Imperfections in Crystal Structure (Lattice) :

• Crystal Structure, as explained in the previous chapter, is the unique arrangement of atoms in an
ordered condition.
• A crystalline material has a crystal structure in which the atoms are positioned in a perfect ordered
pattern which is repetitive over large atomic distance.
• But the crystal structure is rarely in a perfect ordered condition.
• Crystallographic study indicates that there are defects in the crystal structure, which are called as
imperfections.
• The properties of materials are sensitive to these defects which are deviations from crystalline
perfection.
• The effect of these defects is not always adverse.
• Sometimes to obtain certain properties in a material some defects are introduced in the crystal
structure.
• These defects can be introduced during metal forming and metal treatment processes.
• The various imperfections in a crystal structure can be classified as per the table 2.1 listed below :

Imperfections in crystal structure

Types of Imperfections Sub-types of Imperfections

(1) Lattice Vibrations
(2) Point Defects (a) Vacancy
(b) Self-interstitial Defect
(c) Substitutional Impurity
(d) Interstitial Impurity
(3) Linear Defects (a) Edge Dislocation
(b) Screw Dislocation
(4) Surface Defects (a) Grain Boundaries
(b) Twin Boundaries
(c) Stacking Faults
(d) Low Angle Boundary

Lattice Vibrations :
• It is a defect, arising due to vibration of atoms.
• The atoms continuously keep on vibrating about its mean position.
• The atoms are located in their designated lattice position and appear as stationary.
• But the atoms are not stationary; rather they are vibrating continuously about their mean position.
• The frequency and amplitude of this vibration depends on the temperature and density of the
material.
• Thus the vibrational energy of any specific atom varies in a random manner.
Effect of Lattice Vibrations on properties of material :
• Lattice vibrations effect the electrical resistance, specific heat, magnetic and thermal properties of
the material.

Point Defects (Zero Dimensional Defect) :

• All the atoms possess vibrational energy as discussed earlier.
• Point defect is thus a localized defect arising out of free movement of atoms from their designated
ordered locations in the atomic structure.
• These atoms are bonded with each other by ionic or covalent bonds.
• As and when the energy possessed by the vibrating atoms exceed, these atoms break their bond.
• This results in freeing of atoms from their lattice sites resulting in point defects.
• It can also be caused due to presence of impurity atoms in the structure.
• This defect is produced during plastic deformation or solidification of material.

Types of Point Defect of Imperfections

Sr. Point Defects Description
No.
1. Vacancy Defect • It is a defect arising due to missing of an atom from its
designated lattice/atomic position.
• It occurs during plastic deformation of material and
solidification process.
• Almost all crystalline materials contain vacancy defect,
since it is impossible to create a material which is
free from vacancy defect.
• The number of vacancy defect in a given material
depends on and increases exponentially with
temperature.

2. Self-interstitial Defect • When an atom leaves its designated lattice position and
gets located in the interstitial sites of its atomic
structure, the defect so occurred is referred to as
Self-interstitial defect.
• It also occurs during plastic deformation of material.
• Interstitial site is a small void space between atoms in a
crystal structure that under normal circumstances is
not occupied.
• Interstitial defect produces large distortions as compared
to vacancy defect.
• The large distortions are produced because the atom is
substantially larger than the interstitial position in
which it is situated.
• Interstitial defects are rarely seen in materials.
3. Interstitial Impurity Defect • It is impossible to produce a material which is 100 %
pure.
• Even with the most sophisticated techniques, it difficult
to refine material above 99.9999 % purity.
• Thus impurity atoms are always present in the material.
• When a foreign atom gets located in the interstitial sites
of the atomic structure, the defect so occurred is
referred to as Interstitial Impurity Defect.
• The addition of foreign atom increases the density of
atomic structure and hence there is increase in
strength and hardness.
• For example, carbon gets located at interstitial sites in a
solid solution when added to iron.
4. Substitutional Impurity Defect • When a foreign atom occupies the lattice position of a
regular atom, the defect so occurred is referred to as
Substitional Impurity Defect.
• The addition of foreign atom increases the density of
atomic structure and hence there is increase in
strength and hardness.
• For example, nickel atoms substitutes copper atoms from
its regular sites in a solid solution.

5. Frenkel Defect • In case of ceramics, there exists ions (anions and cations).
• A particular defect associated with cation is shown in
figure alongwith.
• Frenkel defect is a particular defect arising out of
vacancy and self-interstitial defect of cation.
• When a cation leaves its designated lattice position and
gets located at the nearby interstitial site, it causes
two defects – vacancy and self-interstitial defect.
• This defect occurs only for cations because of their
relative smaller size as compared to anions.

6. Schottky Defect • Schottky defect is another particular defect that is

associated with ions normally in ceramics.
• This particular defect is associated with vacancy of cation
and anion pair.
Effect of point defects on properties of materials :
• Point defects effect the properties of materials in the following manner :

a) Point defects are distortion in lattice structure and hence increase the hardness and tensile
strength of materials.
b) They increase the electrical resistance of materials.
c) Vacancies created by missing atoms alter the kinetics of phase diffusion and transformation
within the materials.

Linear Defects (One Dimensional Defect) :

• It is a defect arising out of addition / deletion / misalignment of a line of atoms from its designated
ordered arrangement.
• The line defect is also referred to as dislocation or distortion of a line of atoms.
• This defect occurs during solidification of material or during plastic deformation.
• During plastic deformation, there is large movement of atoms due to applied force and hence
dislocation of atoms.

(1) Edge dislocation :

• Refer Fig. 2.1 for illustration of edge dislocation.
• An edge dislocation can be illustrated by slicing out a part through a perfect crystal structure,
spreading the crystal apart and partly filling the cut with an extra half plane of atoms.

• In the crystal structure, the region near the dislocation experiences local lattice distortion.
• The atoms above the dislocation are squeezed together and those below the dislocation are pulled
apart. Refer Fig. 2.2.

• The magnitude of this lattice distortion is higher near the dislocation and decreases with
increasing distance away from the dislocation.
• Representation of Edge type – line defect.
o If the insertion of extra plane is on the upper side then the defect is represented as
positive dislocation and denoted by symbol - ^
If the insertion of extra plane is on the lower side then the defect is