IURI377

Study Unit 3: Where’s your evidence? (Constructing an argument)

Expository and argumentive essays:

What is an expository essay?
This is a writer’s explanation of a short theme, idea or issue.

The key here is that you are explaining an issue, theme or idea to your
intended audience. Your reaction to a work of literature could be in the form
of an expository essay, for example if you decide to simply explain your
personal response to a work. The expository essay can also be used to give a
personal response to a world event, political debate, football game, work of art
and so on.
What is an argumentative essay?
This is the type of essay where you prove that your opinion, theory or
hypothesis about an issue is correct or more truthful than those of others. In
short, it is very similar to the persuasive essay (see above), but the difference is
that you are arguing for your opinion as opposed to others, rather than directly
trying to persuade someone to adopt your point of view.
What is the difference between the two?
The main difference is that argumentative essays require more research and
are lengthier. Writing an argumentative essay entails a sound grasp on
different points of view on a particular topic, and choosing a position to argue.
An argumentative essay is characterised by a clear thesis statement and sound
reasoning; you have to conduct research in order to provide evidence in
support of the claims you make. Empirical research might, in one way or
another, be involved; data is typically collected by means of observations,
surveys, interviews, or experiments.

However, in the field of law you will predominantly use sources such as: case
law, legislation, academic articles and theses and dissertations to substantiate
your claims while still producing your own critical assessment of the issue at
hand.
List the most important qualities of each one.
Expository Argumentive
You want to get and, of course, keep • The argument should be
your reader’s attention. So, you focused
should: • The argument should be a
• Have a well defined thesis. clear statement (a question
Start with a thesis cannot be an argument)
statement/research • It should be a topic that you
question/statement of intent. can support with solid
Make sure you answer your evidence
question or do what you say • The argumentative essay
you set out to do. Do not should be based on pros and
wander from your topic. cons (see below)
• Provide evidence to back up • Structure your approach well
what you are saying. Support (see below)
your arguments with facts and • Use good transition
reasoning. Do not simply list words/phrases (see below)
facts, incorporate these as • Be aware of your intended
examples supporting your audience. How can you win
position, but at the same time them over?
make your point as succinctly • Research your topic so your
as possible. evidence is convincing.
• The essay should be concise. • Don’t overdo your language
Make your point and conclude and don’t bore the reader. And
your essay. Don’t make the don’t keep repeating your
mistake of believing that points!
repetition and over-stating • Remember the rules of the
your case will score points with good paragraph. One single
your readers. topic per paragraph, and
natural progression from one
to the next.
• End with a strong conclusion.

Briefly explain the four tips that this article offers on writing an
argumentative essay.
1) Make a list of the pros and cons in your plan before you start writing.
Choose the most important that support your argument (the pros) and the
most important to refute (the cons) and focus on them.
2) The argumentative essay has three approaches. Choose the one that you
find most effective for your argument. Do you find it better to “sell” your
argument first and then present the counter arguments and refute them? Or
do you prefer to save the best for last?
• Approach 1:
Thesis statement (main argument):
Pro idea 1
Pro idea 2
Con(s) + Refutation(s): these are the opinions of others that you disagree
with. You must clearly specify these opinions if you are to refute them
convincingly.
Conclusion
• Approach 2:
Thesis statement:
Con(s) + Refutation(s)
Pro idea 1
Pro idea 2
Conclusion
• Approach 3
Thesis statement:
Con idea 1 and the your refutation
Con idea 2 and the your refutation
Con idea 3 and the your refutation
Conclusion
3) Use good transition words when moving between arguments and most
importantly when moving from pros to cons and vice versa. For example:
• While I have shown that.... other may say
• Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that …
• Those who disagree claim that …
• While some people may disagree with this idea...
When you want to refute or counter the cons you may start with:
• However,
• Nonetheless,
 • but
• On the other hand,
• This claim notwithstanding
If you want to mark your total disagreement:
• After seeing this evidence, it is impossible to agree with what they say
• Their argument is irrelevant
• Contrary to what they might think ...
These are just a few suggestions. You can, of course, come up with many good
transitions of your own.
4) Use facts, statistics, quotes and examples to convince your readers of your
argument

Thesis statement:
Explain what a thesis statement entails.
A thesis statement:
• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject
matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to
expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation
of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of
an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a
way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most
often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to
the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and
organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your
interpretation.
If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a
subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement
near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that
you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will
include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a
thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to
compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on
an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support
it persuasively.

List the questions that you could ask in order to find out if your thesis
statement is acceptable.
When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the
following:
• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after
constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses
the focus of the question.
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your
thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree
with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than
making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too
vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains
words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why
is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is
likely to be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship,
or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without
wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go
together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working
thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your
paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
 • Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first
response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and
lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a
better take on your position right from the beginning.

The basic structure of an argumentive essay:

Briefly describe what is meant by “The Hook” and why one should use it in an
essay.
If you're not sure how to begin and end your essay, consider using what's often
called the "hook" technique. The idea behind this method is that if you hook
your audience (get their attention) in the beginning of the essay, they'll want
to continue reading so that they can find out how everything will turn out in
the end.

For example, to use the hook technique you might begin by saying: Students
are often surprised to know that many of their instructors were not high-
ranking students in their own graduating classes. In fact, one of the most well-
respected Composition instructors here at Madeup University flunked
Freshman English not once, but twice!

Then, you might conclude your essay by saying: Any student at Madeup
University will tell you that the teachers who once struggled in their subject
area are the most helpful. Remember that Composition teacher who flunked
Freshman English twice? That was Mrs. Somebody--a popular Composition
teacher and well-liked tutor in the Writing Center on campus. The best guides
are those who've experienced the struggle themselves; these teachers truly
help students climb toward academic success.

Remember, it is not enough to hook your audience in the beginning. You also
have lead them on a journey that comes back around in your conclusion. There
is no such thing as “next season” in papers- so NO CLIFF HANGERS!
Why is it suggested that one writes the body paragraphs of an essay before
writing the introduction and conclusion?
People often get hung up on how to begin their papers, and this means more
time staring at a blank screen getting discouraged. Instead try writing your
thesis and your body paragraphs first. Once you have written your body, go
back and read over it asking yourself, “What is it I really want to say?” or “How
do I want my reader to feel about my topic?”

Why is it important to keep the audience in mind when writing an essay?

No one cares about someone who doesn’t care about them. A carefully
thought out introduction shows readers that you as a writer care about their
enjoyment and understanding rather than just pontificating ideas.

Draw up a checklist for a “good “introduction and a “good” conclusion.

A good introduction should… A good conclusion should…

Remind the reader of the main

Describe what you plan to write
ideas that were discussed in the
about
essay

Give the reader some idea of how Tie up any loose ends by resolving
you plan to discuss or approach any unresolved questions,
your topic statements, or ideas

Discuss what can be done about

Give background information on
your topic in the future (when
your topic (when appropriate)
appropriate)

Offer suggestions on ways that the

Include a clear, concise thesis
reader can get involved with your
statement
topic/cause (when appropriate)

Try, one last time, to convince the

Establish a connection between the
reader to agree with you (when
writer and the audience
appropriate)
Why is planning important in essay writing?

The structure and body paragraphs:

Write down the definition of a paragraph as supplied by this source.
Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs
in terms of length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a
paragraph is half a page long, etc. In reality, though, the unity and coherence
of ideas among sentences is what constitutes a paragraph.
A paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a single sentence that forms
a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116).
Length and appearance do not determine whether a section in a paper is a
paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly journalistic
styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a
sentence or group of sentences that support one main idea. In this handout,
we will refer to this as the “controlling idea,” because it controls what happens
in the rest of the paragraph.
List and discuss the different aspects one should keep in mind when
constructing a paragraph.
• Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a
single controlling idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the
paragraph).
• Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the
central idea, or thesis, of the paper
• Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and
should follow a definite plan for development
• Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be
adequately explained and supported through evidence and details that
work together to explain the paragraph’s controlling idea
Differentiate between the different ways of organising a paragraph:
illustration, narration and process.
• Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.
 • Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells,
tastes, sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance,
or by topic.
• Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a
sequence—first, second, third.
• Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a
topic.
• Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your
point.

Transitions:
Transitions are usually one or several sentences that “transition” from one idea
to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the
paragraphs flow one into the next.

What is the function of signposting?

Signposting means using phrases and words to guide the reader through the
content of your essay/dissertation.
There are two main types of signposting:
• Major signposting - introductions, conclusions and outlining main
arguments/ the direction of the argument in paragraphs/opening
phrases.
• Linking words and short phrases - connecting words help guide the
reader through the argument by linking ideas, sentences and
paragraphs.

Present an argument effectively:

The Toulmin method or model:
Explain what a claim is and write down an example of one.
A claim is a statement that you are asking the other person to accept. This
includes information you are asking them to accept as true or actions you want
them to accept and enact.
For example:
You should use a hearing aid.
Many people start with a claim, but then find that it is challenged. If you just
ask me to do something, I will not simply agree with what you want. I will ask
why I should agree with you. I will ask you to prove your claim. This is where
grounds become important.

What is meant by data? List two examples of data that one can use in an
argument.
The grounds (or data) is the basis of real persuasion and is made up of data
and hard facts, plus the reasoning behind the claim. It is the 'truth' on which
the claim is based. Grounds may also include proof of expertise and the basic
premises on which the rest of the argument is built.
The actual truth of the data may be less that 100%, as much data are
ultimately based on perception. We assume what we measure is true, but
there may be problems in this measurement, ranging from a faulty
measurement instrument to biased sampling.
It is critical to the argument that the grounds are not challenged because, if
they are, they may become a claim, which you will need to prove with even
deeper information and further argument.
For example:
Over 70% of all people over 65 years have a hearing difficulty.
Information is usually a very powerful element of persuasion, although it does
affect people differently. Those who are dogmatic, logical or rational will more
likely to be persuaded by factual data. Those who argue emotionally and who
are highly invested in their own position will challenge it or otherwise try to
ignore it. It is often a useful test to give something factual to the other person
that disproves their argument, and watch how they handle it. Some will accept
it without question. Some will dismiss it out of hand. Others will dig deeper,
requiring more explanation. This is where the warrant comes into its own.

What is the function of a warrant?

A warrant links data and other grounds to a claim, legitimizing the claim by
showing the grounds to be relevant. The warrant may be explicit or unspoken
and implicit. It answers the question 'Why does that data mean your claim is
true?'
For example:
A hearing aid helps most people to hear better.
The warrant may be simple and it may also be a longer argument, with
additional sub-elements including those described below.
Warrants may be based on logos, ethos or pathos, or values that are assumed
to be shared with the listener.
In many arguments, warrants are often implicit and hence unstated. This gives
space for the other person to question and expose the warrant, perhaps to
show it is weak or unfounded.

What is the difference between a qualifier and backing?

Backing:
The backing (or support) for an argument gives additional support to the
warrant by answering different questions.
For example:
Hearing aids are available locally.
Qualifier:
The qualifier (or modal qualifier) indicates the strength of the leap from the
data to the warrant and may limit how universally the claim applies. They
include words such as 'most', 'usually', 'always' or 'sometimes'. Arguments may
hence range from strong assertions to generally quite floppy with vague and
often rather uncertain kinds of statement.
For example:
Hearing aids help most people.
Another variant is the reservation, which may give the possibility of the claim
being incorrect.
Unless there is evidence to the contrary, hearing aids do no harm to ears.
Qualifiers and reservations are much used by advertisers who are constrained
not to lie. Thus they slip 'usually', 'virtually', 'unless' and so on into their claims.

Why is rebuttal essential in the construction of an argument?

Despite the careful construction of the argument, there may still be counter-
arguments that can be used. These may be rebutted either through a
continued dialogue, or by pre-empting the counter-argument by giving the
rebuttal during the initial presentation of the argument.
For example:
There is a support desk that deals with technical problems.
Any rebuttal is an argument in itself, and thus may include a claim, warrant,
backing and so on. It also, of course can have a rebuttal. Thus if you are
presenting an argument, you can seek to understand both possible rebuttals
and also rebuttals to the rebuttals.

Presenting evidence:
Facts:
What is an argument?
First, one must be familiar with the terminology. In this instance, the term
argument refers to "a reasoned attempt to convince the audience to accept a
particular point of view about a debatable topic." Looking more closely at this
definition, we observe that the argument is not irrational; it does not depend
strictly on passion or emotion. Rather, argumentation represents a "reasoned
attempt," that is, an effort based on careful thinking and planning where the
appeal is to the mind, the intellect of the audience at hand. Why? The answer
to this is that one wants to "convince the audience to accept a particular point
of view."
The key concept here is "to convince the audience," that is, you must make
them believe your position, accept your logic and evidence. Not only do you
want them to accept the evidence, but you want that audience to accept "a
particular point of view" -- that point of view, or perspective, is yours. It is your
position, your proposition. Understand that all too often the audience may be
intrigued by the evidence presented, but that intrigue alone is not enough to
convince them of the validity or authority of your position in the matter.
You want the audience to accept your point of view about the topic whether it
is gun control, safe sex, or stiffer prison sentences for criminal offenders no
matter what age. Finally, there must be "a debatable topic" present for a true
argument to develop.

Name the two types of evidence used in argumentation.

Facts and opinions
List and briefly discuss the four types or categories of facts.
1. By Scientific Measurement -- one measures the extent of an earthquake
not by how "it felt," but rather how it measured on the Richter Scale. In
track and field, one commonly finds the Accutron used to time running
events in thousandths of a second and the more accurate metric system
used in field events such as the long jump or javelin throw;
2. By the Way Nature Works -- we know that the sun rises in the east and
sets in the west; that water flows downhill, not uphill; that cloud
formations indicate specific weather patterns;
3. By Observation -- in courts of law, this would consist of eyewitness
testimony. In research, this might consist of a longitudinal study of a
phenomenom carried out over a period of 3-5 years involving several
hundreds or thousands of cases looking for and recording similarities
and differences; and
4. By Statistics -- to note that for the year 1988, crimes of violence in the
United States increased 9.2 percent from 1987 -- from 112,598 reported
 cases to 122,957 (a gain of 10,359 crimes). While this is a hypothetical
example, one sees the approach used.

Provide a synonym for fallacious reasoning.

Illogical reasoning

Opinion:
Explain the difference between an opinion and presenting evidence.
The second type of evidence that can be utilized in an argument is opinion. In
this instance, we are not talking about your personal opinion (the audience
already knows your position in the matter!). Nor are we talking about the way
you friend might feel about the issue. That would surely be inadmissable in a
court of law. Rather, the type of opinion we deal with here is expert opinion --
the opinions expressed by an established authority in the field. If the topic is
child abuse patterns, then one may wish to cite a child psychologist who has
published on the subject or the head of a group like Parents Anonymous that
has dedicated itself to reducing and/or eliminating child abuse. The opinion(s)
cited must be credible.
It is in presenting your evidence that you are, in fact, developing the Body of
your argument. Keep in mind that in putting forth your Proposition, you do so
in your introductory paragraphs. In developing that Introduction, you want to
get the attention of the audience -- so again, make effective use of the various
opening strategies. That evidence, be it fact or opinion, must be present in
each of the three planks you put forth to develop and support your
proposition. You want to make ample use of examples and illustrations along
the way, bringing your proposition to life before the audience, painting word-
pictures so that they can see, hear and feel what you are advancing to them.
You want to convince, not merely inform!

Briefly define the term “proposition” and explain its role in an argument.
This is the major premise of the argument and classically will have at least
three (3) major claims on which it is to be built.
Scott refers to the social conventions which are implicitly part of
argumentation, specifically - bilaterality, self-risk, fairness, and rationality.
Explain what is meant by these four elements that form part of
argumentation and then reflect upon you argumentation in order to examine
your own approach when presenting an argument. Also explain how these
conventions might be applicably in court when presenting arguments.
1. Convention of Bilaterality: Argument is explicitly bilateral: it requires at
least two people or two competing messages. The arguer, implicitly or
explicitly, is saying that he or she is presenting a message that can be
examined by others. A spokesperson for the National Urban League, for
example, assumes that designation and puts forth that organization's
proposed solution(s) to certain social problems that America is faced
with in oppostion to solutions offered by others. In doing so, the
National Urban League specifically calls for counterargument so that a
middle ground may be reached.
2. Convention of Self-Risk: In argument, there is always the risk of being
proven wrong. For example, when you argue that a federal public school
system is preferable to a state- or local-based public school system, you
invite the possibility that your opponent will convince you that local or
neighborhood-controlled schools present fewer bureaucratic problems
and more benefits than does federal control. Keep in mind that the
public has been invited to carefully evaluate both arguments, that the
public eye can and will expose your weakenesses as well as those of your
opponent.
3. The Fairness Doctrine: Our system of government, from the community
level up to the Congress itself, is based upon the "fairness doctrine."
This, in itself, presents the following concept: the idea that debate
(argument) ought to be as extended and as complete as possible in
order to guaranteee that all viewpoints are aired, considered, and
defended. In my classroom when students debate, equal time is given to
both sides even if one side chooses not to use all the time allotted, or
fails to use all the available time. This is different, however, from how
that time is used -- that is, the effectiveness with which a party is able to
utilize the time it is given.
4. Commitment to Rationality: When you argue or debate, a commitment
is made to proceed with logic. When you make an assertion, you are
 saying, "This is what I believe and these are my reasons for that belief."
As a debater, your commitment is to giving evidence, examples, data in
support of your assertion -- reasons that you believe fully support your
claim and should be accepted by the audience or the doubtful. For
example, when you argue that handguns should be banned by law,
someone else has the right to say "No" (the convention of bilaterality)
and the right to put forth a contrary (i.e., "Con") proposition (the
fairness doctrine). Furthermore, all parties to the argument -- the
doubtful, the audience, the person or parties you are debating with --
have the right to ask, "Why do you believe that?" (the convention of
rationality). Argument, accordingly, is a rational form of communication
in the sense that all debaters believe they have good reasons for the
acceptance of their assertions. They are, in fact, obligated to provide
those reasons; they cannot get away with saying,"Oh, I don't know -- I
just feel that it's true. That's the way it is. You know what I mean." If the
evidence presented is relevant to the assertion being made and if they
are acceptable to the audience hearing the assertion put forth, then the
debater will have met that commitment to rationality.

Edit and proofread:

Name a few aspects that you should consider when editing the content of
your assignment.
• Get some distance from the text! It’s hard to edit or proofread a paper
that you’ve just finished writing—it’s still to familiar, and you tend to
skip over a lot of errors. Put the paper aside for a few hours, days, or
weeks. Go for a run. Take a trip to the beach. Clear your head of what
you’ve written so you can take a fresh look at the paper and see what is
really on the page. Better yet, give the paper to a friend—you can’t get
much more distance than that. Someone who is reading the paper for
the first time, comes to it with completely fresh eyes.
• Decide which medium lets you proofread most carefully. Some people
like to work right at the computer, while others like to sit back with a
printed copy that they can mark up as they read.
• Try changing the look of your document. Altering the size, spacing,
color, or style of the text may trick your brain into thinking it’s seeing an
 unfamiliar document, and that can help you get a different perspective
on what you’ve written.
• Find a quiet place to work. Don’t try to do your proofreading in front of
the TV or while you’re chugging away on the treadmill. Find a place
where you can concentrate and avoid distractions.
• If possible, do your editing and proofreading in several short blocks of
time. Your concentration may start to wane if you try to proofread the
entire text at one time.
• If you’re short on time, you may wish to prioritize. Make sure that you
complete the most important editing and proofreading tasks.

What is meant by transition with regard to paragraphing in writing?

If you have done a good job of arranging paragraphs so that the content of one
leads logically to the next, the transition will highlight a relationship that
already exists by summarizing the previous paragraph and suggesting
something of the content of the paragraph that follows. A transition between
paragraphs can be a word or two (however, for example, similarly), a phrase,
or a sentence. Transitions can be at the end of the first paragraph, at the
beginning of the second paragraph, or in both places.
How will you ensure clarity in your writing?
Have you defined any important terms that might be unclear to your reader? Is
the meaning of each sentence clear? (One way to answer this question is to
read your paper one sentence at a time, starting at the end and working
backwards so that you will not unconsciously fill in content from previous
sentences.) Is it clear what each pronoun (he, she, it, they, which, who, this,
etc.) refers to? Have you chosen the proper words to express your ideas?
Avoid using words you find in the thesaurus that aren’t part of your normal
vocabulary; you may misuse them.
Why should you be careful to rely too heavily upon grammar and spell
checkers?
• Don’t rely entirely on spelling checkers. These can be useful tools but
they are far from foolproof. Spell checkers have a limited dictionary, so
some words that show up as misspelled may really just not be in their
 memory. In addition, spell checkers will not catch misspellings that form
another valid word. For example, if you type “your” instead of “you’re,”
“to” instead of “too,” or “there” instead of “their,” the spell checker
won’t catch the error.
• Grammar checkers can be even more problematic. These programs
work with a limited number of rules, so they can’t identify every error
and often make mistakes. They also fail to give thorough explanations to
help you understand why a sentence should be revised. You may want
to use a grammar checker to help you identify potential run-on
sentences or too-frequent use of the passive voice, but you need to be
able to evaluate the feedback it provides.

What is the advantage of reading for” one error at a time”?

If you try to identify and revise too many things at once, you risk losing focus,
and your proofreading will be less effective. It’s easier to catch grammar errors
if you aren’t checking punctuation and spelling at the same time. In addition,
some of the techniques that work well for spotting one kind of mistake won’t
catch others.

Trouble shooting paragraphs:

Why should a paragraph have a topic sentence?
All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single
controlling idea
How would you revise a paragraph if it has more than one controlling idea?
If a paragraph has more than one main idea, consider eliminating sentences
that relate to the second idea, or split the paragraph into two or more
paragraphs, each with only one main idea.