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Foundations in Physical Education and Health

Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

Traditional/Major
Philosophies

Introduction

Different approaches to resolving these and other fundamental


issues have given rise to different schools of thought in the philosophy of
education. We will examine five such schools of thought: Idealism,
Pragmatism, Realism, Existentialism, and Naturalism. Each has many
supporters in American education today. Taken together, these five
schools of thought do not exhaust the list of possible educational
philosophies you may adopt, but they certainly present strong frameworks
from which you can create your own educational philosophy.

Learning Outcome Analyse the influence of


philosophies to physical
education and sport
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

5 Traditional/Major Philosophies

Idealism
Truth is universal and absolute

Idealism is a philosophical
approach that has as its central
tenet that ideas are the only true
reality, the only thing worth
knowing. In a search for truth,
beauty, and justice that is enduring
and everlasting; the focus is on
conscious reasoning in the mind.
P L A T O
Plato, father of Idealism, espoused
this view about 400 years BC, in
his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are two
worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal,
permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world
of appearance, the world experienced through sight, touch, smell,
taste, and sound that is changing imperfect, and disorderly.
This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and
body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a focus on
the immediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato described a
utopian society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty
and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory
of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must be overcome
with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth, one
must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato
also believed that the soul is fully formed prior to birth and is
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth process
checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas
(fully formed concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop


each individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to
better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of
mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching
methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to
help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection,
intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to
consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism
Scientific laws are dependent of
human experiences.

Realists believe that reality


exists independent of the human
mind. The ultimate reality is the
world of physical objects. The
focus is on the body/objects.
A R I S T O T L E Truth is objective-what can be
observed. Aristotle, a student of
Plato who broke with his mentor's
idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the
scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing


scrutiny of all observable data."
Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate
form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a
rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in
the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose
shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form),
although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle
also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be
able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of
rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind.

The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the


physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher
organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline,
demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching
methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through
demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the
ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed
through training in the rules of conduct.
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

Pragmatism
Reality is a total of individual
experiences.

For pragmatists, only those


things that are experienced or
observed are real. In this late
19th century American
philosophy, the focus is on the
J O H N D E W E Y reality of experience. Unlike the
Realists and Rationalists,
Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we
learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to
problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a
"becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging
truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from
the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed
that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind
and lead to indecisiveness.
John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his
progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to
each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the
subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the
context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and
ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a
democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new
social order. Character development is based on making group
decisions in light of consequences.
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem


solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in
groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus
on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than
passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners,
Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to
real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares
students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers

Existentialism
Truth and values are based on
one’s existence.

The nature of reality for


Existentialists is subjective,
and lies within the individual.
The physical world has no
inherent meaning outside of
human existence. Individual
choice and individual
standards rather than
external standards are
S O R E N K I E R K E G A A R D central. Existence comes
before any definition of what
we are. We define ourselves in
relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should
not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system;
rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The
focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as
we make meaning of our lives.
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

There are several different orientations within the existentialist


philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and
philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His
was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely
European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our
lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in
salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an
afterlife, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of
hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches
where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the
certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have
focused more on human potential and the quest for personal
meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement.
Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher,
Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment
arises when young person’s realize for the first time that choice is
theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question
becomes "Who am I and what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist


classrooms should be a matter of personal choice. Teachers view
the individual as an entity within a social context in which the
learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own.
Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for
decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from
outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking
involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists
are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured,
tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational
experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

self-actualization. They start with the student, rather than on


curriculum content.

Naturalism
Laws of nature govern life and
individual goals

Naturalism is a philosophical
doctrine. It is opposed to idealism
in its interpretation of reality.
Naturalism is concerned with
“natural self” or “real self”. It
contends that the ultimate reality is
J E A N -
J A C Q U E S R O U S S E A U matter, and not mind or spirit.
Naturalism does not believe in
spiritualism. It denies the existence of a spiritual universe — the
universe of ideas and values. According to naturalism, the material
world is the only real world. It is the only reality. This material
world is being governed by a system of natural laws and the man,
who is the creation of the material world, must submit to them. The
naturalists have regard for actual facts, actual situations and
realities. For them nature is everything. It is the whole reality.
Behind everything there is Nature. It denies the existence of
anything beyond nature. Naturalism believes that everything comes
from nature and returns to nature. Nature, according to
naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity. It is self-determined and
governed by its own laws.
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality


as it is in its own nature. They do not believe that there are any
spiritual values or absolute truths. Naturalism takes recourse to
such concepts as appetites, emotions, instincts and evolution.
According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our
activities — biological, psychological or social. To them there is no
absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life, according to
naturalism, are created by the human needs. Man creates them
when he reacts to — or interacts with — his environment. He must
adapt himself to the environment.

According to the naturalists there is inherent goodness in


man. In man there is an innate capacity for morality. Man is born
rational. The naturalists, thus, have idolized man. Nature,
according to the naturalists, is complete in itself, having its own
laws. It does not, therefore, require us to have insight or intuition to
understand Nature.

Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of


evolution and it can be explained in terms of nature. Mind is a
function of the brain which is material in nature. Mind is not the
source of knowledge; all knowledge is acquired from without, and
senses are the gateways of all knowledge.
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

Activity:
Direction: Using the 5 different major philosophies, site a situation
that applies these philosophies in teaching physical education and
health.

1. Idealism

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2. Pragmatism

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3. Existentialism
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

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4. Naturalism

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5. Realism

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Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

Rubrics
CRIT ERIA / SCALE -3- -2- -1- -0-
Exceeds Expectations Meets Expectations Needs Improvement Inadequate
Structure
Paper is Paper has a clear There is some level There is no
Organization logically organizational of organization apparent
organized structure with through organization in the
Flow of thought some digressions, paper.
Easily followed digressions, ambiguities,
Transitions Difficult to follow
Effective, smooth, ambiguities or irrelevances are too
Format and logical irrelevances many No or poor transitions
transitions Easily followed Difficult to follow No format
Professional format Basic transitions Ineffective transitions
Structured format Rambling format
Grammar/mechanics
Manipulates complex Uses complex Uses compound Uses simple sentences
sentence structure sentences for sentences sentences
effect/impact
punctuation/mechan Few Too many
ics No punctuation punctuation
punctuation or and/or mechanical
or mechanical errors
mechanical errors
errors
Language
Vocabulary is Vocabulary is Vocabulary is used Vocabulary is
Vocabulary; sophisticated and varied, specific properly though unsophisticated,
use of correct as are and appropriate sentences may be not used properly
vocabulary sentences which simple in very simple
vary in structure and Frequently uses sentences.
Tone length subject-specific Infrequently uses
vocabulary subject-specific Uses subject-
Uses and correctly vocabulary specific
manipulates correctly vocabulary too
subject-specific Writer’s tone sparingly
vocabulary for emerges and is Writer’s tone
effect generally exhibits some
appropriate to t h e level of audience
Writer’s tone is clear, audience sensitivity
consistent and
appropriate for the
intended audience
Content/information
The central idea is Central idea and The central idea is Central idea and
Clarity of purpose well developed and clarity of purpose expressed though it clarity of purpose
clarity of purpose is are generally may be vague or too are absent or
Critical and exhibited evident throughout broad; Some sense incompletely
original throughout the the essay of purpose is expressed and
thought paper maintained maintained
Evidence of throughout the
Use of examples The abundance of critical, careful Little or no
essay
evidence of critical, thought and evidence of critical,
careful thought and analysis and/or Some evidence of careful thought or
analysis and/or insight insight critical, careful analysis and/or
thought and insight
Evidence and There are good, analysis and/or
examples are vivid relevant insight There are too few,
and specific, while supporting no examples and
the focus remains examples and There are some evidence or they
tight evidence examples and are mostly
evidence, though irrelevant
general
Philosophical and Socio-Anthropological Foundations of P.E and Health

Reflective Analysis
How do you find the lesson?

My Reflection

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