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No. 15—SPUR GEARING

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CONTENTS
First Principles of Gearing .... 3
Formulas for Dimensions of Spur Gears, by Arthur
B. Babbitt ------- 9
Design and Calculation of Gear Wheels, by C. F.
Blake ------- 21
Strength of Gear Teeth, by J. J. Flather. - - 33
Variation of the Strength of Gear Teeth with the
Velocity, by Ralph E. Flanders - - 46
Copyright, 1908, The Industrial Press, Publishers of Machinery,

49-55 Lafayette Street, New York City.
CHAPTER I.
FIRST PRINCIPLES OP GEARING.

Gear wheels are such common objects about the machine shop, and
are manufactured with such rapidity and ease by the aid of the modern
automatic gear cutter, that many seldom stop to think what they
really are, why the teeth must be constructed with certain curves,
and what it is desired that they shall accomplish. In a following
chapter we shall take up some of the practical questions, touching
upon the calculations that come up in the shop, but will here deal
chiefly with a few of the theoretical points of the subject that are
seldom explained in a simple manner for the benefit of those who have
had neither the time nor the opportunity to look into matters of this
kind.
Suppose there are two wheels arranged as in Fig. 1 with their faces
in close, frictional contact, and that both are exactly the same size, so
pig. 1.
that when the crank is turned around once, wheel B will turn exactly
once also, provided, of course, there is no slipping between the two
wheels. It must be noticed, moreover, that if the crank be turned uni
formly, wheel B will not only make the correct number of revolutions
relative to A, but it will revolve uniformly, as well; that is, both its
total motion and the motion from point to point will be correct.
Now there are many places in machine construction where the slip
ping inseparable from friction wheels cannot be tolerated, and this
difficulty might be overcome by fastening small projections to one of
the wheels, as on A in Fig. 2, and cutting grooves in the other wheel,
B. Then, if the crank were turned, wheel B would always make just
the right number of turns, even if considerable power were transmit
ted. It is probable, however, that these projections and grooves would
not fulfill the purpose of gear teeth. What is wanted of gear teeth is
that they shall give exactly the same kind of motion as corresponding
friction wheels, running without slipping. They must not only keep
1 SPUR GEARING
the number of revolutions right, but they must give a perfectly even
and smooth motion from point to point or from tooth to tooth.
Fig. 3 will show clearly how such a result is obtained. It represents
the friction wheels with teeth fastened to them, the teeth, of course,
extending all the way around instead of part way as shown. These
teeth are set so as to be partly without and partly within the edges
of the two wheels, as obviously they will give better results thus
arranged than with all the projections on one wheel and all the grooves
or depressions on the other, as in Pig. 2.
Pig- 2.
With the wheels fitted in this way it can be proved that the only
conditions which must be fulfilled in order that the teeth shall give
wheel B the same motion that it would have if it were driven by
frictional contact with wheel A is that a line drawn from the point O,
where the two wheels meet, to the point where the tooth curves touch
shall be at right angles to both tooth curves at this point, whatever the
Pig. 3.
position of the gears. For example, in Fig. 3, two of the teeth touch
at h. If the curves are of the right shape, a line mn, drawn through
h and 0, will be at right angles to both curves at point U. This is
the law of tooth curves, and it makes no difference what the shape of
the teeth is, so far as their correct action is concerned, if this law
holds true for every successive point where the teeth come in contact.
In technical language the "friction wheels" mentioned are known
as "pitch cylinders," and they are always represented on a gear draw
ing by a line—usually a dash and dot line—called the ."pitch line." As
FIRST PRINCIPLES 5
teeth are generally proportioned, this line falls nearly, but not quite,
midway between the tops and bottoms of the teeth, the inequality
being due to the space left at the bottom of the teeth! for clearance.
The diameter of the pitch cylinder is called the "pitch diameter."
Involute System.
We are now ready to consider the particular forms of teeth most
often used. The one that is at present most in favor is the involute
tooth, the term "involute" being the name of a curve described by the
Fig. 4.
end of a cord as it is unwound from another curve. For example, to
draw an involute, wind a cord around a circular disk of any con
venient material, and make a loop in the outer end of the cord. Lay
the disk flat on a piece of paper, and with a pencil in the loop, unwind
the string, keeping it drawn tight, and let the point of the pencil trace
a curve, which will then be an involute.
In Fig. 4 is shown how the same principle is applied to forming
tooth curves. A and B, with centers at M and N, are two disks which
6 SPUR GEARING
serve the purpose of pitch cylinders. G and D are two smaller disks
fastened to the larger ones and around which a cord is stretched and
fastened at points O and H. When either disk is turned, the cord is
supposed to pull the other one around at the same speed that it would
go if moved solely by frictional contact between disks A and B. To do
this, it is simply necessary to have the disks C and D in the same
ratio as A and B. If A, for example, is half as large as B, then C
must be half as large as D.
To make room for drawing the curves, let pieces F and E be fastened
to the large and small wheels, respectively. With a pencil fixed at
point d on the cord, turn the wheels in the direction of the solid
Fig. 5.
arrow, meanwhile moving the pencil outward, and the curve db will
be described, which will be a suitable tooth curve for the larger wheel,
and which it can be proved will answer the requirements of the gen
eral law. Starting again with the pencil at o, and turning the wheels
in the direction of the dotted arrow, and moving the pencil outward, a
similar curve, ac, for the smaller wheel will be traced.
The circles representing the disks C and D are called "base circles,"
and in practice are drawn at a distance from the pitch circle of about
one-sixtieth of the pitch diameter. This brings the angle, KOd, called
the angle of obliquity, in Fig. 4. about 14% degrees; and although it
is not by any means certain that this is the best angle, it is the one
commonly used.
FIRST PRINCIPLES 7
Cycloldal System.
Take a silver dollar and roll it along the edge of a ruler, holding
the point of a pencil at the rim of the dollar, so that as the latter rolls,
the pencil will trace a curve. This curve is a cycloid. Should the
dollar be rolled on the edge of a circular disk, however, the curve
traced would be an epi-cycloid, and should it be rolled on the inside of
a hoop, it would be called a hypo-cycloid. These curves are employed
for the teeth of the cycloidal system of gears.
In Fig. 5 it is shown how the face or the outer portion of the tooth
is rolled up by the point A on the outer rolling circle, and how the
flank or inner portion is generated by point B on the inner rolling
circle. In this case the hypo-cycloid and flank are straight lines, the
reason for this being that, as drawn, the diameter of the rolling circle
Pig ej-
is one-half the diameter of the pitch circle of the gear, and the hypo-
cycloid generated under these conditions becomes a straight line.
The involute and cycloidal systems are the only two that are used to
any extent, and in Fig. 6 a gear tooth and rack tooth of both are
shown for comparison. The involute gear tooth has the involute curve
from point o to point 6 on the base circle, and from 6 to c at the bottom
of the tooth the flank is a straight, radial line. One difficulty with the
involute system is that with the standard length of tooth the point a
will interfere when running with gears or pinions having a small
number of teeth. To avoid this, the point is rounded off a little below
the involute curve. In general appearance the tooth seems to have a
broad, strong base, and a continuous curve from a to c. A strong fea
ture of the involute gearing is that it will run correctly even if the
distance between the centers of the wheels is not exactly right. This
will be evident by referring to Fig. 4, where it will appear that the
relative velocities of the two wheels will be the same however far
8 SPUR GEARING
apart they may be, and if involute teeth are used in place of the string
connection there shown, the action will be just the same. The involute
rack tooth has straight sides at an angle of 14% degrees, with the
points rounded off.
Of the cycloidal teeth but little need be said except that they have
two distinct curves above and below the pitch line, as previously ex
plained, and that in the rack tooth the two curves are just alike, but
reversed.
Whatever system is used, it is essential that all the wheels of a
given pitch should be capable of running together. To make this pos
sible with the involute, all the wheels must have the same angle of
obliquity; and with the cycloidal system the same size rolling or de
scribing circle must be employed for all sizes. The circle generally
chosen is one having half the diameter of a 12-tooth pinion, which
makes the flanks of this pinion radial. In Fig. 5, if the diameter of
the rolling circle had been either greater or less than half the diameter
of the pitch circle, the flank of the tooth would have been curved, and
in the case of the greater circle, the curve would have fallen inside of
the radial flank drawn in the figure, causing a weak, under-cut tooth.
With the smaller circle, the curve would fall outside, making a strong
tooth.
CHAPTER II.
FORMULAS FOR DIMENSIONS OF SPUR GEARS.

When we consider the number of gears used in machinery, and the
number of men employed in the manufacture of machines using gears,
it is rather surprising to find men who are unable to find the outside
diameter, having given the pitch diameter and pitch, or to find the
distance between centers of two gears, having given the number of
teeth and pitch, and similar problems. The object of this chapter is
to explain in as clear and practical a manner as possible the under
lying principles of gearing, and to give concise rules or formulas for the
solution of problems which arise in our everyday work upon gears.
Pitch Diameters.
Two shafts A and A' (Fig. 7) carry rollers B and B'. By having
pressure on the shafts as indicated by the arrows, and revolving A, the
I Machinery,N.Y.
Fig. 7.
friction of the rolls at the point of contact, X, will cause A' to revolve,
but we can readily see that if any great amount of power is to be
transmitted, the rolls are liable to slip at the point of contact X, which
will not give a positive motion ; that is, it will require more than one
revolution of the shaft A to produce one revolution of the shaft A'.
Suppose, as shown in Fig. 8, that we put projections on the surface
of the roller B and cut recesses in the roller B', making them of 'such
shape that the sides of the projections on roller B will slide with as
little friction as possible upon the sides of the projections caused by
cutting the recesses in roller B'. Then, when shaft A is revolved, shaft
A' must also revolve. The identity of the rollers B and B' is not lost,
for we have simply added a number of projections to one, and cut the
same number of recesses in the other, and the point of contact of the
two rollers is still at X, but in this case there is no special pressure
required to keep the rollers together as in the preceding case, nor is
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10 SPUR GEARING
there any slip, and consequently shaft A' will make one revolution in
the same time that shaft A does.
In Pig. 9 we have changed Pig. 8 by adding projections between
recesses in roller B', and by cutting recesses on roller B between pro
jections, and we have the regular gear tooth. We have now no visible
part of the original rollers B and B' left, but we have in their places
imaginary rollers, the diameters of which are the pitch diameters of
Fig. 8.
the gears. Thus we might have called our original rollers pitch
rollers, and then proceeded to put on our projections and cut our
recesses, which would have given us the gear wheel. This has already
been explained in a general way in Chapter I.
Of course, in practice gears are never made in this way; the gear
blank is first turned up to the correct diameter, and then the space
Fig. o.
between the teeth is cut. The method of finding the outside diameter
will be given later, this illustration being used simply to show the evo
lution of the gear wheel from the friction disks or pitch rollers.
Pitch.
When we speak of the pitch of a gear, the diametral pitch is gen
erally referred to. The gear really has two pitches, diametral and
circular. The diametral pitch of a gear is the number of teeth for
each inch of pitch diameter. If a gear has 20 teeth and the pitch diam
FORMULAS FOR DIMENSIONS 11
eter is 2 inches, the diametral pitch would equal 20 2, or 10 ; or
there are 10 teeth in the gear for each inch of pitch diameter which
it contains, and we would call it a 10-pitch gear. The circular pitch
of a gear is the distance from the center of one tooth to the center of
the next adjacent tooth, measured on the pitch lines. It is very seldom
that circular pitch is used in describing cut gears.
It can readily be seen that the circular pitch being equal to the dis
tance from the center of one tooth to the center of the next, must be
the result of dividing the circumference of the pitch circle by the
number of teeth in the gear. Should an occasion arise where it would
be necessary to obtain the circular pitch, having the diametral pitch
given, divide 3.1416 by the diametral pitch, and the quotient will be the
circular pitch, or, expressed in its simplest form,
3.1416
= P, (1)
P
in which P = diametral pitch; P; = circular pitch.
Example.—If the diametral pitch of a gear is 4, and it is required to
find the circular pitch, divide 3.1416 by 4, and the quotient, 0.7854, is
the circular pitch of the gear.
If the circular pitch be given, to find the diametral pitch, we can
readily see that formula (1) would have to be transposed and would
read thus:
3.1416
=P (2)
P.
. P and P1 representing the same as before.
Now, having given the rules, we will proceed to explain how they
were obtained. We know that the distance around the circumference
of a circle is equal to 3.1416, multiplied by the diameter of the circle;
consequently, fcr every inch of diameter we have 3.1416 inches of cir
cumference. If the diametral pitch of a gear is equal to the number
of teeth for each inch of pitch diameter, and each inch of diameter is
represented by 3.1416 inches of circumference, then the diametral
pitch equals number of teeth for each 3.1416 inches of circumference.
As the circular pitch is the distance from the center of one tooth to
the center of the next, then the. circular pitch must be equal to 3.1416
divided by the number of teeth in that 3.1416 inches of circumference,
and, as we have shown that the diametral pitch is equal to the number
of teeth in each 3.1416 inches of circumference, then the circular pitch
must equal 3.1416 divided by the diametral pitch, which proves for
mula (1).
It may not be actually necessary to show how we obtain the diametral
pitch from the circular pitch, but we will endeavor to explain every
thing as we go along. As in the preceding case, we begin with the
ratio of the circumference of the circle to its diameter, which is 3.1416.
In each 3.1416 inches of circumference we have a certain number of
teeth, which is the diametral pitch of the gear. Now, having given the
circular pitch, if we divide 3.1416 by that, we obtain the number of
12 SPUR GEARING
teeth for 3.1416 inch of the circumference, which is the diametral pitch
of the gear, which proves formula (2).
The accompanying tables will facilitate the finding of corresponding
diametral and circular pitches. Table I gives the even diametral
pitches with the corresponding circular pitches, while Table II gives
the even ciscular pitches with the corresponding diametral pitches.
TABLE I. DIAMETRAL PITCH CONVERTED INTO CIRCULAR PITCH.
'iametral Pitch. Circular Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular Pitch.
2 1.571 inch. 12 0.262 inch.
2% 1.396 " 14 0.224 "
2% 1.257 " 16 0.196 "
2% 1.142 " 18 0.175 "
3 1.047 " 20 0.157 "
3% 0.898 " 22 0.143 "
4 0.785 " 24 0.131 "
5 0.628 " 26 0.121 "
6 0.524 " 28 0.112 "
7 . 0.449 " 30 0.105 "
8 0.393 " 32 0.098 "
9 0.349 " 36 0.087 "
10 0.314 " 40 0.079 "
11 0.286 " 48 0.065 "
TABLE II. CIRCULAR PITCH CONVERTED INTO DIAMETRAL PITCH.
Circular Pitch. Diametral Pitch. Circular Pitch. Diametral Pitch.
2 inches. 1.571 7/8 inch. 3.590
17/8 1i 1.676 13/16 i« 3.867
13/4 il 1.795 3/4 ci 4.189
15/8 " 1.933 11/16 ii 4.570
1 1/2 ii 2.094 5/8 ii 5.027 '
17/16 " 2.185 9/16 " 5.585 '
13/8 ii 2.285 1/2 ii 6.283
15/16 ii 2.394 7/16 7.181
11/4 ii 2.513 3/8 ii 8.3.78
13/16 .( 2.646 5/16 ii 10.053
11/8 " 2.793 1/4 ii 12.566
11/16 2.957 3/16 ii 16.755
1 ii 3.142 1/8 ii 25.133
15/16 ii 3.351 1/16 .I 50.266
Pitch Diameter.
Having given the diametral pitch and number of teeth in a gear, to
find tne pitch diameter, divide the number of teeth by the pitch, and
the quotient will be the pitch diameter, which, expressed in its simplest
form, is:
N
—=D (3)
P
in which N = number of teeth; P = pitch (diametral) ; D = pitch diam
eter.
Example.—A 10-pitch gear has 35 teeth, what is the pitch diameter?
Divide 35 (the number of teeth) by 10 (the pitch), and the quotient
3% is the pitch diameter of the gear.
The definition of diametral pitch proves this formula. If the dia
metral pitch equals the number of teeth to each inch of pitch diameter,
then dividing the number of teeth in the gear by the diametral pitch
will give the number of inches of the pitch diameter. If the circular
pitch and number of teeth are given, first find the diametral pitch, and
proceed as given above.
Addendum.
The addendum of a gear tooth is the distance from the pitch circle
to the outside circumference of the gear. This distance is always equal
to the reciprocal of the diametral pitch, or 1 divided by the diametral
pitch, and, expressed as a formula, is:
1
A=— (4)
P
in which A = addendum ; P — diametral pitch.
Outside Diameter.
When we start to make a gear, we first wish to know the outside
diameter. If we have the pitch and number of teeth given, this may
easily be found by the following rule: Add 2 to the number of teeth,
and divide by the pitch. This, expressed as a formula, is:
N+2
. = D, (5)
P
in which N = number of teeth; P = diametral pitch; D1 = outside diam
eter.
Example.—Given a gear of 20 teeth and 4 pitch, to find the outside
diameter. The number of teeth, 20, plus 2 equals 22, and 22 divided
by 4 (the pitch of the gear) equals 5%, the outside diameter of the
gear.
This formula is simply a combination of formulas 3 and 4, for
we first find the pitch diameter, and then add the addendum twice,
for it must be added on each side of the pitch diameter. The mathe
matical solution is as follows:
N 11
— = D; D + — + — = D,
P P P
2 N+2
D1 — D + — ;D1 = (5)
P P
Dedendum and Clearance.
The dedendum is the working depth of the tooth below the pitch
1
line, and must be equal to the addendum or —, for the pitch circles
P
of two gears are tangent (touching), so the addendum of one will give
the working depth of the other below the pitch line. The clearance
is the distance from the end of the dedendum to the bottom of the
14 SPUR GEARING
space between the teeth. There is no common standard for this dis
tance, different gear makers using different distances, yet the differ
ence between them is very slight.
The Brown & Sharpe formula for this distance is:
0.157
F— (6)
P
in which F = clearance ; P = diametral pitch.
The Geo. B. Grant formula is:
A
F=— (7)
8
in which F = clearance ; A = addendum.
Thickness of Tooth.
The thickness of tooth and width of the space of a gear are always
equal at the pitch line, and if the circular pitch is the distance from
the center of one tooth to the center of the next tooth measured on
the pitch line, tooth and space being equal, then the thickness of tooth
must be equal to one-half the circular pitch, or
Pi
T=— (8)
2
in which T = thickness of tooth at pitch line ; P1 = circular pitch.
We know by formula (1) that
3.1416
P,= (1)
P
and substituting this value for P1 in formula (8) we have:
3.1416
T=-
2
and this formula resolved to its simplest form is:
1.5708
T=— (9)
P
in which T — thickness of tooth at pitch line; P = diametral pitch.
Example.—Given a gear 1 3/16 circular pitch, what is the thickness
of tooth at the pitch line? 1 3/16 (the circular pitch) divided by 2
gives 19/32, the thickness of tooth at the pitch line.
Example.—Given a 6-pitch gear to find the thickness of tooth at the
pitch line. 1.5708 divided by 6 (the diametral pitch of the gear) gives
0.262, the thickness of tooth at the pitch line.
Table III gives the thickness of tooth at the pitch line for the differ
ent diametral pitches.
Depth of Tooth.
After we get the gear blank turned up, we next want to know how
deep to run the gear cutter in order to get a perfect tooth. The work
ing depth of the tooth we have shown to be equal to the sum of the
FORMULAS FOR DIA4ENSI0NS 15
112
addendum and dedendum, or 1 = —, and the whole depth of the
P P P
2
tooth must equal — plus the clearance.
P
2 0.157
Using the Brown & Sharpe standard, we have 1 =
P P
2.157
E= (10)
P
in which E = full depth of tooth; P = diametral pitch.
Example.—Given a gear of 6 diametral pitch, to find the depth of
cut to be taken to get a perfect gear tooth.
Divide 2.157 by 6 (diametral pitch) and the quotient 0.359 is the
depth to be cut in the gear.
If we had the circular pitch given, to find the depth of tooth, we
TABLE III. THICKNESS OP TOOTH AT PITCH LINE.
t->-,~„*-„i
Diametral Pitch. Thickness
dum. at PitchofLine.
Tooth ni.„^,.i Kt„i,
Diametral Pitch. Thickness
at PitchofLine.
Tooth
2 0.785 inch. 12 0.131 inch.
2Vi 0.697 " 14 0.112 "
2% 0.628 " 16 0.098 "
2% 0.570 " 18 0.087 "
3 0.523 " 20 0.079 "
3V2 0.448 " 22 0.071 "
4 0.393 " 24 0.065 "
5 0.314 " 26 0.060 "
6 0.262 " 28 0.056 "
7 0.224 " 30 0/052 •"
8 0.196 " 32 0.049 "
9 0.175 " 36 0.044 "
10 0.157 " 40 0.039 "
11 0.143 *' 48 0.033 "
could substitute in formula (10) the value of P as given in the formula
(2), and we would have
2.157
JjJ
3.1416 -s- P1
which, reduced to its simplest form, is:
E = 0.6866 P, (11)
in which E = depth to be cut in gear;
P1 = circular pitch.
Example.—Given a gear iy2 inch circular pitch, to find the depth to
be cut.
Multiply 0.6866 by iy2 (circular pitch), and the product 1.030 is the
depth to be cut in gear.
Table IV gives the depth to be cut in a gear for different diametral
pitches.
16 SPUR GEARING
Distance Between Centers.
Having given the number of teeth and diametral pitch of two gears,
to find the distance between centers, add the number of teeth together,
and divide by twice the diametral pitch, or
N+n
=C (12)
2P
in which N = number of teeth in one gear.
n = number of teeth' in other gear.
P = diametral pitch.
C — distance between centers.
This formula is obtained from formula (3):
N
— = D.
P
This formula gives us the pitch diameter of one gear, and, if we get
the pitch diameters of two gears and add them together, we have twice
TABLE IV. DEPTH OP TOOTH.
tral Pitch. Depth to be cut Diametral Pitch. Depth to be cut
in gear. in gear.
'2 1.078 inch. 12 0.180 inch.
21/4 0.958 (i 14 0.154 "
2% 0.863 ii 16 0.135 "
2% 0.784 ii 18 0.120 "
3 0.719 ii 20 0.108 "
3%, 0.616 ii 22 0.098 "
4 0.539 ii 24 0.090 "
5 0.431 ii 26 0.083 "
6 0.359 " 28 0.077 "
7 0.308 ii 30 0.072 "
8 0.270 ii 32 0.067 "
9 0.240 ii 36 0.060 "
10 0.216 ii 40 0.054 "
11 0.196 ii 48 0.045 "
the distance between centers, for the sum of the pitch diameters is
twice the sum of the pitch radii, which is the distance between centers.
We have now traced, by the aid of a few "rules," the proportions of
a gear tooth, having given the pitch and number of teeth, through
pitch diameter, addendum, dedendum, clearance, width of tooth and
depth to be cut, up to the distance between centers. We now give
some formulas for the solution of problems in which some of the quan
tities which were known in preceding problems are unknown.
Pitch.
1 To find the pitch, having given the pitch diameter and number
of teeth. Divide the number of teeth by the pitch diameter, and the
quotient will be the pitch. The proof of this assertion is derived from
the formula:
N
D=— (3)
P
If the pitch diameter equals the number of teeth divided by the pitch,
then the pitch diameter multiplied by the pitch must equal the num
ber of teeth; therefore the pitch must equal the number of teeth
divided by the pitch diameter, and this, expressed in its simplest
form, is:
N
P=— (13)
D
in which P = pitch (diametral); N — number of teeth in gear; D =
pitch diameter.
Example.—A gear, 3 inches pitch diameter, has 36 teeth. Find the
diametral pitch.
Divide 36 (the number of teeth) by 3 (the pitch diameter), and we
have 12, the diametral pitch of the gear.
2. Having given the outside diameter and number of teeth, to find
the diametral pitch. Add 2 to the number of teeth, and divide by the
outside diameter, and the quotient will be the pitch of the gear.
In formula (5) we have:
N+ 2
= D1 (5)
P
If the number of teeth + 2 divided by the pitch equals the outside
diameter, then the outside diameter multiplied by the pitch must equal
the number of teeth + 2, and then the pitch must equal the number
of teeth + 2 divided by the outside diameter, which, expressed as a
formula, is:
N+2
=P (14)
D>
in which N = number of teeth in gear; D^ — outside diameter; P= dia
metral pitch.
Example.—Given a gear of 36 teeth and 31/6-inch outside diameter;
to find the diametral pitch.
36 (the number of teeth) + 2 = 38.
38 -J- 3 1/6 = 12, the diametral pitch of the gear.
Pitch Diameter.
1. Having given the outside diameter and the pitch, to find the pitch
diameter. The distance from the pitch diameter to the outside diam-
1
eter is —, as explained in formula
P
1
A=— (4)
P
and as this is to be added on each side of the center, the outside diam-
2
eter of the gear must be equal to the pitch diameter plus —. If this.
P
2
is so, then — subtracted from the outside diameter will give the
P
pitch diameter, or
18 SPUR GEARING
2
D = D1 (15)
P
in which D = pitch diameter; D1 = outside diameter; jP = diametral
pitch.
Example.-rGiven a gear 31/6 inches outside diameter and 12 pitch;
to find the pitch diameter.
3 1/6 inches (the outside diameter) — 2/12 = 3 inches, the pitch
diameter of the gear.
2. Having given the outside diameter and numher of teeth, to find
the pitch diameter. Multiply the outside diameter by the number of
teeth, and divide by the number of teeth plus 2.
We have shown in formula (5) that the outside diameter equals
the number of teeth + 2 divided by pitch, or
N+2
D, = (5)
P
and in formula (13) that pitch equals the number of teeth divided by
the pitch diameter, or
N
P=— (13)
D
Now, if the outside diameter equals the number of teeth plus 2
divided "by the diametral pitch (and the diametral pitch equals the
number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter), then the outside diam
eter must be equal to the number of teeth plus 2, divided by a fraction
with the number of teeth as numerator and the pitch diameter as
denominator. This is simply substituting the value of the pitch as
shown in formula (13) for the pitch in formula (5), and expressed as a
formula, is:
N+2
D, =
N+ D
N
Multiplying both sides of the equal sign by — we have
D
N D^N
D1X— = N + 2, or = N + 2,
D D
and now, multiplying both sides by D, we have
D, X N= (N + 2) XD
and dividing both sides by N + 2 we get
D, X N D,XN
= D, or D = (16)
N+2 N+2
in which D = pitch diameter; N = number of teeth; D1 = outside diam
eter.
Example.—Given a gear 3 1/6 inches outside diameter and 36 teeth.
To find the pitch diameter.
3 1/6 (the outside diameter) multiplied by 36 (the number of teeth)
equals 114. 36 (the number of teeth) + 2 = 38. 114 (D, X N) divided
by 38 (N + 2) =3 inches, the pitch diameter of the gear.
Number of Teeth.
1. Having given the pitch diameter and pitch, to find the number of
teeth. Multiply the pitch diameter by the pitch, and the product will
be the number of teeth in the gear.
The diametral pitch of a gear equals the number of teeth for each
inch of pitch diameter; hence, if we multiply the pitch by the num
ber of inches of pitch diameter we will have the number of teeth in
the gear, which, expressed as a formula, is:
N = PXD (17)
in which P = diametral pitch; D = pitch diameter.
Example.—Given a gear 3 inches pitch diameter and 12 diametral
pitch, to find the number of teeth. 3 (pitch diameter) multiplied by
12 (diametral pitch) = 36, the number of teeth in the gear.
2. To find the number of teeth, having given the outside diameter
and pitch. Multiply the outside diameter by the pitch and subtract
2, or
Jf=(D,X?)- 2 (18)
in which N — number of teeth; I>1 — outside diameter; P = diametral
pitch.
This formula is simply the reverse of formula
N+2
= D, (5)
P
If the outside diameter equals the number of teeth + 2 divided by
the pitch, which we have already proved, then the number of teeth
plus 2 must equal the outside diameter multiplied by the pitch, and
subtracting 2 from this result we have the number of teeth in the
gear.
Example.—Given a gear 3 1/6 inches outside diameter and 12 pitch,
to find the number of teeth. Multiply 3 1/6 (outside diameter) by 12
(the pitch) and we have 38, and subtracting 2 from this result we
have 36, the number of teeth in the gear.
Outside Diameter.
To find the outside diameter having given the- pitch diameter and
pitch. Divide 2 by the pitch and add to the pitch diameter, or
2
£, = D + — (19)
P
in which D,= outside diameter.
D = pitch diameter.
P = pitch.
1
The addendum of a gear is — [formula (4)] and this, added on each
P
side of the pitch diameter, gives the outside diameter.
Example.—Given a gear 3 inches pitch diameter and 12 pitch; to find
the outside diameter.
3 (ii-itch diameter) plus 2/12 ( — | =3 1/6 inches, the outside
G)-
diameter of the gear.
20 SPUR GEARING
Summary of Formulas.
Having given the general principles of the proportions of gear teeth,
we will now group the formulas (which we have proved to be cor
rect) under one head, so that they may be more easily found when
wanted.
In the following formulas,
P = diametral pitch.
P,= circular pitch.
D = pitch diameter.
■Di = outside diameter.
N = number of teeth in one gear.
n = number of teeth in mating gear.
A — addendum.
T = thickness of tooth at the pitch line.
E = full depth of tooth.
C — distance between centers.
F = clearance.
3.1416 2.157
P,= (1) E= (10)
P P
3.1416 E = 0.6866 P, (11)
*> C= (12)
N 2P
D=— (3) N
P p=- (13)
1 D
A=— (4) N+2
P P=- (14)
A= (5) 2
P D = D, (15)
0.157 A _ P
P= or— (6 and 7) n D1 X N
P 8 D~ C16)
N+2
T=- (8) N = PXD (17)
2 N=(D1XP)— 2 (18)
1.5708 2
T=- (9) A=D +— (19)
P
CHAPTER III.
DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF GEAR WHEELS.

The complete calculations required for the design of a pair of gears
according to the usual shop practice are few and simple, and it is
proposed to put these calculations into easily-understood form in the
present chapter. The calculations should be made in the following
manner: First—Find out if the gears are intended to give a certain
velocity ratio between two shafts, or a certain power ratio between
the shafts; and, assuming the number of teeth in one gear, make the
number of teeth in the other gear such as to have the required ratio
to the number of teeth in the first gear. Second—Assume the pitch of
the gears, and calculate the pitch diameters of the two gears, and the
distance between the centers of the shafts. Third—Calculate the width
of face required to give the gears proper strength. Fourth—Lay out
the gears and the tooth forms. The relations of these several steps one
to another are such as to make some assumptions necessary, and these
depend upon the judgment and experience of the designer, especially
when the distance between the shafts is approximately settled, and cer
tain ratios are to be obtained without materially changing the shaft
centers. In the case of the younger designers, however, these assump
tions are all made beforehand and given to them with instructions
to lay out the gears. The several steps will now be taken up and
each explained.
Speed Ratios.
Fig. 10 represents two shafts connected by a pair of spur gears, A
being the driven shaft, and B, the driving shaft. If shaft A is required
to revolve half as fast as shaft B, it is easily seen that the gear on A
must be twice as large, and, being of the same pitch, must have twice
as many teeth as the gear on B. If n and Ji1 represent the number of
teeth in each gear, respectively, we have the proportion,
xn
y : x = n : n1 or = y.
»i
If, now, a third shaft were to be driven by gears from shaft A, we
would assume A to be the driver revolving y times a minute, and by
the above proportion determine the revolutions of the third shaft, and
so continue indefinitely for as many shafts as are geared together in
any one train. Thus follows the rule: The, speed of the last shaft
equals the speed of the first shaft multiplied by the product of the
number of teeth in the driving gears and divided by the product of
the number of teeth of the driven gears.
Power Ratios.
In case a certain ratio of power is wanted, we shall find some sort
22 SPUR GEARING
of a crank or pulley, the radius R of which is known, upon the power
shaft B, and upon the driven shaft there will also he some sort of a
crank, pulley or drum, the radius r of which is known. We can now
make the equation (referring to Fig. 10) :
PRnL
=Q
nr
This expression may be made general by following through as before
from shaft to shaft, and may be given as the following rule: The
power, multiplied by the power arm, times the product of the number
of teeth in the driven gears, and divided by the weight arm times the
product of the number of teeth in the driving gears, equals the weight.
Fig. 11 shows in tabular form several different forms of gear trains
with their formulas for speed and power ratios. It is to be noted that
1X1 * i
y=-RBV. PER MIN.
1X1 b 2
a;=REv. PER MIN.
IndvitrialJ^eu, A. Y.
Fig. 10. Speed and Power Ratios.

in place of using the numbers of teeth in these ratios we may use the
pitch diameters of the gears, but as these diameters are very often
expressed in fractional parts of an inch, while the number of teeth is
always a whole number, it is found more convenient to use the latter.
Idlers are often used, as shown in the sketch in section 2, Fig. 11,
and they have no -effect upon either the speed or power ratios. They
are introduced either to connect two shafts where the great distance
between centers would involve very large gears if geared directly
together, or to effect a change in direction of motion, as may be seen
by the arrows in Fig. 12. An inspection of this engraving proves the
rule that an even number of idlers does not change the direction of
motion between two shafts, while an odd number of idlers reverses the
direction of motion.
b <n b t- o
Nnumber
of
in
teeth
min.
oshaft,
tmin.
driven
of
annn,per
rxgshaft
tpower
=ery
ev.iper
—=oaev.xnr.s,
InS.T,Pdursteiual.
ITlhusitratidon.
y=
PRrii
ni
ratio:
Speed Power
ratio:
11.DIRSpeed
Pig.
andPliGofaeoutsgwrieaotrmnisg.
Note.
the
nAs
idlers
of
cuanmcb—elrs
they
do
raffect
the
out
notesult.
ISleusctroaniod. PRnarii
inn,xn nrnri r
ratio:
Speed Power
ratio:
load
Rpower
of
rad.
arm.r=—
FIliusrt asiton. Q
=
xnn, Rutin,
P nn,r
Speed
ratio: ratio:
Power
24 SPUR GEARING
Pitch Diameters.
Having determined upon the velocity or power ratio required of our
gears, the next step is to determine the two pitch diameters of the
gears. To do this it is necessary to assume the pitch of the gears, and
this assumption depends upon the judgment and experience of the
Flff. 12. Illustration of the Effect of Idlers.

designer, although very often it may be confirmed by comparison with
gears of about the same size and doing about the same work as those
to be designed. After assuming the pitch and finding the pitch diam
eters, a calculation for the strength of the gears will show whether
Fig. 13. Terms used to denote Gear Quantities.

the assumed pitch is right, and it it then proves to be too small or
too large, the calculation may be repeated with another 'assumed pitch.
Pitch of Gears.
It is first necessary to understand what is meant by the pitch of a
DESIGN AND CALCULATION 25
gear, and its relation to the diameter. This has been explained in the
previous chapter, but in order to make the present discussion a com
plete whole by itself, the most important definitions and formulas have
here been repeated. Fig. 13 shows a gear of twelve teeth (such a
small gear is often called a pinion), and the names of the different
parts are clearly indicated. As will be seen, the circular pitch is the
distance on the pitch circle from a point on one tooth to the corre
sponding point on the next tooth. The circumference of the pitch
TABLE V. CONSTANT FOB DETERMINING CHORD PITCH.
Number Constant Number Constant Number Constant
of Teeth. E. of Teeth. K. of Teeth. K.
12 .258 31 .102" 52 .059

13 .239 32 .097 54 .057
14 .222 33 .094 56 .055
15 .207 34 .093 58 .053
16 .195 35 .089 60 .052
17 .184 36 .087 62 .049
18 .173 37 .084 64 .048
19 .165 38 .082 66 .045
20 .156 39 .080 68 .044
21 .148 40 .078 70 .043
22 .141 41 .076 75 .041
23 .136 42 .075 80 .039
24 .130 43 .073 85 .036
25 .125 44 .071 90 .034
26 .120 45. .069 95 .032
27 .115 46 .067 100 .031
28 .112 47 .066 125 .025
29 .107 48 .065 150 .019
30 .104 49 .063 175 .017
50 .061 200 .015
circle is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of teeth and

dividing this by 3.1416 gives the diameter of the pitch circle, or
Z> = -
3.1416
when, D = the diameter of the pitch circle,
i> =: the number of teeth,
P1 = the circular pitch.
After having determined the pitch diameter and drawn the pitch
circle, we must divide the pitch circle into as many equal parts as the
number of teeth, or, what is the same thing, lay off the circular pitch
upon the pitch circle. In the case of a small pinion, such as Pig. 13,
this may be most easily done by trial with a pair of dividers. It very
often happens, however, that a gear is so large as to make this method
impracticable, because only a portion of the gear, showing a few teeth,
will be drawn. It thus becomes necessary to have some method of
accurately laying off the circular pitch upon the pitch circle when
only a portion of the circle is drawn. From Fig. 13 it is evident that
if we set our dividers to the circular pitch, and attempt to step off the
26 SPUR GEARING
spaces, what we shall actually be stepping off will be chords instead
of circular arcs, and the resulting arcs will be greater than the circular
pitch. In very large gears this error is very small, but in ordinary
gears it is quite appreciable, and the dividers should be set to the
chord pitch. Table V has been computed to enable the chord pitch to
be easily determined, as the pitch diameter multiplied by the constant
E, opposite the number of teeth in the table, equals the chord pitch.
Relation between Number of Teeth, Pitch, and Pitch Diameter
of Gears.
Molded or rough-cast gears are usually designed by circular pitch,
but cut gears are designed by what is known as diametral pitch. Since
the number of teeth bears a fixed relation to the pitch circumference,
and the pitch diameter bears a fixed relation to the pitch circumference,
it follows that the number of teeth bears a fixed relation to the pitch
diameter. This being so, we may divide the pitch diameter expressed
in inches by the number of teeth, and the result will be what is termed
the diametral pitch. It is also evident that if the number of teeth
bears a fixed relation to the pitch circumference and pitch diameter,
the circular pitch and diametral pitch must have some fixed relation
to each other. These different relations are most conveniently given
for use as follows:
Circular pitch = Px Diametral pitch = P
P^U N
D= D=—
r P
Dv N
P1 = P=-
N D
Dir N = PD
N= N+2
P. D1 =
/>, = !> + 0.6 P1 P
D + D2 P1N1 D+D. N,
C— = G=-
2 27r 2 2P
Relation of Circular and Diametral Pitch.
7T IT
=' , Pi = — P=—
P P,
rt = 3.1416,
P1 = circular pitch, i
P = diametral pitch,
D = pitch diameter,
D2= pitch diameter of mating gear,
Z), = outside diameter,
N = number of teeth,
N1 = number of teeth in a pair of gears = sum of the teeth in each
gear,
C = distance between centers of shafts.
When designing cut gears it is not necessary to lay out the form of
the teeth, as these are formed by the ge'ar-cutting process, and it is
.only necessary for the designer to calculate the pitch diameters that
will give the required ratios, and then to find the outside diameter of
the blank from which the gear is to be cut. For such gears diametral
Fig. 14.
pitch is a great convenience, as the relations of pitch, diameter' and
number of teeth are so simple.
Strength of Teeth and Width of Face.
Before proceeding further, it is well to know if our assumed pitch
for the gears will give strong enough feeth without requiring a wider
face than is practical, and it becomes necessary to know the force or
power transmitted by the gears. The most convenient way to do this
is to get the force in pounds which is carried by the gear at the pitch
TABLE V£. FACTOR FOB CALCULATING WIDTH OF FACE OF TEETH.
Radial Flanks* Involute 15°.
Number of Teeth. Factor Y. Number of Teeth. Factor Y.
12 052 38 .107
18 053 43 .110
14 .054 50 .112
15 055 60 .114
16 .056 75 .116
17 057 100 .118
18 .058 150 .120
19 .059 300 .122
20 .060 Rack .124
21 .061
23 .062
25 .063
27 .064
30 .065
34 .066 -
line. In Fig. 14, let it be supposed that the power ratio is such as to
make it just possible to move the load Q with a force P upon the crank.
Then the force W at the pitch line of the gears will be,
PR
28 SPUR GEARING
Having found W we may calculate the required width of face for our.
gears having the assumed pitch, and if the required face proves to be
too wide, we shall have to assume a larger pitch, in order to get
stronger teeth. The most widely used formula for the strength of
gears is that proposed by Mr. Wilfred Lewis and given in Kent's hand-
took, page 901, as
W= SP FY,
in which W = force on pitch line in pounds,
P = circular pitch,
S — allowable fiber stress for the material used,
F = width of face of gear,
Y = variable from Table VI.
S may be assumed as 3,500 pounds for cast iron, and 8,000 pounds
for cast steel, and as the pitch has been already assumed, the formula
may be changed to give the required width of face thus,
W
F= .
SPY
Substituting in this formula the values already obtained for W, £,
P, and Y, we find the required face for the gears, and if this is too
great, a larger pitch must be used.
Chart for Strength of Spur Gears.
The accompanying chart, Fig. 15, for the strength of spur gears,
enables problems to be solved easily and quickly, and the result of any
changes in pitch or face to be quickly seen. The heavy line with the
arrows shows the method of working out the problem for a 50-tooth
gear as stated in the upper right-hand corner of the chart. The chart
also shows the safe working loads for different speeds as given by
Mr. Lewis. Enter the chart on the left at the number of teeth; then
follow over to the diagonal line for the pitch of the gear, then up or
down to the diagonal line for the allowable fiber stress for the mate
rial of which the gear is to be made, then over to the diagonal line for
the face of the gear, then down, and read the load in pounds that the
gear will carry at the pitch line. If the load to be carried and the
number of teeth required are known, the chart may be entered at each
end, that is, at the number of teeth and at the load, and by then
following each way, the face required for a certain pitch, or the pitch
required for a certain face are easily seen, and thus the best combina
tion of face and pitch for any case is easily determined without any
calculations.
Laying out the Tooth Outlines.
Having gone through the steps described previously, we shall know
the pitch diameter, pitch, number of teeth, and face of the gear to be
designed, and are ready to lay out the gear and tooth outlines. As has
been mentioned in Chapter I, two forms of teeth are in general use,
the cycloidal and the involute, each having its champions among able
designers. The involute form has the advantage of being the more
easily ground to an approximately correct tooth form in the case of
molded gears, and of running well with a small deviation from the
true distance between centers. The involute form only will be consid
ered, as it is believed that this form is becoming very much the more
common of the two. The tooth outlines are most conveniently laid out
by the use of an odontograph table (Table VII), in which the dimen
sions shown in Fig. 16 are given in terms of the pitch. Two gears are
shown in mesh with a rack—that on the left showing the method of
laying out a gear having from 12 to 36 teeth, and that on the right
showing the method for a gear having 36 teeth or more.
TABLE VII. DIMENSIONS AND CONSTANTS FOB LAYING OUT GEAR TEETH.
Circular Pitch. Diametral Pitch.
08 X pitch. 1 pitch,
0.4 X pitch, below 1". 1.15 pitch.
0.375 X pitch, above 1".
0.016 x pitch diameter.
0.53 X pitch.
0.47 X pitch.
01 X pitch.
Multiply by Number of Teeth. Multiply by Number of Teeth.
Pitch. A. B. Pitch. A. B.
0.03 o.or5 1" 0.125 0.062

vs" 0.035 0.0175 0.100" 0.050
i" 0.04 0.02 0 083 0.041
0.045 0.0225 HT 0.071 0.035
i«" 0.05 0.025 2" 0.062 0.031
0.055 0.0275 2M" 0.056 0.028
0.06 0.03 2^" 0.050 0.025
0.065 0.08;>5 m" 0.045 0.022
0.07 0.035 3" 0.042 0.021
0.075 0.0375 3^" 0 036 0.018
w 0.08 0.04 4" 0.031 0 015
zy*" 0.085 0.0425 5" 0.025 0.012
0.09 0 045 6" 0.021 0.010
2%" 0.095 0.0475
8JT 0.100 0.05
When laying out a molded gear, first draw the pitch circle of a
diameter equal to the pitch diameter previously determined. Draw the
point circle outside the pitch circle, and a distance from the pitch
circle of 0.3 times the pitch, and draw the root circle inside the pitch
circle and a distance from the pitch circle of 0.4 times the pitch. These
two distances are given as a and 6, respectively, in Fig. 16, and in
Table VII it will be seen that as the point is 0.3 of the pitch outside
the pitch circle, while the root is 0.4 of the pitch inside the pitch circle,
the teeth of the two meshing gears will have a clearance between point
and root of 0.1 of the pitch. For gears having greater than 1-inch pitch,
this clearance will be greater than necessary even for rough gears,
and will not- look well; so for gears above 1-inch pitch, 0.375 instead of
32 SPUR GEARING
0.4 may be the multiplier for the pitch, as will be found noted in the
table. The base line is now drawn at a distance 0.016 times the pitch
diameter from the pitch circle. This base line may sometimes come
inside the root circle. The pitch is then laid off upon the pitch circle
as before described, and the spaces thus made upon the pitch circle
are to be divided into tooth and space parts. The tooth part will be
0.47 times the pitch, and the space part will be 0.53 times the pitch,
thus giving the tooth a small clearance in the space. We are now
ready to draw in the tooth outlines, which are circular arcs drawn
from centers on the base line. In the case of a gear of less than 36
teeth the tooth outline will be composed of two arcs, while for all
gears of 36 teeth or more the tooth outline is only one arc. The radii
for these arcs are found by multiplying the number of teeth in the
gear by the constants found in the odontograph table opposite the
pitch of the gear. These radii are designated in Fig. 16 and Table VII
as A and B. In the case of gears of less than 36 teeth "the tooth out
line is completed by radial lines as shown in Fig. 16.
CHAPTER IV.
STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH.

In considering the strength of gear teeth we shall, in the first place,
neglect the actual shape of the tooth and assume it to be rectangular
in every section, as shown in Fig. 17. Further, for the sake of simpli
city, it will be assumed that the load, P, acts on the outer circumfer
ence of the gear, and hence at the extremity of the tooth. If we con
sider the conditions under which the load is assumed to be applied in •
actual practice, we shall find that: (1) A rough cast gear may have
the whole load concentrated upon one corner of a tooth; or the gear
itself may be well made, but may be out of alignment, due to springing
of shaft, bad workmanship, or other causes; in this case also the load
may be concentrated upon the corner of one tooth. (2) The gear may
Machinery,y.Y,
Fig. 17. Fig. 18.

be well made, with accurately cut or cast teeth, well mounted upon
heavy shafts having proper alignment, in which case the load may be
distributed over the entire width of a single tooth. In determining
a formula, then, for the pitch of a gear tooth, we must know the kind
of gears we have to deal with, and what considerations affect their
strength.
In the first case, if the gear is rough cast or placed so that the load
may come upon one corner of a tooth, we must consider not only that
the tooth is a cantilever, as in Fig. 17, but that the corner of the tooth
is itself a cantilever, as in Fig. 18, in which the whole load, P, is con
centrated at the point, g, so that the moment tending to break the cor
ner off from the tooth is P multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from P to the line, at; hence PXgj = Pfo sin a = bending moment.
Now, the resistance which the tooth offers depends upon the character
of the metal, as well as its actual section, which in the present case
34 SPUR GEARING
is the rectangle a c e i. It can be shown that the resistance of this
corner to breaking across is equal to
n
1/6 f t2 X ai = l/$ft2 (20)
COS a
in which f = stress in the metal. Equating this to the bending moment,
we have
h
Ph sin a = 1/6 f t2 (21)
cos a
or
6 P sin a cos a
f= (22)
t2
Noting that sin a cos a = % sin 2 a, and substituting in (22) we
have :
3P
f= sin 2 o
t*
When a = 45 degrees, we have sin 2 o = a maximum = 1; therefore
3P P |~8P
f = — ; orP = / — ; and* = . -- (23)
P 3 - N /
For new teeth, rough cast, in which t = 0.48 p, (p1 being the circular
pitch) we have:
/ 3P ' IP
0.48 p, = ^ — ; or p1 = 3.6 — (24)
For wooden cogs working with cast iron teeth, in which t = 0.6 p„
we have:
P, = 2.9 J - (25)
If in any case the width of face, 6, is less than the height of tooth,
the above formulas do not apply. In this case we have used the-thick-
ness of tooth without considering loss of strength, due to wear; but we
have also assumed the whole load as concentrated upon the corner,
whereas, as wear occurs, although the tooth itself is reduced in sec
tion, yet the load is better distributed, and the tooth may be actually
stronger.
In the case of rough cast iron and mortise gears in which the whole
load may come upon the corner of one tooth, the width of gear does not
affect its strength, and there is no advantage, as far as strength is
1
concerned, in making such a gear wider than h X , or 1.41 h;
cos 45 deg.
as h, the height of the tooth, is frequently made equal to 0.7 p„ we have
the safe width of tooth, 6 = 1.41 X 0.7p, = ^,, very nearly.
In order to prevent excessive wear, such gearing is frequently made
so that its breadth of face b = 2 pv So far we have assumed that the
tooth section was a rectangle, but in practice the tooth may have the
STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH 35
shape shown in Fig. 19, or that in Fig. 20, which represent a wide
range in the strength of two.gears, when accurately made and aligned,
but for a load concentrated upon one corner the difference is not so
marked as the shape of the teeth would indicate.
Investigation shows that if the smaller of two gears has at least 18
teeth, and not more than 50, the strength of the tooth will be practi
cally the same as that determined by the above formulas. Since these
values may be said to represent fairly well the limits of the number
of teeth in the smaller of two gears in those cases where rough gear
ing is permissible, we shall not at the present time discuss the influence
of shape upon the strength of this kind of gearing.
Of more importance is the consideration of that case in which the
load is supposed to be equally distributed between two gear teeth.
Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

This matter relates to the strength of all gear teeth, and we shall
discuss its effects in general.
The point of contact between tooth surfaces in correct gearing can
readily be determined when the system upon which the gears have
been designed is known. Thus in the involute system, the point of
contact is located on the straight line passing through the line of cen
ters "at the point of intersection of the pitch circles, and making an
angle with the horizontal of l4%' degrees to 22% degrees, as shown by
P, T P' in Fig. 21.
On the other hand, the point of contact between two tooth surfaces
of the cycloidal system will always be upon a reverse curve, which is
a portion of the describing circle for the faces and flanks of the tooth ;
thus, in the interchangeable system of 12-tooth base, i. e., in that sys
tem where the smallest pair of gears in the set is assumed to have
12 teeth and these have radial flanks, the diameter of rolling circle
will evidently be equal to the radius of the 12-tooth pinion; and since
36 SPUR GEARING
the tooth profiles are generated by rolling this circle upon the pitch
circles of any pair of gears in the set, the point of contact will always
fall upon the circumference of this describing circle when the center
of the latter lies upon the line joining the centers of the two gears,
as shown in Fig. 22. If in Figs. 21 and 22 M' N' and R' 8' represent
the addendum circles, or the circles drawn through the tops of the
teeth of the two gears, we shall have the two loci P' T P„ of the points
of contact, as shown in heavy lines; that is, contact will begin in each
case at P' and, as the teeth move around, the point of contact between
the surfaces will travel along the line or reverse curve, P' T P„ until
contact ceases. Now, considering Fig. 22, if the pitch were equal
to the arc P' TP,, one tooth would just be beginning action at P', while
another would be quitting at P,. In practice, in order to obtain smooth
ness of action the effective height of tooth is usually taken at about
six-tenths of the circular pitch in cast gears, and about 0.64 of the
A
I Machinery,X.Y.
Pig. 21.
circular pitch in cut gears. If p = diametral pitch, p' = circular pitch,
and h = effective height of tooth, we have: 7i = 0.6p' for cast gears;
and
2
h, = 0.64 p' = — for cut gears.
P
We would here note that the effective height of tooth is not the total
height, as an additional amount, frequently 0.1 p' for cast gears, is
allowed for clearance between the root circle and the tops of the teeth
of the mating gear. With an addendum equal to half the above height
of tooth, it will be found that the average arc of contact for gears
between 12 teeth and a rack, in both the involute and cycloidal systems,
has a length equal to about one and two-thirds times the circular pitch.
In any case, by stepping off the pitch on P' TP,, Fig. 22, from both P'
and P„ we shall obtain the points o and 6, which indicate that with
perfect gearing the two pairs of teeth will be simultaneously in con
tact at P' and at a and will remain in contact until 6 and P1 are
reached; the distance from 6 to a will be traversed with only one pair
of teeth in contact; however, in this latter case, it will be noticed that
the leverage of the tooth is very much reduced. For a 12-toothed
pinion (cycloidal system), this leverage, shown in Fig. 22 as h', is
0.41 p'; and for a rack it is 0.35 p'. Under these conditions, then, the
dimensions of the tooth would be determined upon the supposition that
the whole working load is carried by one tooth, and that the force is
applied with a leverage of 0.35 p' to 0.41 p', the constant depending
upon, the number of teeth. For the 15-degree involute system the
effective height for a 12-toothed pinion is the same as for the cycloidal
system, viz: 0.41 p', but for a 15-degree involute rack there are always
two teeth in contact.
This determination is correct for all gear teeth properly shaped and
spaced, but as Mr. Wilfred Lewis has so ably pointed out, it must be
admitted that mechanical perfection in forming and spacing has not
Machtnery,N,Y.
yet been reached, and that the slightest deviation in either respect is
sufficient to concentrate the entire load at the end of one tooth. Even
with cut gears the same conditions obtain, for the cutters ordinarily
employed are correct only for a single gear, although they are used
within certain equidistant limits for various other gears. To what
extent the elasticity of bronze, copper, and steel influences the distribu
tion of pressure on cut gears is not known, and it is, therefore, unsafe
to consider its effect. As the teeth become worn, the concentration
of the load may be reduced, but until this wear takes place, the whole
load should be assumed as acting at the extreme end of the tooth.
For rough cast iron and mortise gears, as we have shown, it is pos
sible for the whole load to be concentrated on the corner of one tooth,
and this may occur even with the best cut gears, owing to careless
alignment, or lack of stiffness in the shafting and supports; but when
38 SPUR GEARING
iron patterns are used with accurately cut teeth, especially if the mold
is baked, or when the gear is machine molded, or the teeth are cut,
the contact should be fairly uniform, and the load evenly distributed
across the face of the tooth. It must be understood, however, that in
many cases circumstances will arise when it is impossible to secure
these favorable conditions; particularly is this true when the gearing
is subjected to shock and variable loads. However, with careful work,
stiff shafts and not too wide a face, the assumption of fairly uniform
distribution of pressure across the tooth may be considered as satis
factory for general practice.
The pressure which comes upon the tooth in the direction of the
line of thrust (the common normal to the tooth surface) is greater
I I Machlnery.N.Y.
Fig. 23.
than that which transmits motion, for if we resolve the force, F, along
and perpendicular to the radius at. the point of contact, Pv Fig. 23,
the radial component, R, does not tend to produce rotation; it will,
however, exert a pressure on the bearings, and tends to crush the
tooth; as the compressive force has little effect upon the strength of
the tooth, especially with cast iron gears, its influence may be neg
lected. The other component, or P, acts at right angles to the radius
and produces rotation by its pressure on the tooth, and thus may be
considered as the effective working load.
Now considering the tooth as a rectangular cantilever with the load
P uniformly distributed across the outer edge, as in Fig. 17, the thick
ness, t, assumed equal to 0.49 p' —- 0.02 inch for well-made cast gears,
may be obtained by equating the bending moment to the moment of
resistance of the tooth; that is
1
Ph — fX—bf1 (26)
6
Assuming the effective height of tooth ft = 0.6p' (circular pitch);
breadth of face, b = xp'; thickness of tooth, t = 0.49 p' —0.02, there
fore i= = 0.24 ' (p')z — 2 X 0.0098 p' + 0.0004, in which we may neglect
the last two terms, as they will not appreciably affect the result.
Substituting these values in (26) we have:
fxp' x 0.24 (p')*
PX0.6j3' =
R
x X 0.24 (p')s
P—f = 0 066/x (p')> (2?)
3.6
| P I 15 P
P' = J = J (28)
> 0.066 fx N fx
For cut gears the addendum is usually made equal to the reciprocal
of the diametral pitch, or 1/p; but since pp' = 7r = 3.14 we have 1/p
= 0.32 p', hence the effective height of tooth now becomes 0.64 p'.
The thickness of tooth in this case is 0.5 p'; therefore the load, from
(26) is:
! 15.4P
P- 0.065 fx (p')sandp' = . I ,
N /- x
results practically the same as those just obtained. For cast gears,
if the breadth of face equals twice the pitch
or x = 2, then p' = 2.74
if x = 2^, then p' = 2 ••J £
if x = 3, then p' = 2.24
if a; = 3^, then _p' = 2.07

It will be noticed that the formulas thus deduced apply only to
rectangular teeth, as in Fig. 17, whereas in practice we have to deal
with such forms as given in Figs. 19 and 20. . In Fig. 19, the width
of tooth is considerably less measured on the working depth circle
than on the pitch circle, and fracture would occur along the line
(i a, where the thickness is V. «
With a uniformly distributed pressure, P, acting at the extremity of
the tooth as shown, the relative strength of this tooth compared with
one of rectangular section having the uniform thickness t varies as
Thus if a gear tooth of 1 diametral pitch (p' = 3.14) meas
(t)'
40 SPUR GEARING
ures 1.52 inch on the pitch circle and 1.34 inch on the working depth
circle between the points a and a, Fig. 19, the strength of the tooth
(1.34\!
will be only 0.78 of that which it would have if the tooth
1.52/ ~
had the constant thickness
thicki 1.52 inch. In the same way, if the thick
ness of tooth at; a a, 1Fig. 20, measures 1.76 inch, then its relative
strength will be I I = 1.34.
a
vw
This suggests a convenient method not only of ascertaining the load
which a given gear will sustain, but also one which will give a suit
able pitch when the load and number of teeth are known.
If in the first case the pitch had been determined from formula (28),
the tooth would have only about three-fourths of its assumed strength
for a given load P, whereas in the second case, the formula would give
a tooth about a third stronger than necessary for the same load P.
Hachtnery,N.T.
Tig. 24.
Since the pitch varies as the square root of the pressure, it will be
evident that if we multply the pitch in each case by the inverse ratio
f
of — we shall obtain a pitch giving the actual strength required in
*
both cases. Therefore, since
1.52 1.52
= 1.14, and = 0.86,
1.34 1.76
the respective pitches will be 1.14 p' and 0.86 p', in which
( 15 P
P' = J
> fx
from formula (28).
It is evident that the method of laying out the gear tooth will have
some influence upon its strength; this is very clearly shown in Fig.
24, which represents a twelve-tooth pinion of 3.14 inches pitch accu
rately drawn for the four systems represented, viz: (1) cycloidal, 12
base, i. e., the smallest pair of gears is assumed to have twelve teeth,
and these have radial flanks, so that the diameter of rolling circle is
one-half of the diameter of pitch circle of a twelve-tooth pinion; (2)
cycloidal, 15 base; (3) involute, 15 degrees line of action, and (4)
involute, 22% degrees lines of action. By laying out a series of differ
ent gears, according to the different systems represented, the exact
thickness of V and t may be determined graphically, from which the
values of the ratios — and fI — 1 may be readily ascertained.
r W
This has been done, and the results are given in Tables VIII -and IX,
in which the ratio is presented in the form of a coefficient correspond
ing to the number of teeth in the gear.
t
TABLE VIII. VALUES OP COEFFICIENT Cp = —
No. of Teeth in Gear Value of Coefficient Cp
Involute System Cycloidal System
Exact Intervals 15 deg. 12 Tooth 15 Tooth
Base Base
12 12 1.14 1.00 1.12 1.33
13% 13- 14 1.10 0.96 1.08 1.19
15% 15- 16 1.07 0.92 1.04 1.10
17% 17- 18 1.04 0.88 1.00 1.03
20 19- 21 1.01 0.84 0.96 0.98
23 22- 24 0.98 0.80 0.92 0.95
27 25- 29 0.95 0.76 0.88 0.92
33 30- 36 0.92 0.73 0.85 0.89 .
42 37- 48 0.88 0.70 0.82 0.86
58 49- 72 0.84 0.68 0.79 0.83
97 73- 144 0.80 0.66 0.76 0.80
290 145- Rack 0.76 0.65 0.73 0.77
Combining these coefficients with formulas (27) and (28) we obtain
P = 0.066 fx C, (p')! (29)
and
I 15 P
P' = Cp J (80)
^ fx
In the same way formulas may be deduced for wooden cogs, working
with cast iron, by assuming the width of tooth equal to 0.6 p'.
In these formulas, as previously stated, the effective or working
height of tooth was used instead of the total height, which is always
somewhat greater, but as the strength of the tooth varies with the
square of its thickness, and as this value increases below the working
depth circle more rapidly than the increased height of tooth on account
of the fillet, we are justified in neglecting that portion of the tooth
between the working depth and root circles, assuming that a suitable
fillet has been used at the base of the tooth.
The formula here presented will give a close approximation to the
working strength of a gear tooth when the pitch and number of teeth
are given, provided we know the working stress in the material of
42 SPUR GEARING
which the tooth is composed. This is, however, such a variable factor
that it is possible only to suggest limitations covering general condi
tions; and the judgment of the designer, based on a knowledge of the
conditions under which the gear is to work, must modify the general
values, as occasion may require. Indeed, it is much more satisfactory
to the designer to use a general formula involving a choice of stress
than to employ an entirely empirical rule in which the stress is
unknown, and which offers no opportunity for variation under varying
conditions.
Professor TJnwin assumes that for cast iron f may have the three
values 9,600, 6,100, and 4,300 pounds per square inch for "little shock,"
"moderate shock," and "excessive shock," respectively, for those gears
TABLE IX. VALUES OP COEFFICIENT Cs -
= 0"
No. o£ Teeth in Gear Value of Coefficient C«
Involute System Cycloidal System
Exact Intervals 15 deg. deg. 12 Tooth 15 Tooth
Base Base
12 12 0.77 1.00 0.79 0.56
13 y2 13- 14 0.83 1.08 0.85 0.70
15% 15- 16 0.87 1.18 0.92 0.83
17% 17- 18 0.92 1.29 1.00 0.94
20 19- 21 0.98 1.42 1.08 1.04
23 22- 24 1.02 1.56 1.18 1.11
27 25- 29 1.10 1.72 1.29 1.18
33 30- 36 1.18 1.87 1.38 1.26
42 37- 48 1.29 2.03 1.48 1.35
58 49- 72 1.42 2.16 1.60 1.45
97 73-144 1.56 2.29 1.73 1.56
290 145 - Rack 1.72 2.39 1.87 1.69
in which, from inaccuracy of form or mounting the pressure may come
on a corner of the tooth. For carefully fitted gearing, however, in
which the pressure is assumed to be distributed along the whole width
of the tooth, he suggests 4,350 and 2,780 pounds per square inch, "the
latter to apply to cases where there is some vibration and shock."
In selecting these values he assumed that the load is divided between
two pairs of teeth in all cases, so that the pressure on each tooth is
2-3P. Multiplying these several values of f by 2-3, we obtain the stress
in pounds per square inch, assuming the total load to be carried on
one tooth.
TABLE X. VALUES OF STRESS f FOR CAST IRON (UNWIN).
Little Moderate Excessive
Shock Shock Shock
Inaccurate gearing 6,300 4,000 2,850
Well formed gearing 2,875 .... 1,850
It will be noted that the real stress in the well formed gearing may
be considerably less than that given, on account of the influence of
increased thickness of tooth at the base. Professor Reuleaux, in his
"Constructor," states that the dimensions of gear wheels must, for the
same pressure on the teeth, be increased to meet shock in proportion
to the increase in initial velocity. For slow-running gears, however,
he neglects this action and divides gears into two classes, viz., hoisting
gears, and transmission gears, and includes under hoisting gears all
those having a linear velocity at the pitch circle, of not more than 100
feet per minute, and under transmission gears all those running at a
higher velocity. For hoisting gears he recommends a fiber stress of
about 4,200 pounds per square inch for cast iron, and states that an
increase of one-fourth in the permissible stress would reduce the pitch
only 7 per cent, but on the other hand, he notes that too low a value
of. f causes unnecessary increase in the size and weight, not only of
the gears, but also of the bearings, frame work and other parts of the
machine. In assuming this value of f, Reuleaux does not consider any
increase in strength due to increased section at the base of the tooth,
although he states that "the actual stress is properly somewhat less,
because the thickness of the tooth at the base is usually more than
one-half the pitch as assumed in the formula."
For transmission gears Reuleaux states that the fiber stress should
be taken smaller for a given force P, as, when the circumferential
velocity increases, the dynamic action of shock and vibration also
increases.
For cast iron he recommends
9,600,000
f=
V + 2,164
in which V is the velocity of the pitch circle in feet per minute. For
steel he states that f may be taken 31/3 times, and for wood, 6/10
times the value thus obtained.
Arranged in tabular form this gives results as shown in Table XI.
TABLE XI. VALUES OP SAFE STRESS f FOR TRANSMISSION GEARS (REULEAUX).
Velocity in Feet
per Minute. 100 200 400 600 800 1000 1500 2000 2500
For cast iron f = 4240 4060 3744 3473 3238 3034 2620 2302 2068
For steel f = 14112 13020 12467 11565 10782 10103 8725 7665 6886
For wood f = 2544 2436 2246 2083 1943 1820 1572 1381 1240
Mr. Wilfred Lewis in his paper on Gearing, read before the Engi
neers' Club of Philadelphia, in 1893, makes the following pertinent
remarks:
"What fiber stress is allowable under different circumstances and
conditions cannot be definitely settled at present, nor is it probable
that any conclusions will be acceptable to engineers unless based upon
carefully made experiments. In the article referred to, certain factors
are given as applicable to certain speeds, and in the absence of any
later or better lights upon the subject. Table XII has been constructed
to embody in convenient form the values recommended.
It cannot be doubted that slow speeds admit of higher working
stresses than high speeds, but it may be questioned whether teeth
running at 100 feet a minute are twice as strong as at 600 feet a
minute, or four times as strong as the same teeth at 1.800 feet a min
44 SPUR GEARING
ute. For teeth which are perfectly formed and spaced, it is difficult to
see how there can be a. greater difference in strength than >the well-
known difference occasioned by a live load or a dead load, or two to
one in extreme cases. But, for teeth as they actually exist, a greater
difference than two. to one may easily be imagined from the noise
sometimes produced in running, and it should be said that this table
is submitted for criticism rather than tor general adoption. It is one
which has given good results for a number of years in machine design,
and its faults, such as they may be, are believed to be in the right
direction."
TABLE XII. 6A.FE WORKING STRESS f FOR DIFFERENT SPEEDS (LEWIS).
Speed of Teeth in 100 200 300 600 900 1,200 1,800 2,400
Feet per Minute or less
Cast iron 8,000 6,000 4,800 4,000 3,000 2,400 2,000 1,700
Steel 20,000 15,000 12,000 10,000 7,500 6,000 5,000 4,300
If the formulas and coefficients presented by the writer are followed
in the determination of the proportions of gear teeth, the permissible
stress may be considerably greater than the real, as determined from
the thickness of tooth near the base; this accounts in a large measure
for the high stresses assumed to be carried by some gears. Thus, for
instance, a gear having sixty-two teeth, 3.6-inch pitch, and 15-inch face,
runs at 280 feet per minute and carries a load of 22,240 pounds. The
working stress f is assumed to be 7,250 pounds, but if the increased
section on the working depth circle be taken into consideration the
working stress is reduced to 5,200 pounds.
While high rim speed does not necessarily imply shock, yet the
effect of shock is more liable to be disastrous if high speed obtains,
and for this reason the stress should diminish as the speed increases.
Another reason for this is found in the fact that the stress is increased,
due to the centrifugal force set up in the metal itself, which varies
as the square of velocity; while this is not very great at ordinary
speeds, it is still of sufficient importance to be considered for high
speeds.
The influence of change of load is well understood in engineering
construction, and usually a factor of safety is adopted for such loads
from two to three times greater than would be the case for a steady
or dead load, the value depending largely upon the range of stress
involved. There seems good reason to believe that a similar relation
modified by the effect of speed should obtain in selecting a suitable
value for the working stress in gear teeth. From the foregoing con
siderations, then, It would appear that the working value of / should
be chosen both with reference to the velocity and to the character of
the acting force. With this in view the author of the present chapter
has deduced the following formula for working stress;
50,000
f=
k + fV
in which f = the allowable stress in pounds per square inch; 9
~V = velocity at pitch circle in feet per minute;
fc = a constant having the values: 5 for little shock, 10 for
moderate shock, and 15 for violent shock.
From this formula Table XIII has been calculated, and is offered as
TABLE XIII. VALUE OP STRESS f FOR CAST IRON (FLATHER).
Velocity in Feet Value of Stress in pounds per square inch.
per Minute Little Shock Moderate Shock Violent Shock
100 5,200 3,400 2,550
200 4,600 3,150 2,400
400 4,050 2,900 2,250
600 3,700 2,700 2,150
800 3,500 2,600 2,050
1,000 3,300 2,500 2,000
1,400 3,100 2,350 1,900
1,800 2,900 2,250 1,840
2,400 2,700 2,150 1,770
3,000 2,600 2,050 1,700
a guide to the designer in selecting suitable values of f under varying
conditions.
While the previous discussion and the formulas given are of inter
est to the student of the subject of strength of gear teeth, as indi-
TABLE XIV. OUTLINE FACTORS FOR USE WITH LEWIS FORMULA.
Factor for Strength, Y. Factor for Strength, Y.
No of No. of
Teeth. - Teeth.
Involute 20° Involute 15° Involute 30° Involute 15°
Obliquity. and Cycloidal. Obliquity. and Cycloidal.
12 .078 .007 27 .111 .100
13 .083 .070 30 .114 .102
14 .088 .072 34 .118 .104
15 .092 .075 38 .122 .107
16 .094 .077 43 .126 .110
17 .096 .080 50 .130 .112
18 .098 .083 60 .134 .114
19 .100 .087 75 .138 .116
20 .102 .090 100 .142 .118
21 .104 .092 150 .146 .120
23 .106 .094 300 .150 .122
25 .108 .097 Rack. .154 .124
eating what has been done and proposed along this line, it should be
mentioned here that the Lewis formula given on page 28 is the form
ula now almost exclusively used. Table XIV gives the factor Y neces
sary for use with this formula for a complete range of number of
teeth, and fcr both involute and cycloidal tooth-forms.
CHAPTER V.
VARIATION OP THE STRENGTH OF GEAR

TEETH WITH THE VELOCITY.
The generally accepted formula for calculating the strength of gear
teeth is that proposed by Mr. Wilfred Lewis, first published in the
Proceedings of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, January, 1893,
and referred to in the preceding chapter.
The merit of this formula lies in the great number of variables
taken into account as compared with other rules in more or less com
mon use, and in the fact that these variables are rationally considered.
The effect of each of them can be calculated with some assurance, with
A — IMAGINARY NON-DEFLECTING MATERIAL AND PERFECT TOOTH SHAPE.
B = SHOCK ABSORBING MATERIAL SUCH AS RAWHIDE.
C = TEETH OF CAST IRON AND PERFECT TOOTH SHAPE,
D = TEETH OF CAST IROU AND COMMERCIAL ACCURACY.
w E = TEETH OF CAST IRON AND POOR WORKMANSHIP.
40,000 -
35,000 -
COCO 30,000 -
UJ
jjjCO 25,000 -
SDO 20,000 -
LL
2 15,00} -
S
< 10,000 -
5
5,000 j
°k
VELOCITY AT PITCH LINE. IN FEET PER MINUTE
Machinery,??. Y.
Fig. 25. Hypothetical Diagram showing the Relation of the Velocity to
the Fiber Stress.
the single exception of the influence of the velocity on the safe stress.
In the fifteen years since the formula was first proposed, the original
values for the stress as affected by the velocity have been largely used.
Many designers, however, have felt that these values are rather unsat
isfactory, although most of them will agree that they err rather on
the side of safety than otherwise. By referring to Mr. Lewis' original
paper it will be seen that these values were not given as being defi
nitely determined, but merely as agreeing well with successful cases
met with in his own practice. The following is a general analysis of
the conditions involved.
EFFECT OF VELOCITY ON STRENGTH 47
A variation in the strength of the teeth of a gear, due to a variation
in the velocity, can be due, of course, to but one thing—impact. To
illustrate this idea, and to show the cause of the impact, we will study
the action of gearing under three different conditions.
1. Gears of an imaginary undetectable material.—In Fig. 25 is a
diagram in which the horizontal distances give velocity in feet per
minute, and vertical distances give stresses in pounds per square inch,
starting in this case at 4,000, which is assumed to be the maximum
fiber stress in the gear we are considering, due to the load at the pitch
line, which is supposed to be constant at all speeds. If the teeth of this
FULL LINE8 SHOW CONDITIONS
Machinery,N.Y.
Fig. 26. The Action of Gear Teeth under Load, Greatly Exaggerated.
gear are perfectly formed and well fitted together, so that there is no
back lash, if the power is delivered to them steadily and smoothly, and
the mechanism they drive runs without shock, any disturbance of the
even movement will be impossible, and impact will be entirely absent.
In the diagram in Fig. 1, then, there will be no rise of maximum fiber
stresses with the velocity, so that the horizontal line A will show the
conditions for this imaginary case.
2. With commercial material and theoretically accurate workman
ship. The conditions in this case are shown in Fig. 26, with all the
phenomena greatly exaggerated. The full lines show the conditions
under load, while the dotted outlines show the conditions when the
load is removed from the driven gear. The teeth Au S„ and A„, B,,
carrying the load, are deflected by it, as shown. Tooth B, just about
to come into contact with tooth A, is on that account shifted from its
normal position; it should be located as shown by the dotted lines. If
it were in this position, it would come in contact with tooth A under
mathematically perfect conditions, and there would be no shock of en
gagement. As it is, the two come suddenly into action as shown at E,
under different conditions than those contemplated by the design, thus
the contact takes place in the form of a slight blow, after which the
48 SPUR GEARING
teeth are deflected more and more, until they have taken up their share
of the load, as shown later at A1 and B,. If the gears are moving very
slowly, the deflection takes place very slowly, and the problem is prac
tically a static one. If the gears are running at a high velocity, the
problem becomes essentially a dynamic one, and the stresses are greater
than with the slow speed. The increase in stress with the increase in
speed for this second case could probably be represented by a line
something like O, in Fig. 25. i
3. With commercial materials and commercial accuracy. This is, •
of course, the practical case to consider. A line to show the relation
of the velocity to the maximum fiber stress for a given gear, would
very probably look something like D in Fig. 25. This is, in fact, approxi
mately the line which embodiesi the conclusions of the Lewis tables for
a static stress of 4,000 pounds. It is considerably higher than line
C, because impact due to irregular tooth outlines is added to the im
pact due to the deflection.
Practical Considerations Affecting Design.
The fact that the variation of the strength with the velocity is due
to impact, suggests also a number of points relating to design.
1. Value of accuracy. It is evident that this theory of impact puts
a premium on accuracy in workmanship for gears that are to run at
high speed under a heavy load. It is probable that the strength of a
given pair of gears may be cut in two if the tooth outlines are not
carefully determined, and if the cutter is not set centrally. This sug
gests the desirability of a greater sub-division of the standard cutter
series for work of this kind.
2. Resilience of design and materials. In high-speed gearing it is
evident that the shock due to the impact should be absorbed as quickly
and as fully as possible. This suggests the use, at abnormally high
speeds, of rawhide, wood, etc., for one of the members of the pair of
gears. The introduction of spring couplings or similar devices may
also be desirable, especially where the other parts of the mechanism
are liable to transmit shock to the gearing.
3. Easing off the po'nts of the tooth. There has always been a
sort of superstition that the points of the tooth should be eased off to
make the action smoother. This is done, of course, in standard involute
gears, though for another reason, that of avoiding interference with
the flanks of the pinions. It can now be seen that there is a solid
basis for this practice in all cases where gears are to run at such
speeds that severe impact is liable to take place. Referring to Fig. 26,
teeth A and B are taking up the load very suddenly, owing to the fact
that they are out of step, due to the deflection of the other teeth
momentarily carrying the load. Easing away the points of A and B
would mitigate this sudden reception of the load, allowing the inevitable
deflection to take place more slowly, with a consequent gain in the
strength of the gear at high speeds.

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EACH PAMPHLET IS ONE UNIT IN A COMPLETE

No. 15—SPUR GEARING

Copyright, 1908, The Industrial Press, Publishers of Machinery,

FIRST PRINCIPLES OP GEARING.

FORMULAS FOR DIMENSIONS OF SPUR GEARS.

DESIGN AND CALCULATION OF GEAR WHEELS.

Fig. 10. Speed and Power Ratios.

Flff. 12. Illustration of the Effect of Idlers.

Fig. 13. Terms used to denote Gear Quantities.

12 .258 31 .102" 52 .059

circle is equal to the pitch multiplied by the number of teeth and

Radial Flanks* Involute 15°.

Number of Teeth. Factor Y. Number of Teeth. Factor Y.

0.03 o.or5 1" 0.125 0.062

STRENGTH OF GEAR TEETH.

Fig. 17. Fig. 18.

Fig. 19. Fig. 20.

or x = 2, then p' = 2.74

if x = 2^, then p' = 2 ••J £

if x = 3, then p' = 2.24

if a; = 3^, then _p' = 2.07

VARIATION OP THE STRENGTH OF GEAR

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