य व उनके वािाविण के

पािथपरिक संबंध को पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र कहिे हैं

It has many interconnected habitats.

Components of an ecosystem पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र के घटक

● The components of an ecosystem are

broadly classified into
○ Biotic or living components
जैववक र्ा जीववि घटक
○ Abiotic or non-living components
अजैववक
 Abiotic components (Nonliving)

Physical Sunlight, temperature, rainfall, They sustain and limit the

factors humidity and pressure growth of organisms in an
ecosystem.

Inorganic Carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, They play an important role in the
substances phosphorus, sulphur, water, rock, soil growth of living organisms.
and other minerals

Organic Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and They form the building blocks of
compounds humic substances living organisms.
Therefore, they interlink the biotic
and abiotic components.
Sunlight

● Plants use solar energy directly for photosynthesis and

food production.

● Animals cannot use solar energy directly. Therefore,

they obtain it indirectly by eating plants or animals or
both.

● Sunlight determines the temperature of all places

which in turn decides the flora and fauna of a region

● Energy also determines the distribution of organisms in

the environment
 Temperature

Organisms can tolerate only some ranges of temperature and

humidity

● The levels of thermal tolerance of different species

determine to a large extent their geographical
distribution.

● Eurythermal organisms - organisms which can tolerate and thrive in a

wide range of temperatures. Plants- Roses, daisies, some
vegetables and fruits etc. Animals- Cat, tiger, dog etc

● Stenothermal organisms - organisms which are restricted to a narrow

range of temperatures. polar bear, frog, lizards, coconut,
Homeothermic animals are warm-blooded and maintain
a constant body temperature -
example birds and mammals. गमय िक्त वाले जीव समिापी

Heterothermy a physiological term for animals that

vary between self-regulating their body temperature,
and allowing the surrounding environment to affect it

Cold Blooded animal शीि िक्त वाले जीव गमय िक्त वाले जीव
ववषमिापी
Thermal stratification is the phenomenon in which lakes
develop two discrete layers of water of different
temperatures: warm on top (epilimnion) and cold below
(hypolimnion).
These layers are each relatively uniform in temperature but
are separated by a region of rapid temperature change
(the metalimnion or thermocline).
Water

● Water is essential for all living beings.

● It not only facilitates and provides a medium for
majority of biochemical reactions but also
regulates the body temperature of most of the
living organisms.

● Also, water bodies are the habitat for many aquatic

plants and animals.
● Euryhaline - organisms that tolerate a wide range of
salinities. green crab

● Stenohaline - organisms restricted to a narrow range of

salinities. plants and animals most often found in
the brackish waters of estuaries
Soil
● Soil provides water and nutrients in the form of organic
and inorganic substances which are tapped by the roots
of plants which grow through the soil.

● The soil of a place is dependent on the climate,

the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil
developed.
Atmosphere

● All gases essential for living organisms are present in

the atmosphere.
● Plants use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, oxygen
for respiration and nitrogen for nutrition.

● Human beings and animals use oxygen for respiration.

● The amount of gases present in the atmosphere
are regulated through biogeochemical cycles
Biotic components
Producers (autotrophs): उत्पादक

● Producers are mainly the green plants and some

bacteria and algae.

● They are also known as autotrophs/ self-nourishing

organisms.
● The food for the entire ecosystem are provided by
plants through the process of photosynthesis.

● Plants utilise sunlight, water, CO2 and nutrients for

photosynthesis.

इसके अंिगयि वे सभी हिे पौधे आिे हैं जो प्रकाश संश्लेषण की क्रिर्ा
द्वािा CO2 एवं जल की उपस्थिति में सूर्य के प्रकाश द्वािा लुकुस में
परिवतियि कििे हैं
संश्लेषण की क्रिर्ा में CO2 का अपचर्न रिडक्शन ििा जल का
उपचर्न ऑक्सीडे शन होिा है
Consumers (Heterotrophs/ phagotrophs): macroconsumers उपभोक्ता
● They are called heterotrophs as they are incapable of producing their own
food. They consume food synthesized by the autotrophs.

● They can be grouped into three broad categories based on food preferences:

○ Herbivores - feed directly on plants, e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.
शाकाहािी
○ Carnivores - animals which eat other animals, eg. lion, cat, dog etc.
मांसाहािी
○ Omnivores - organisms which feed on both plants and animals, e.g.
human, pigs and sparrow, etc. सवायहािी
इसके अंिगयि जीवधािी
आिे हैं जो अपना भोजन प्राितमक उत्पादकों अिवा अन्र् जीव धारिर्ों को खाकि प्राप्त कििे हैं
Consumers can also be classified as:
1. Primary consumers: herbivores which feed mainly
on plants e.g. cow, rabbit, deer, etc.

2. Secondary consumers: organisms who feed on

primary consumers e.g. wolves, tigers, etc.

3. Tertiary consumers: organisms which feed on

secondary consumers e.g. lions eating wolves,
humans, etc.
Decomposers (saprotrophs):
● Decomposers are bacteria and fungi which obtain
energy and nutrients by decomposing dead
organic substances (detritus) of plants and animals.

● The products in the decomposition process are

reused and recycled by the producers.

● Earthworm, nematodes, and arthropods etc.

are also known as detritus feeders.

● They help in the decomposition of organic matter and

are called detritivores
अपघटनकििा घटक है वह वह जो प्रार्ः उत्पादक ििा
उपभोक्ताओं की मृत्र्ु के पश्चाि उनके शिीि अपघटन कििे हैं ििा
इनसे तनतमयि साधािण पदािों द्वािा अपना भोजन एवं ऊजाय प्राप्त
कििे हैं
Ecotone

● Ecotone = transition zone of two or more diverse ecosystems.

● For e.g. the mangrove forests is a transition zone between marine and terrestrial ecosystem

● Ecotone is referred as the zone of tension- because it inherits the conditions intermediate to the adjacent
ecosystems, and therefore has more competition among species for available resources.

● Example- Wetlands.

संितमकाः दो र्ा उससे अतधक ववववध समुदार्ों के मध्र् संिमण

क्षेत्र को संितमका (Ecotone) कहिे हैं , जैसे-घास थिल ििा वन
क्षेत्र। इकोटोन क्षेत्र में दोनों क्षेत्रों की ववशेषिाएँ पाई जािी हैं ।
•र्ह दो र्ा अतधक पारिस्थितिकी िंत्र का संिमण क्षेत्र होिा है । इसीतलर्े र्ह िनाव का क्षेत्र
होिा है ।
•एक पूणय ववकतसि इकोटोन में कुछ ऐसे जीव पाए जािे हैं जो आसन्न समुदार्ों से पूिी ििह
अलग होिे हैं ।
•संितमका बहुि छोटे क्षेत्र (चािागाह औि जंगल के बीच) से लेकि बहुि ववशाल क्षेत्र (जंगल
औि िे तगथिान के बीच) िक फैला हो सकिा है
● An ecotone can have a sharp vegetation transition, with a
distinct line between two communities.

● For example, a change in colors of grasses or plant life can

indicate an ecotone.

● Also, a change in physiognomy (physical appearance of a plant species)

can be a key indicator.
Edge effect
● Sometimes in an ecotone, the number and population density of some of
the species is much greater than either communities. This is called edge
effect.

● The organisms which occur primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known
as edge species.

● In the terrestrial ecosystems, edge effect is especially applicable to birds.

● For example, the density of birds is greater in the mixed habitat of the ecotone
between a forest and a desert.

● Areas with small habitat fragments exhibit pronounced edge effects.

● As the edge effects increase, the ecotone allows for greater biodiversity
•कोि प्रभाव (Edge Effect) -कोि प्रभाव एक पारिस्थितिकीर् अवधािणा है जहाँ
दो पारििंत्र आपस में तमलिे हैं वहाँ ववशाल ववववधिा पाई जािी है । इस कोि प्रभाव
में जहाँ दो क्षेत्र पिथपि व्र्ाप्त (ओविलैप) होिे हैं वहाँ दोनों क्षेत्रों को प्रजातिर्ाँ पाई
जािी हैं । कोि प्रभाव के कुछ उदाहिण हैं -
नदी िट के क्रकनािे घास का मैदान।
•जहाँ पवयि व घाटी तमलिी है ।
•जंगलों के अंतिम वबन्द।ु
•जहाँ एश्चुअिी समुद्र से तमलिी है ।
 Functions of an Ecosystem

● Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform

certain functions. These are:-
(i) Energy flow through food chain
(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development
Energy flow

● Energy helps organisms in their functioning and metabolic activities.

● Energy flows from the producers to the consumers in a

unidirectional way.

● Food chains and food webs show the energy flow in an ecosystem.

● The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are linked

through them
Food chain
● A chain of interdependence of plants and animals for food is called a
food chain.

● A food chain also shows the transfer of energy from plants

to other organisms. Energy transfer is always
unidirectional.

● Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a

specific place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level.

● The energy transferred decreases through each successive trophic

level.
Types of food chains

There are two types of food chains in nature:

1. Grazing food chain:

● It starts from the green plants at the base of the food

chain.

● Herbivores are at the next trophic level and then

carnivores and so on.

● A grazing food chain (GFC) has

Grass (Producer) ---> Goat (Primary consumer) ---> Man

(Secondary consumer)
2. Detritus food chain:

● It starts from dead organic matter of plants and animals.

● Microorganisms, detritus feeders, carnivores form the next trophic levels.

● Detritus food chain derives its initial energy from the waste materials and
dead organic matter from the grazing food chain.
 Herrings

Diatoms
Food web

● It is a network of interconnected food chains in an ecosystem.

● This interconnection of food chains happens when one of the consumers is a
member of many food chains at a time.

● Food webs provide more realistic models of energy flow through

an ecosystem.

● A food web has all possible transfers of energy and nutrients among the
organisms in an ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only one pathway of
the food.

● More complex the web, more stable is the ecosystem

GPP vs NPP Gross Primary Production Net Primary
Production
● The total rate at which the solar energy is
stored by the process of photosynthesis in the
green plants is called Gross Primary
Production (GPP).

● GPP is also known as total photosynthesis.

● A part of the gross primary
productivity is utilized by plants for
itsown metabolism.

● The remaining amount is called Net

Primary Production (NPP). It is stored by
the plant and is made available to the
consumers.
Ecological pyramids
● Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an
ecosystem.

● Producer forms the base whereas top carnivore forms the tip of the pyramid.

● There are three types of ecological pyramids:

1. Pyramid of numbers

2. Pyramid of biomass

3. Pyramid of energy or productivity

Pyramid of numbers
● This pyramid represents the total number of individuals at each
trophic level in an ecosystem.

● Depending upon the size and biomass, the pyramid of numbers

can be either upright or inverted.

● Upright pyramids are generally seen in a grassland ecosystem

where grasses are in abundance and top carnivore are the least
in numbers.

● Inverted pyramid: In a forest, trees (producers) form the

base and provide food to herbivore birds. Parasites and
hyperparasites form the wider tip of pyramid.
● Pyramid of numbers is not a good representation of trophic structure
of an ecosystem as counting the numbers of organisms in each level
is a difficult task.

Pyramid of biomass
● In pyramid of biomass, individuals in each trophic level are weighed
(total dry weight) instead of being counted.

● It represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level.

● Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given
time. It is expressed as gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area.
● Upward pyramid of biomass is mostly found in
terrestrial ecosystems where the biomass of producers
(autotrophs) is maximum and therefore they have a
wide base.

● Inverted pyramid is generally found in aquatic

ecosystems where producers are small
phytoplanktons who grow rapidly but have the least
biomass therefore small base.
Pyramid of energy
● Energy pyramid is the most common parameter to compare the
functional roles of the trophic levels in an ecosystem.

● An energy pyramid reflects the conversion of solar energy to

chemical energy and heat energy at each trophic level.

● As there is loss of energy at each trophic level, the pyramid is

always upward, with a large energy base at the bottom.

● Energy pyramid concept helps in explaining the phenomenon of

biological magnification, the tendency for toxic substances to increase
in concentration progressively at higher levels of the food chain.
 ● The amount of energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level due to two reasons:

1.At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism.

2.A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higher
trophic level as heat.
Ecological efficiency
● It is defined as efficiency of transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next trophic level.

● Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed 10%
rule.

● E.g. if autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal. and carnivores 1 cal.
Limitations of pyramids

● It does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more
trophic levels.

● It assumes a simple food chain, which never exists in nature.

● It does not accommodate a food web.

● Moreover, saprophytes are not given any place in ecological pyramids even
though they play a vital role in the ecosystem.
• Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of
pollutants, chemicals (chronic poisoning) or other
substances in an organism.
• Bioaccumulation occurs when the rate of loss of the
substance from the body of the organism through
catabolism (breakdown of complex molecules in
living organisms), or excretion is lower than the
rate of accumulation of the substance.

As persistent organic pollutants like DDT are long-

lasting, the risk of bioaccumulation is high even if the
environmental levels of the pollutant are not high
• Biomagnification refers to progressive bioaccumulation
(increase in concentration) at each tropical level with the
passage of time.
• In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must have a
long biological half-life (long-lived), must not be soluble in water
but must be soluble in fats. E.g. DDT.
• If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the
organism.

Pollutants that dissolve in fats are retained for a long time.

Polychlorinated biphenyl
 ● It is the process by which one community is replaced by
another community over a period of time.

● The changes are brought about by both the biotic and

abiotic components in the community.

Ecological ● The extent of change is influenced by the physical

environment.
succession
अनुिमण: समुदार् में परिवियन इस क्रिर्ा में समुदार् औि पर्ायविण में पािथपरिक क्रिर्ा से जो
परिवियन उत्पन्न होिे हैं उसके फल थवरुप िमशः है एक समुदार्
दस
ू िे के द्वािा प्रतिथिावपि होिे हैं र्ह एक कल पि गामी
पारिस्थितिक समर् में होने वाला वानथपतिक परिवियन है
• The first plant to colonize an area is called the pioneer
community. नवीन समुदार्
• The final stage of succession is called the climax community.
चिम समुदार्
• A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and
long-lasting.
• The stage leading to the climax community is called successional
stages or seres.
• Each transitional community that is formed and replaced during
succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
िम की समुदार्
Types of Seres Explanation

Hydrosere Succession in aquatic habitat.

Xerosere Succession in dry habitat.

Lithosere Succession on a bare rock surface.

Psammosere Succession initiating on sandy areas.

Halosere Succession starting in saline soil or water.

Succession of microorganism on dead
Senile
matter.
Eosere Development of vegetation in an era.
 Orderly Sequence of Primary
Succession
Pioneer Species/Community
Pioneers High growth rate but short life span
Stages Bare Rocks, Lichens

Intermediate Seral Community; Temporary Community

Stages Grasses, Shrubs

Terminal/Final Community
Climax Stable, mature, more complex and long
Community lasting. Shade tolerant trees
Nudation:

The development of bare area is the initial prerequisite. The cause of

nudation may be topographic (soil erosion, landslide, volcanic activity, etc),
climatic and biotic (human beings and pathogens).

न्र्ूडेशन
Invasion: आिमण
This is the successful establishment of a species in a bare area. The species actually
reaches this new site from any other area..

Competition and coactions: थपधाय

After aggregation of a large number of individuals of the species at the limited place,
there develops competition mainly for space and nutrition. Individuals of a species
affect each other’s life in various ways and this is called coactions. The species, if
unable to compete with other species, if present, would be discarded.
Reaction: प्रतिक्रिर्ा
This is the most important stage in succession. The mechanism of the
modification of the environment through the influence of living organisms
on it, is known as reaction. As a result of reaction, changes takes place in soil,
water, light conditions, temperature etc. of the environment. Due to all these
the environment is modified, becoming unsuitable for the existing
community which sooner or later is replaced by another community (seral
community). The whole sequence of communities that replaces one another
in the given area is called a sere, and various communities constituting the
sere as seral communities.
Stabilization (climax): चिम अवथिा
This is the final stage of development. Climax community is nearly stable and will not
change so long as the climate and physiographic remain the same. However, the
environment as well as the community are in a dynamic state.
Some ecologists (Gleason, 1929) have talked of retrogressive succession in which
continuous biotic influences have some degenerating influence on the process. Due to
destructive effects on organisms, sometimes the development of disturbed communities
does not occur and the process of succession instead of progressive becomes
retrogressive. As for example, forest may change to shrubby or grassland community.
This is called retrogressive succession.
● Ecological succession is characterised by the following:
○ increased productivity,
○ the shift of nutrients from the reservoirs,
○ increased diversity of organisms with increased development of
niche, and
○ a consequent increase in the complexity of food webs.
● Succession occurs faster in areas existing in the middle part of a
large continent.
● This is because, here all communities and seeds of plants belonging to
the different seres would reach much faster, establish, and ultimately
result in the climax community.
● During succession, some species colonise an area and their populations
become more numerous, whereas populations of other species decline
and even disappear.

● There are two types of successions such as

1. Primary succession and
2. Secondary succession
 Primary Succession
● It takes place in a region where a community never existed previously.
● Such regions include emerging islands, newly formed deltas, newly
created pond, reservoir, etc.

● The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
● A pioneer species have a short lifespan though it may have a high growth
rate.

● The collection of pioneer species that form in a bare region is called the
pioneer community.
 Secondary Succession
● When an existing community is destroyed, another community forms at
the same place. Such a process through which a community develops
after the destruction of an existing community is called secondary
succession.
● The removal or destruction of the existing community takes place due to
natural disasters like forest fires, volcanoes, etc or due to human
activities like tilling or harvesting.
● In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the condition
of the soil, availability of water, the environment as also the seeds or
other propagules present.
 Primary vs Secondary Succession
● It is difficult to observe primary succession, unlike secondary succession.
This is because there are relatively very few places on earth that do not
already have communities of organisms.
● Primary succession is very slow as compared to secondary succession.
This is because soil formation takes a long time in primary succession
while secondary succession starts on soil that is nutritious.
 Seral Community
● In the succession process, the pioneer community after some time gets
replaced by another community with different species combinations.

● This second community gets replaced by a third community and so on.

● This process continues sequentially in which a community replaced
previously by another community.
● Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed and replaced
during succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
● The entire sequence of communities that successively change in a given
area is called sere(s).
 Climax Community
● The final community which is established by ecological succession and is
in near equilibrium with the environment is the climax community.
● The climax community that is established is stable, mature, more
complex, and long-lasting.
● As long as it is undisturbed, a climax community remains relatively
stable in dynamic equilibrium with the prevailing climate and habitat
factors.
 Different Types of Succession
Autogenic and Allogenic
When succession is caused by living inhabitants of that community itself, the process is called autogenic
succession, while change brought about by external forces is known as allogenic succession. An allogenic
succession can be brought about in a number of ways which can include:
•Volcanic eruptions
•Meteor or comet strike
•Flooding
•Drought

Xerarch and Hydrarch

● Succession that occurs on land where moisture content is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as
Xerarch.
● Succession that takes place in a water body, like ponds or lakes is called Hydrarch.
 Autotrophic and Heterotrophic
● Succession in which, the green plants (initially) are much greater in
quantity is known as autotrophic succession and the ones in which the
heterotrophs are greater in quantity are known as heterotrophic
succession.
 ● The individuals in a biological
community of an area or ecosystem
interact with one another in a number
of ways.
Biotic
● The interactions that occur among
Interactions different individuals of the same
species are termed as Intraspecific
सामुदातर्क अंिः क्रिर्ाएं
interaction.
● The interactions among individuals of
different species in a community are
called Interspecific interaction.
 ‘0’ is no effect; ‘–’ is detrimental; ‘+’ is beneficial.

Result
Types of Interaction Species 1 Species 2
Negative Amensalism - 0
(at least one of the species is
Predation + -
harmed)
Parasitism + -

Competition - -

Positive Commensalism + 0
(both species are benefited)
Mutualism + +
 1. Amensalism
● It is a type of negative association.
● In amensalism, one species is harmed by the other species which
remains unaffected by the presence of the other species.
● For example, the bread mould fungi Penicillium produces penicillin an
antibiotic substance that inhibits the growth of a variety of bacteria.
● Penicillium benefits apparently by having greater availability of
food when the competition because of the bacteria is removed.
 2. Predation
● Predators act as conduits for transferring energy from one trophic level to another. They keep prey
populations under control.

● The introduction of an exotic species into an area may become invasive if there are no natural predators.

● Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of competition
among competing for prey species.

● Prey species (plants and animals) are adapted in various ways to prevent being captured by the predator.
 3. Parasitism
● One species is harmed and the other benefits.

● The parasite lives in/on another living species called the host from which the parasite gets its
nourishment and often shelter.

● The parasite is benefited and the host is harmed.

● Parasites have special adaptations to counteract and neutralise the mechanisms of the host
species. Eg. Cuscuta plant has no leaves.

● Tapeworm, roundworm, malarial parasite, many bacteria, fungi, and viruses are common
parasites of humans.
● Ectoparasites-
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism are called
ectoparasites. Eg. - lice on humans and ticks on dogs.

● Endoparasites-
Endoparasites are those that live inside the host body at different sites
such as a tapeworm, that lives inside its host.
Brood Parasitism-
Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism in which the parasitic
bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them. Eg. cuckoo and
crows.
 4. Competition
● This is an interaction between two populations in which both species
are harmed to some extent.
● Competition occurs when two populations or species, both need a vital
resource that is in short supply.
● The vital resource could be food, water, shelter, nesting site, mates or
space.
● For instance, in some shallow South American lakes visiting flamingoes
and resident fishes compete for their common food, the zooplankton in
the lake.
● Two closely related species competing for the same resources
cannot coexist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be
eliminated eventually. This may be true if resources are limiting, but
not otherwise.
● It can not be ruled out the occurrence of interspecific competition in
nature, but species facing competition might evolve mechanisms
that promote coexistence rather than exclusion.
● Eg. - resource partitioning. If two species compete for the same
resource, they could avoid competition by choosing, for instance,
different times for feeding or different foraging patterns.
 5. Commensalism
● The interaction where one species is benefitted and the other is neither
benefited nor harmed is called commensalism.
● Some species benefit by utilising the shelter or transport of another
species.
● For example, epiphytes live on the surface of other plants like ferns,
mosses, and orchids and use the surface of trees for support and for
obtaining sunlight and moisture. The tree does not benefit from this
relationship and is not harmed as well.
● Other examples - barnacles growing on the back of a whale, cattle
egret and grazing cattle in close association, sea anemone and
clownfish, etc.
 6. Mutualism
● Both the species are benefitted in this interaction.
● In some interactions, mutualism is so strong that the species involved in
the interaction cannot survive without each other.
● Such an association is called a symbiotic relationship. Some examples
are such as
○ Lichens - algae and fungus
○ Mycorrhizae - fungus and roots of higher plants
○ Plants and animals - animals help in pollination and plants provide
food
The ants obtain food and shelter, and the acacia
depends on the ants for protection from browsing
animals
 Some Characteristics of Interactions
● Both the species benefit in Mutualism and both lose in Competition in
their interactions with each other.
● In both Parasitism and Predation, only one species benefits (parasite and
predator, respectively) and the interaction is detrimental to the other
species (host and prey, respectively).
● Predation, Parasitism, and Commensalisms share a common
characteristic– the interacting species live closely together.
 Biogeochemical cycles
● The movement of nutrients from the environment into plants and animals and again back to the environment
is known as nutrient cycling.

● Nutrients are absorbed from the soil by green plants which are passed onto primary consumers and
thereafter to secondary and tertiary consumers.

● When the producers and consumers die, nutrients are released back into the soil by detritivores from the
dead remains of organisms.
● Nutrient cycle can be of two types
○ Gaseous - atmosphere or the hydrosphere is the main reservoir
○ Sedimentary - earth's crust is the main reservoir.
1.Water cycle/hydrological cycle

● Water is essential for life.

● It not only provides transportation for nutrient cycling, but also acts as a solvent medium
for the uptake of nutrients by various organisms.

● Precipitation (rain, snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth.

● Water received from the atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water
vapour resulting from direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration.
● This continuous movement of water in the biosphere is called water cycle (hydrological cycle).

● The driving forces for water cycle are solar radiation and gravity.
● Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in water cycle. These two processes
alternate with each other.

● Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by sun’s heat energy. Plants also
transpire huge amounts of water.

● Water remains in the vapour state in air and forms clouds which drift with wind.
● Clouds meet with the cold air in the mountainous regions above the forests and condense to form rain
precipitate which comes down due to gravity.
2.Carbon cycle
● Almost all the carbon in nature is derived from carbon dioxide present in the
atmosphere.
● It is highly soluble in water. Therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of
dissolved carbon dioxide.
● It is vital for the production of carbohydrates through photosynthesis by plants.
Steps in global Carbon cycle

1. Photosynthesis:
● Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis.

● A part of the food made is used by plants for their own metabolism.
● Rest of the food is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores,
heterotrophs, including human beings and microorganisms as food.

● Forests act as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due
to their long life cycles.
● A very large amount of CO2 is released through forestfires.

2. Respiration:

● Respiration is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water.

● The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living
organisms (plants, animals, decomposers etc.).

● Thus CO2 is released into the atmosphere through this process.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
energy-carrying molecule found
in the cells of all living
things. ATP captures chemical
energy obtained from the
breakdown of food molecules
and releases it to fuel other
cellular processes.
3. Decomposition:

● All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plants is not metabolized by

them completely.

● A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes available to
decomposers on their death.

● The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and CO2 is released into the
atmosphere by decomposers.

4. Combustion:

Burning of biomass releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

5. Impact of human activities:

Since the industrial era, large scale deforestation and ever growing consumption of fossil fuels by
growing numbers of industries, power plants and automobiles are primarily responsible for
increasing the emission of carbon dioxide.

6. Storage in long term cycle:

● Some carbon accumulates as un-decomposed organic matter in marshy soil or as insoluble
carbonates in ocean bottom where it remains buried for millions of years.

● The carbonate rocks may be uplifted geologically and exposed to erosion, releasing the
carbon compounds into streams and rivers.
● When fossil fuels such as coals, oil and natural gas etc. are burned, the
carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere as carbon-dioxide.
C. Phosphorus cycle
● Phosphorus is a major constituent of biological membranes, nucleic acids and cellular energy
transfer systems.

● Many animals also need large quantities of this element to make shells, bones and teeth.

● The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock, which contains phosphorus in the form of
phosphates.

● When rocks are weathered, minute amounts of these phosphates dissolve in soil solution and
are absorbed by the roots of the plants .

● Herbivores and other animals obtain this element from plants.

● The waste products and the dead organisms are decomposed by phosphate-
solubilising bacteria releasing phosphorus.

Differences between carbon cycle and phosphorus cycle

● Unlike carbon cycle, there is no respiratory release of phosphorus into atmosphere.

● Atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through rainfall are much smaller than carbon inputs.

● Gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organism and environment are negligible.

Nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen is an essential component of protein required by all living organisms
including human beings.

● Our atmosphere contains nearly 78% of nitrogen but it cannot be used directly i.e in its
elemental form by the majority of living organisms.

● Therefore, the atmospheric nitrogen needs to be fixed i.e converted to ammonia,

nitrites and nitrates so that it is taken by various organisms.

● Like carbon dioxide, nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to
gaseous phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms.
Agents of nitrogen fixation

Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed mainly by three agents:

1. Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria-

a. Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants.

b. Free Living e.g. 1. Nostoc 2. Azotobacter 3. Cyanobacteria

2. Industrial activities e.g. manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers

3. Atmospheric phenomena such as thunder and lightning

Processes in nitrogen cycle
● Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into
Ammonia, nitrites and nitrates.

● Nitrification:
○ It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively.

○ Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can convert nitrite into nitrate

Assimilation:
● In this process, nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules
such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc.

● These molecules make the plant and animal tissue.

Ammonification:
● Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric
acid.
● These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are converted
back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria. This process is called
ammonification.

● Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.

Examples of ammonifying bacteria contain bacillus, proteus, clostridium,
Denitrification:
● Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification.
● Denitrifying bacteria (e.g. pseudomonas) live deep in soil near the water
table as they like to live in oxygen free medium.

● Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation.

 Biomes
● Biome is an abbreviation for biological home.
● Biome means an assemblage of plant and animal communities with
minimum common characteristics.
● All the areas of biomes are characterized by more or less uniform
environmental conditions such as climate, soil etc.
Factors affecting biomes

(i) Day and night hours which is responsible for duration of photosynthesis.

(ii)Mean temperature as diurnal and annual variation which decides the extreme conditions.

(iii) Length of growing season.

(iv) Precipitation, its total amount and spatio-temporal variation

(v) Wind speed, direction, duration and frequency.

(vi) Soil types

(vii) Slope

(viii) Drainage
Types of biomes

Biomes are classified in various ways. There are five major biomes in the world
are

1. Forests

2. Grasslands
3. Deserts
4. Tundra
5. Aquatic
 ⦁ Forest

• Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)

• Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type Climate)
• Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA
• Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)
• Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)
• Tropical Rain Forest Biome
 ⦁ Tundra

• Arctic and Alpine Tundra Biome

⦁ Grassland

• Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome

• Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)

⦁ Desert
Tropical and Mid Latitude Desert Biome
 ⦁ Tundra Biome

• There are two types of tundra – arctic and alpine.

• Alpine tundra occurs at high mountains above the tree line. E.g. High ranges of the Himalayas, Andes, Alps etc.
• There are no trees in the tundra (due to permafrost).
• The lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens are sparsely found on bare rocks.
• Animals like the reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk-ox, polar bear, lemming, arctic hare, arctic willow live in tundra
region.
• Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent.
• Mammals have a large body size and small tail and ear to avoid the loss of heat from the surface.

● It occupies the northern fringe of Canada, Alaska, European Russia,Siberia and island group of Arctic Ocean.
Climate:

1. Long winters with little daylight.

2. Short summers with long daylight hours.

3. Precipitation is less (25 cm or less per year), that too mostly in the form of snow
 ⦁ Taiga or Boreal Biome

• Boreal forest soils are characterized by thin podzols and are rather poor. This is because:
✓ The weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold environments
✓ the litter derived from conifer needle (leaf) is decomposed very slowly and is not rich in nutrients
(humus content is low).
• conifers do not shed their leaves frequently. The predominant vegetation is an evergreen coniferous
forest with species such as spruce, fir and pine.
• The conifers require little moisture are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic climate.
• The productivity of boreal forest is lower than those of any other forest ecosystem.
• Animals found in this region include Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and
amphibians like Hyla, Rana, etc.
 ⦁ Temperate Deciduous Biome (North-Western Europe – British
Type Climate)

• Soils of temperate forests are podzolic and fairly deep.

• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season.
• This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against the winter snow and frost.
• Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall’ season. Growth begins in spring.
• Some of the common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
 ⦁ Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern
USA

• Supports luxuriant vegetation.

• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
• On the highlands, various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses are important.
• Perennial plant growth is not checked by either a dry season or a cold season.
 ⦁ Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)

• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall.
• Regions with adequate rainfall are inhabited by low, broad-leafed evergreen trees
(mostly evergreen oaks).
• Fire is an important hazardous factor in this ecosystem, and the adaptation of the
plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
• Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive evaporation and
prolonged droughts.
• They are, in short xerophytic (drought tolerant).
 ⦁ Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)

• Tropical Monsoon Forests are also known as a drought-deciduous forest; dry forest; dry-
deciduous forest; tropical deciduous forest.

Teak, neem, bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry are some of the
important species
 ⦁ Tropical Rain Forest Biome

• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees, e.g. mahogany, ebony,
dyewoods etc.
• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
• All plants struggle upwards (most epiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer
arrangement (canopy).
• Epiphyte (commensalism – epiphyte benefits without troubling the host): An epiphyte is a
plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (such as a tree) and derives its moisture and
nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes from debris accumulating around it.
 ⦁ Desert Biome

• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or

drought-resistant.
• This includes the cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf
acacias.
• Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and
search for ground water.
• Plants have few or no leaves, and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or
needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration.
• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them
while they lie dormant.
 Grasslands
● Grasslands are characterized as lands dominated by grasses rather than large
shrubs or trees.

● There are two main divisions of grasslands:

(1) tropical grasslands or savannas
(2) temperate grasslands
 Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
● A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland grassland ecosystem.
● They are also known as tropical grasslands and found in a wide band on either
side of the equator on the edges of tropical rainforests.
● Savannah can also be said to be a transitional zone between forest and desert or
grassland.

● Primarily they are situated in South America, Africa andAustralia.

Distribution

● African Savannah- West african Region surrounding Sudan.

● South American Savannah- Called Cerrado (Brazil), Llanos (Colombia and
Venezuela) and Campos (Southern Brazil).
● Australian Savannah- Situated adjacently in southward to Northern monsoon
line of Australia.
● Indian Savannah- Parts of North Karnataka, Telangana and South
Maharashtra region
 Temperate grasslands
Distribution:

● They are also called Granaries of the world.

● The temperate grasslands in different regions are called by different names. They are

○ The US prairies.

○ Russian steppes,

○ Veldts of Africa,

○ Pampas of South America (mostly located in Argentina andUruguay),

○ Steppes of Eurasia
○ Downs of Australia
○ Pustaz of Hungary
○ Canterbury of New Zealand
Deserts
● Almost 33% of the earth’s surface area is desert, getting less than 25 cm precipitation
(Overall- It include both hot and cold desert, not necessarily as a continuous belt like Taiga)

● Around 20% of these are sandy deserts are located between 25-30 degree north and south
latitude.

● The desert biome is characterised by very low rainfall (usually less than 25 cm per year) that
comes as short, hard showers.

● This biome covers almost 20% of the earth.

● True Desert~ 14%, another ~ 15 % earth land surface possesses some desert like
characteristics.
Hot vs cold deserts
● Deserts that receive rain as the main form of precipitation are called as hot deserts while
those which receive snow as their main form of precipitation are called as cold deserts.
● The hot deserts of the world are located in the south-west U.S.A., Mexico, Chile, Peru,
Africa (Sahara desert), Asia (Rub’Al Khali, Thar etc) and central and Western Australia
(Tanami Desert, Gibson Desert, Great Victoria Desert, Simpson Desert etc).
● Cold deserts are found in the Antarctic, Greenland, Iran, Northern and Western
China.
● Some famous cold deserts are: – Antarctica, Atacama, Gobi, GreatBasin, Namib,
Iranian, Taklamakan, Patagonia etc.
 Hot desert
Climate:

● Hot and dry summers, warm temperatures throughout the year.

● Average temperature: 20-25 degrees Celsius.
● The extreme maximum temperature for Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49°
C.
Flora:

● Plant life is rare in hot and dry deserts; mostly small trees and shrubs.
● The plants must adapt themselves for harsh conditions and be able to obtain
and conserve water.
● The examples of important desert plants are—yuccas, acacias, euphorbias,
cacti, many other succulents and hardy grasses.

● Many of the small plants are annuals.

Plant adaptations include-

● Small or no leaves

● reduced leaf surface area to reduce evaporation from the plants,

● loss of leaves during long dry spell,

● small hairs on the leaf surfaces,

● Succulent leaves and stems

● Ability to store large amount of water.

● Well developed root system

● Annuals germinate, bloom and reproduce only during the short rainy season

● Waxy/Thick skin to prevent water loss