Research Methodology

By

Tanushree Biswas

Contents:

• Meaning, Objectives And Types Of Research

• Qualities Of Researcher
• Significance Of Research
• Research Process
• Research Problem: Features, Importance, Characteristics, Concepts And Types Of Research Design

Meaning Of Research:

Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic search for

information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific investigation. Several

social scientists have defined research in different ways.

In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined research as

“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or

verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an

art”.

According to Redman and Mory (1923), research is a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. It

is an academic activity and therefore the term should be used in a technical sense. According to Clifford

Woody (kothari, 1988), research comprises “defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions

and reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit

the formulated hypotheses”.

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Thus, research is an original addition to the available knowledge, which contributes to its further

advancement. It is an attempt to pursue truth through the methods of study, observation, comparison

and experiment. In sum, research is the search for knowledge, using objective and systematic methods

to find solution to a problem.

….

From a novice's point of view, research can be defined as the search of knowledge. Oxford dictionary

defines research as ‘the systematic investigation and study of materials and sources in order to establish

facts and reach new conclusions’. Research is pursued in almost all the professions. More than a set of

skills, it is a critical way of observing, examining, thinking, questioning and formulating principles

that hold true at least for the given space. Almost all professions affirm the need of research either for

the advancement of business or for the enlightenment of knowledge. Whatever profession we are in,

we ask ourselves a lot of questions for finding new knowledge and ideas. For example, consider that

you are running a retail store; there are a lot of questions that may help you in increasing your business:

• How many customers do I can handle daily?

• Which are the most purchased groceries?

• Which groceries combination is more popular?

• What time does the customers hit to maximum at store?

• How the customers rate our store?

• What is the average money a customer spends on a purchase?

Just by finding answers of these, one can always say that, a very valid investigation has been done for

the domain and the results. This is a very raw example of research that we practice in everyday life.

Essentially speaking research involves a well-developed plan, a systematic approach to developing

new theories of finding solutions to various problems.

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Redman and Mory defined research as ‘a systematized effort to gain new knowledge’. Some

professionals consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the unknown. It is

actually a voyage of discovery with pleasure and satisfaction. While considering research as an

academic activity, it involves a lot of steps such as problem definition, to solve the problem, literature

review, data collections, analysis, drawing inference, making hypothesis and arriving at a solution.

Research is not just gathering of information from books and other sources. The transportation of

knowledge from one form to another will neither constitute a good research. In short and simple, we

can define research as ‘the systematic process of collecting and analysing information (data)in order

to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested’.

Zina O' Leary defined research as a 'creative and strategic thinking process that involves constantly

assessing, reassessing and making decisions about the best possible means for obtaining trustworthy

information, carrying out appropriate analysis and tracing credible solutions.'

Research provides us with right kind of information that helps us in successfully dealing with

problems. Clifford Woody has very comprehensively defined research as 'a method for the discovery

of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises of defining and redefining problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting and organizing and evaluating data; making

deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether

they fit the formulating hypothesis.' It can be concluded that research involves:

• A clear definition of the problem

• Formulation of hypothesis

• Collection and analysis of data and

• Relating the findings to existing theories and earlier formulated hypothesis.

Thus, research is re-search, i.e. a revisit on the earlier findings with the intention of correlating them

with newly discovered facts. The Encyclopedia of Social Sciences has described research as a ‘critical

and exhaustive investigation or experimentation having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusions
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in the light of newly discovered facts."

Objectives Of Research:

The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific procedures. In other

words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not yet been discovered.

Although every research study has its own specific objectives, the research objectives may be

broadly grouped as follows:

• To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research studies);

• To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e.,

descriptive research studies);

• To analyse the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies);

• To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e., hypothesis-

testing research studies).

The objective of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific

procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been

discovered as yet. It is primarily concerned with production of knowledge. Though each research study

has its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research below:

To Explore: Research can be carried out with the purpose of gaining familiarity with a particular topic
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or to gain insight into unexplored areas. Such a research is termed as exploratory or formative research.

It is often carried out before formulating a hypothesis e.g. a domestic company may think of setting

up its manufacturing operations abroad. This kind of investment is new to the company and the initial

research conducted to explore the possibility of this new idea can be termed as exploratory research.

To Describe: Quite often a research can be carried out with the objective of describing a particular

situation, event or an individual e.g. a study can be carried out to study the voting pattern in a particular

state on the basis of gender, economic status, religion etc. as observed in the previous election. Such

researches are termed as descriptive studies. Since these studies are about events that have already

taken place, these studies are also called as ex-post facto studies.

To Diagnose: When a study is carried out with the objective of finding out how frequently a particular

event is associated with another event, it is termed as diagnostic study e.g. a fast food chain has

conducted a research to find out the feasibility of setting up an outlet in a multiplex.

The chief objective of this study is to find out that how often people eat their meal outside when

planning to watch a movie. Doctors frequently employ diagnostic methods to discover what it is that

ails the patient. Numerous questions are asked from the patient and through symptomatic and clinical

investigation, the doctors can then declare a diagnosis. Such studies are called as diagnostic studies.

To Establish Causal Relationship: A research can be done with the objective of finding out the causal

relationship between the dependent variables with independent variables. Such research are called as

hypothesis testing research e.g. a research carried out so establish the relationship between polio

vaccine (independent variable) and its effectiveness in controlling the occurrence of polio (dependent

variable) is a hypothesis testing research.

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In simple words, the objectives of research may be:

• To identify and find solutions to the problems (e.g. "Why is that demand for a product is

falling"? "Why is there a business fluctuation once in three years"?)

• To help making decisions (e.g. should we maintain the advertising budget same as last year?)

• To develop new concepts (e.g. Customer Relationship Management, Horizontal Marketing,

Multi-Level Marketing, e-tailing etc.)

• To find alternate strategies (e.g. should we follow pull strategy or push strategy to promote the

product.)

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

An understanding of the meaning of research puts us in a position to list the characteristics of research.

From the above explanations, the following characteristics of research can be summarized:

• Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

• Research is purposive i.e. it deals with a well-defined significant problem.

• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.

• A research gathers new knowledge and brings to the forefront hitherto unexplored and

unexplained phenomenon.

• Research involves collection of primary data from first hand sources or involves use of existing

data for a new purpose.

Research activities are carefully detailed and clearly outlined through a research design. These

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activities are defined by carefully designed procedures and analysis tools. Research emphasizes the

development of generalizations, principles, or theories that will be helpful in predicting future

occurrences. Research requires a degree of expertise and skill. A research worker is expected to be

knowledgeable about the intricacies involved in carrying out a research.

Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures

employed the data collected and the conclusions reached. The findings should be free from bias and

the results should be carefully verified.

Every process, term and tool used in the research should be carefully documented and reported.

The research should target towards the discovery of general principles or theories which can find

application to a wide range of problems in the present and future context.

SCOPE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

Business research refers to any type of research done when starting and inaugurating any type of

business organisation. Simply speaking, the application of research, its tools and techniques in business

decision making constitutes business research. According to Zikmund, “Business research is a

management tool that companies use to reduce uncertainty. It is a manager’s source of information

about organisational and environmental conditions, and covers topics ranging from long-range

planning to the most ephemeral tactical decision”. Looking upon this, the scope of business research

includes the following areas. However, the list given below is not exclusive rather indicative.

Business Environment: The marketing activities are influenced by several internal and external

environments. Internal environments include price, promotion, product and place (distribution),

whereas the external environments include economic, sociological, political, legal and government
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motives.

Consumption Pattern: The pattern of consumption is to be assessed by the management. The study

of buyers' behaviour, attitudes and capacity to purchase is very important in research. The purchasing

power of a consumer depends upon his disposable personal income. Thus, the total purchasing power

of a country or geographical area can be assessed by the disposable income of the place. The research

reveals all the factors which influence the pattern of consumption.

Controlling: Research is used as a control technique of management to find out the weaknesses and

shortcoming of the management decisions to re-orient the planning and performance techniques.

Decision-Making: Research is useful for taking management decisions. It provides necessary

information and data in analysed and processed forms for making decisions in various business areas.

With advanced technology, higher production functions and increasing complexities in market, the

research has become an indispensable tool for taking appropriate decisions.

Finance: Research in finance helps financial experts and those other individuals involved to study

how the financial industry is affected by market changes and trending. The research on finance and

financial management mainly revolved around estimating financial requirement, financial

management, deciding capital structure, selecting a source of finance, selecting a pattern of investment,

proper cash management, implementing financial controls, proper use of surplus etc.

Growing Complex Markets: The advancement of science and technology and the standard of living

of consumers necessitate closer touch with the growing markets. The size and specialisation within the

business unit and the intervention of numerous middlemen between the manufacturer and customers
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created a wide communication gap. The widening gap requires marketing research to fill up the

communication gap between the consumer and the producer.

Human Resources Management: Research on HRM activities provides an understanding of what

does work, what does not work, what needs change, the nature and the extent of change. The human

resource research seeks to discover the basic relationships which may lead to improved personnel

decision-making in such areas as turnover, absenteeism, compensation levels and structure, job

satisfaction, employee morale, assessment of managerial potential, training effectiveness, grievance

handling, labour relations and collective bargaining.

Management Planning: Research is used for management planning. It deals with business

opportunities, i.e. those opportunities which are viable to be exploited by management. Thus,

management can assess the resources that will be useful for the business.

Marketing Strategy: Marketing management has to lay down appropriate marketing strategies to

meet competition, to pursue growth in the market and to attain organisational objectives. The policies

and programmes related to pricing, distribution, sales promotion, product etc. can be made with proper

research.

Problem-Solving: Starting from problem identification to formulation of alternative solutions, and

evaluating the alternatives in every area of management, is the problem-solving action of research.

Problem-solving research focuses on the short-range and long-range decisions that must be taken with

respect to the elements of the business viz. marketing, HRM, production, finance etc. It can help

managements bring about prompt adjustment and innovations in the above areas of business.

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Production Management: Research helps large-scale production by providing suitable decisions to

be undertaken by the producers to exploit the existing production resources to meet the growing

markets. The resources of production and market potentials are properly assessed by research. The

research performs an important function in product development, diversification, introducing a new

product, product improvement, process technologies, choosing a site, new investment etc.

Research Methods Versus Methodology:

Research methods include all those techniques/methods that are adopted for conducting research.

Thus, research techniques or methods are the methods that the researchers adopt for conducting the

research studies.

Research methodology is the way in which research problems are solved systematically. It is a science

of studying how research is conducted scientifically. Under it, the researcher acquaints himself/herself

with the various steps generally adopted to study a research problem, along with the underlying logic

behind them. Hence, it is not only important for the researcher to know the research techniques/

methods, but also the scientific approach called methodology.

Research Approaches:

There are two main approaches to research, namely quantitative approach and qualitative

approach. The quantitative approach involves the collection of quantitative data, which are put to

rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes

experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches to research. Meanwhile, the qualitative approach

uses the method of subjective assessment of opinions, behaviour and attitudes. Research in such a
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situation is a function of the researcher’s impressions and insights. The results generated by this type

of research are either in non-quantitative form or in the form which cannot be put to rigorous

quantitative analysis. Usually, this approach uses techniques like in depth interviews, focus group

interviews, and projective techniques.

Types Of Research:

There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows.

Descriptive Versus Analytical:

Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The main

objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the time of study. The

term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive research studies in social sciences and

business research. The most distinguishing feature of this method is that the researcher has no control

over the variables here. He/she has to only report what is happening or what has happened. Majority

of the ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts

to examine phenomena, such as the consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping etc.

Despite the inability of the researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise

attempts by them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in

conducting descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlational and

comparative methods.

Meanwhile in the Analytical research, the researcher has to use the already available facts or

information, and analyse them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.

Applied Versus Fundamental:

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an immediate
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problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organisation, or the society is known as applied

research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain conclusions confronting a

concrete social or business problem.

On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of a

theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’

research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning some

natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human

behaviour also fall under the category of fundamental research.

Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some pressing

practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a broad base of

application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

Quantitative Versus Qualitative:

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of

quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available statistical and

econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes correlation, regressions

and time series analysis etc,.

On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more

specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of

qualitative research is ‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons for certain human

behaviour. The main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and desires of

human beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques employed in such research are story
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completion tests, sentence completion tests, word association tests, and other similar projective

methods. Qualitative research is particularly significant in the context of behavioural sciences, which

aim at discovering the underlying motives of human behaviour. Such research helps to analyse the

various factors that motivate human beings to behave in a certain manner, besides contributing to an

understanding of what makes individuals like or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting

that conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while

undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is important.

Conceptual Versus Empirical:

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research. Generally,

philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting the existing ones.

Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation or experience with hardly

any regard for theory and system. Such research is data based, which often comes up with conclusions

that can be verified through experiments or observation. Empirical research is also known as

experimental type of research, in which it is important to first collect the facts and their sources, and

actively take steps to stimulate the production of desired information. In this type of research, the

researcher first formulates a working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove

the stated hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would

manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired information.

This type of research is thus characterized by the researcher’s control over the variables under study.

In simple term, empirical research is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain

variables influence the other variables in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the

experimental or empirical studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a given

hypothesis.

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Other Types Of Research:

The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned type of research.

They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to complete it, or may be based on

some other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may either be in the nature of one-time or

longitudinal time series research. While the research is restricted to a single time-period in the former

case, it is conducted over several time-periods in the latter case. Depending upon the environment in

which the research is to be conducted, it can also be laboratory research or field-setting research, or

simulation research, besides being diagnostic or clinical in nature. Under such research, in-depth

approaches or case study method may be employed to analyse the basic causal relations. These studies

usually undertake a detailed in-depth analysis of the causes of certain events of interest, and use very

small samples and sharp data collection methods. The research may also be explanatory in nature.

Formalized research studies consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to be verified. As

regards to historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc. Are utilized to study past

events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups of the past or any remote point of

time.

Research has also been classified into decision-oriented and conclusion-oriented categories. The

decision-oriented research is always carried out as per the need of a decision maker and hence, the

researcher has no freedom to conduct the research according to his/her own desires. On the other hand,

in the case of Conclusion-oriented research, the researcher is free to choose the problem, redesign

the enquiry as it progresses and even change conceptualization as he/she wishes to. Operations research

is a kind of decision-oriented research, where in scientific method is used in providing the departments,

a quantitative basis for decision-making with respect to the activities under their purview.

TYPES OF RESEARCH Contd:

This part specifically focuses on the types of research. Research can be classified from various
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perspectives.

A detailed description of the same can be had from the figure below and the description that follows:

On the basis of application, research is of two types:

Pure/ Basic/ Fundamental Research: Developing scientific theories or basic principles are called

'pure' or 'basic' or 'fundamental' research. This research is concerned with quest for knowing more

about the phenomenon without concern for its practical use and also with developing and testing

hypotheses and theories. Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without

regards for a specific problem, and may be carry out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall

concept. It is said, there is nothing as practical as a good theory. It is conducted to satisfy any curiosity

such as:

• What makes things happen?

• Why society changes, and

• Why social relations are in a certain way.

In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles, and ideas. To sum-up, basic research is purely

theoretical to increase our understanding of certain phenomena or behaviour but does not seek to solve

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any existing problem. It is essentially positive and not normative. This may take the form of the

discovery of totally new idea, invention and reflection where an existing theory is re-examined

possibly in a different social context.

Applied Research: It is also termed as practical, need based or action research. The objective of this

research is to find the solutions to problems that are faced by government, society or the business.

Applied Research, thus, is more concerned with actual life. It also suggests remedial measures to

alleviate various types of problems. This research is concern with search for ways of using scientific

knowledge to solve practical problems. The findings become basis of framing programme and policies,

based on principles of pure research. According to Horton and Hunt, this research is an investigation

for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems. This type of research is conducted

on interdisciplinary basis also.

Examples include like evaluating the impact of a training programme on employee performance,

examining consumer response to direct marketing programmes. Although the purpose of these two

research forms varies, there is not much difference in the research methods and tools used for their

conduct. In the present world situation, more emphasis is being given to applied research to solve

problems arising out of various environmental changes.

On the Basis of Objectives

On the basis of fundamental objective, research is designed in following ways:

(i) Exploratory Research: This type of research is carried out at the very beginning when the problem

is not clear or is vague. In exploratory research, all possible reasons which are very obvious are

eliminated, thereby directing the research to proceed further with limited options. The main aim of

exploratory studies (also known as formulative research) is to gather initial information which helps

to define problems and recommend hypothesis. It often relies on secondary research such as reviewing

available literature, or qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers, employees,
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management or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth interviews, focus groups,

projective methods, case studies or pilot studies. It is important to bear in mind that it can mainly be

conducted when researchers lack clear idea of the problem. The outcomes of this research are not

generally useful for decision-making, but they can provide major insight into a given situation.

(ii) Descriptive Research: Descriptive research, also known as statistical research, describes data and

characteristics about the population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers the

questions who, what, where, when, and how. The description is used for frequencies, averages, and

other statistical calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive research, is to

conduct a survey investigation. In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted

and studied. But there are always restrictions to that. The research must have an impact to the lives of

the people around the researcher. This research is applicable to problem which specifies certain criteria

and data is clearly available for accurate objectives.

(iii) Causal/Experimental Research: It is commonly used in sciences such as sociology and

psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc. It is commonly used in sciences such as

sociology and psychology, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, etc. However, it may also be carried

out in social sciences if such research enables us to quantify the findings, to apply the statistical and

mathematical tools and to measure the results thus quantified. It is also classified under conclusive

research.

In many problems, there are many variables involved or influential. It is not always possible or feasible

to study all variables simultaneously, so to study limited variables this type of research is conducted.

Here, one variable (under study) keep open whereas other variables are kept constant and then open

variable effect is studied. The relationship between dependent and independent variables is observed

and describe in connecting hypothesis. The variable which is influenced is known as dependent and

the variable which influence other is known as independent variable. For example, effect of investment
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decision (independent) on investment returns (dependent), effect of advertisement (independent) on

sales (dependent). Causal research is used to obtain evidence of cause- and-effect (causal)

relationships.

On the Basis of Extent of Theory

On the basis of extent of theory, research is of two types:

Theoretical Research: Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing theory and

explanations to develop new ideas. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the

form of primary data. Theoretical research is held to be a classical way of adding something of value

to the body of knowledge. One of the primary roles of theoretical research is to re-work already

established ideas in order to improve insights into the subject matter. Such improvements could well-

constitute adding something of value to the body of knowledge. A researcher who develops a theory

through visiting a library and developing their own explanation through reading existing work will be

undertaking theoretical research.

Empirical Research: This is a data based research where we collect primary data and then data is

further analysed and used for testing hypothesis. It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct

observation or experience. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences)

can be analysed quantitatively or qualitatively. It is based on observation and experience more than

upon theory and abstraction. Empirical means based upon observation or measurement rather than

theoretical reasoning. Pharmaceutical companies use empirical research to try out a specific drug on

controlled groups or random groups to study the effect and cause. This way they prove certain theories

they had proposed for the specific drug. Such research is not just useful in science but in many other

fields like history, social sciences, business, etc.

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On the Basis of Time Dimension

On the basis of time dimension, research can be of two types:

Cross-Sectional Research: Cross-sectional study is popular in the field of business and marketing

research. Cross-sectional research design involves the collection of information from a sample of a

population at only one point of time. Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least costly

alternative. In this study, various segments of the population are sampled so that the relationship among

the variables may be investigated by cross tabulation. Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies in

which the samples happen to be a representative of the population. It may reveal how these samples

are represented in a cross- section of a population. The cross-sectional study generally involves large

samples from the population; hence, they are sometimes referred as “sample surveys.”Cross-sectional

research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory but it is most consistent with a descriptive

approach to research. “What is the effectiveness of an advertisement campaign for an air conditioner?”

is an example of cross-sectional study.

Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal study involves survey of the same population over a period of

time. It is usually more complex and costly than cross-sectional research, but it is also more powerful,

especially when researchers seek answers to questions about social change. In this study, the sample

remains the same over a period of time. “How have consumers changed their opinion about the

performance of air conditioner as compared with that last summer?” is an example of longitudinal

study. Longitudinal surveys usually combine both extensive (quantitative) and intensive (qualitative)

approaches. Descriptive and explanatory researchers use longitudinal approaches. They consider three

types of longitudinal research which can be described as follows:

(a) Time-Series Research: A time series design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals

(weeks, months, years, etc.) in the form of aggregate measures of a population. Measurements are

taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure

change in variables over time. For example, the Consumer Price Index (CPI), unemployment rates,
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poverty rates, etc. Time series designs are useful for establishing a baseline measure, describing

changes over time, keeping track of trends, and forecasting future (short-term) trends. Time series data

are nearly always presented in the form of a chart or graph: The horizontal (or x) axis is divided into

time intervals, and the vertical (y) axis shows the values of the dependent variable as they fluctuate

over time.

(b) Panel Study: It is a powerful type of longitudinal research. A panel is a sample of respondents

who have agreed to provide responses over a specified time interval. In a panel study, the researcher

observes exactly the same people, group, or organisation across time periods. Panels are also of two

types: traditional panels and omnibus panels. In case of traditional panels, same questions are asked to

the respondents on each panel measurement. For example, firms are interested in knowing the change

in attitude, opinion, feeling, or emotion of the customers about a particular product over a specific time

interval. In the case of omnibus panels, different set of questions are asked to the respondents on each

panel measurement. Hence, different set of information is obtained using omnibus panels. Use of

panels is based on the objective of the research and the nature of the problem.

(c) Cohort Study: A cohort is a group of respondents who experiences the same events within the

same time interval. The word “cohort” means a group of people. It is similar to the panel study, but

rather than observing the exact same people, a category of people who share a similar life experience

in a specified time period is studied. Cohort analysis is ‘explicitly macro analytic’, which means

researchers examine the category as a whole for important features. In cohort study, the individuals

examined over time may not be the same but they should be representative of a particular group (or

cohort) of individuals who have shared a common experience. For example, cohort analysis used to

predict changes in voter opinions during the polls.

Cohort studies can be forward-looking of backward-looking. A forward- looking cohort study is also

known as a prospective cohort study. ‘Prospective’ means that it relates to the future. A backward-

looking cohort study is also called as retrospective cohort study. ‘Retrospective’ means that it relates
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to the past. To carry out prospective cohort studies, researchers identify a group of people to study and

plan the research in advance, collecting data over time. In retrospective cohort studies, researchers use

data that are already available for a particular group.

On the Basis of Enquiry Made

On the basis of enquiry to be made, research can be of two types:

(i) Quantitative Research/ Structured Approach: It usually involves the collection and

converting of numerical data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be done which

help in drawing conclusions to answer a specific research question. Quantitative research is applicable

to phenomena that are measurable so that they can be expressed in terms of quantity. Objectivity is

very vital in quantitative research. Therefore, researchers seek to avoid their own presence, behaviour

or attitude affecting the results (e.g., by changing the circumstances being studied or causing

participants to behave differently). The aim of quantitative research is to develop mathematical models,

theories related to phenomenon. Quantitative research is mainly used in social sciences. It may involve

correlation study, ex-post facto study, longitudinal study, meta-analysis and survey.

(ii) Qualitative Research/ Unstructured Approach: Qualitative research is usually related with

the social constructivist concept which emphasizes the socially constructed nature of reality. This

research is designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject. The

sequence to data collection and analysis is logical but allows for greater flexibility in all aspects of the

research process. Data is collected in textual form on the basis of observation and communication with

the participants, e.g., through participant observations, in-depth interviews and focus groups. The data

is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed. It is more appropriate to explore

the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. The prime objective of such

researches is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude. The qualitative research

attempts to answer ‘why’ and ‘how’ aspects of decision-making rather than ‘what’ and ‘when’ aspects.

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Other Types of Research

(i) Ex-Post Facto: In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between

independent and dependent variable is studied. It is similar to empirical research. In this method, the

researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally means ‘from what is

done afterwards’. In this research, a variable ‘A’ is observed. Thereafter, the researcher tries to find a

causal variable ‘B’ which caused ‘A’. It is quite possible that ‘B’ might not have been caused ‘A’. In

this type of analysis, there is no scope for the researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can

only report ‘what has happened’ and ‘what is happening’. Ex post facto research is the process

beginning with a phenomenon and going backward in time to identify casual factors.

(ii) Historical Research: The name itself indicates the meaning of the research. Historical study

is a study of past records and data in order to understand the future trends and development of the

organisation or market. There is no direct observation. The research has to depend on the conclusions

or inferences drawn in the past. Historical research is the systematic collection, critical evaluation, and

interpretation of historical evidence (i.e., data relating to past occurrences). In general, historical

research is undertaken to answer questions about causes, effects, or trends relating to past events that

may shed light on present behaviours or practices. For example, study of epics like Ramayana and

Mahabharata for TV serial or movie making, biographical research, histories of institutions and

organizations etc.

(iii) Diagnostic Research: It may be said as another name for descriptive research. This research is

conducted to establish whether two or more variables are associated and their degree of association. In

a diagnostic research, the researcher is trying to evaluate the cause of a specific problem or

phenomenon. This research design is used to understand more in detail the factors that are creating

problems in the company. Diagnostic research design includes three steps viz. the inception of the

22
issue, diagnosis of the issue and solution for the issue.

(iv) Case-Study Research: This type of research is concerned with exploring and analysing the life

or functioning of a social or economic unit, such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a

firm or an. Industry. The objective of case study method is to examine the factors that cause the

behavioural patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment. A researcher conducting

a study using the case study method attempts to understand the complexity of factors that are operative

within a social or economic unit as an integrated totality.

(iv) Evaluation Research: Evaluation research aims at evaluating programme that have been

implemented or actions that have taken in order to get an objective. Evaluation means some sort of

measurement of the end-product and impact of an effort in the light of the stated goals for which the

programmed undertaken. There are so many programmes in which economic gains are not visible, the

evaluation of which calls for special techniques. There are three types of evaluations made in research

namely concurrent evaluation, periodic evaluation, and terminal evaluation.

(v) Conclusive Research: As the name suggests, conclusive research is carried out to provide

information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision-making. The purpose of conclusive

research is to provide a reliable or representative picture of the population through the use of a valid

research instrument. Conclusive research design provides a way to verify and quantify findings of

exploratory studies. Conclusive research usually involves the application of quantitative methods of

data collection and data analysis. Moreover, conclusive studies tend to be deductive in nature and

research objectives in these types of studies are achieved via testing hypotheses. Conclusive research

can be sub-divided into two major categories i.e. descriptive or statistical research, and causal research.

APPROACHES TO RESEARCH

Approaches to research consists of making a suitable decision regarding research components like types of
23
research, measurement and scaling, development of questionnaire, sample size-determined sampling techniques
and data analysis plan. A research approach can vary significantly depending on what is to be studied. If it is a
scientific method, it would be appropriate to use similar methods or other scientists who have attempted the
experiment. However, if the research was is in social sciences, e.g. assessing consumer behaviour, it would be
better to carry-out surveys, look into past surveys, etc. The general research approach acts as an overall guide
for conducting the research work.
There are two major approaches in research literature, i.e., Qualitative and Quantitative. In a generalized
view, we can add logical and participatory approaches along with aforementioned above.

Qualitative Approach

Qualitative research is a research method used extensively by scientists and researchers studying human
behaviour and habits. Qualitative methods are used to find and confirm the presence and absence of an element.
Qualitative research is often regarded as a precursor to quantitative research, in that it is often used to generate
'possible leads and ideas which can be used to formulate a realistic and testable hypothesis. This hypothesis can
then be comprehensively tested and mathematically analysed, with standard quantitative research methods. For
these reasons, these qualitative methods are often closely allied with survey design techniques and individual
case studies, as a way to reinforce and evaluate findings over a broader scale.
One example of a qualitative research design might be a survey constructed as a precursor to the paper towel
experiment. A study completed before the experiment was performed would reveal which of the multitude of
brands were the most popular. The quantitative/ experiment could then be constructed around only these brands,
saving a lot of time, money and resources. Qualitative research can be further classified under two types namely:
• Direct Qualitative Research
• Indirect Qualitative Research
In direct qualitative research, in-depth interview is the norm. The group is prepared with the help of a selected
few research participants. This is more like a brainstorming session. The topic is discussed amongst the focus

24
group with the help of a moderator from amongst the focus group participants only. Subsequently, the group
interview is conducted and a
final report is prepared by the researcher based on the outcomes of the discussion. For example, in-depth
interviews, focus groups, etc.
In indirect qualitative research, the participants are encouraged to come out with their own versions and
understandings about the issue/s being taken up by the researcher. The respondents are supposed to 'project'
their feelings or attitudes about the situation. For example, word association, sentence completion, role playing,
etc.

Quantitative Approach

The quantitative approach involves the collection of quantitative data, which are put to rigorous quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigid manner. This approach further includes experimental, inferential, and simulation
approaches to research. They are most commonly used by physical scientists, in social sciences, education and
management. It is the opposite of qualitative research.
Quantitative experiments use a standard format, with a few minor inter- disciplinary differences, of generating
a hypothesis to be proved or disproved. This hypothesis must be testable by mathematical and statistical
methods, and is the basis of which the whole experiment is designed. Quantitative methods are used to measure
the degree of an element already present. A sound quantitative design should only manipulate one variable at a
time, or statistical analysis becomes cumbersome and open to question. Ideally, the research should be
conducted in a manner that allows others to repeat the experiment and obtain similar results. A common
perception of quantitative research is that the emphasis is on proof rather than discovery.
Quantitative experiments are useful for testing the results gained by a series of qualitative experiments, leading
to a final answer, and a narrowing down of possible directions for follow-up research.

There is one more approach other than these two and it is mixed approach as for any research
it is very difficult to apply exclusively only one approach. Many number of times objectives and
effectiveness of research is more important than the approach and so combination of approaches
is the best way to adopt.

Importance Of Knowing How To Conduct Research:

The importance of knowing how to conduct research are listed below:

• The knowledge of research methodology provides training to new researchers and enables them

to do research properly.

• It helps them to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to objectively observe the

field;
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 • The knowledge of doing research inculcates the ability to evaluate and utilize the research

findings with confidence;

• The knowledge of research methodology equips the researcher with the tools that help him/her

to make the observations objectively;

• The knowledge of methodology helps the research consumers to evaluate research and make

rational decisions.

Qualities Of A Researcher:

It is important for a researcher to possess certain qualities to conduct research. First and foremost,

he being a scientist should be firmly committed to the ‘articles of faith’ of the scientific methods of

research. This implies that a researcher should be a social science person in the truest sense. Sir Michael

Foster cited by (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar, 1979) identified a few distinct qualities of a scientist.

According to him, a true research scientist should possess the following qualities:

First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates in unison with the theme

which he is searching. Hence, the seeker of knowledge must be truthful with truthfulness of nature,

which is much more important, much more exacting than what is sometimes known as truthfulness.

The truthfulness relates to the desire for accuracy of observation and precision of statement. Ensuring

facts is the principle rule of science, which is not an easy matter. The difficulty may arise due to

untrained eye, which fails to see anything beyond what it has the power of seeing and sometimes even

less than that. This may also be due to the lack of discipline in the method of science. An unscientific

individual often remains satisfied with the expressions like approximately, almost, or nearly, which is

never what nature is. A real research cannot see two things which differ, however minutely, as the

same.
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A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and revealing itself through

various ways. A scientific researcher must be keen and watchful to notice such changes, no matter how

small or insignificant they may appear. Such receptivity has to be cultivated slowly and patiently over

time by the researcher through practice. An individual who is ignorant or not alert and receptive during

his research will not make a good researcher. He will fail as a good researcher if he has no keen eyes

or mind to observe the unusual changes behind the routine. Research demands a systematic immersion

into the subject matter by the researcher grasp even the slightest hint that may culminate into significant

research problems. In this context, Cohen and Negal cited by (Selltiz et al, 1965; Wilkinson and

Bhandarkar, 1979) state that “the ability to perceive in some brute experience the occasion of a problem

is not a common talent among men… it is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to difficulties

where less gifted people pass by untroubled by doubt”.

Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality of courage, which

reflects the courage of a steadfast endurance. The process of conducting research is not an easy task.

There are occasions when a research scientist might feel defeated or completely lost. This is the stage

when a researcher would need immense courage and the sense of conviction. The researcher must learn

the art of enduring intellectual hardships. In the words of Darwin, “It’s dogged that does it”.

In order to cultivate the afore-mentioned three qualities of a researcher, a fourth one may be added.

This is the quality of making statements cautiously. According to Huxley, the assertion that outstrips

the evidence is not only a blunder but a crime (Thompson, 1975). A researcher should cultivate the

habit of reserving judgment when the required data are insufficient.

Significance Of Research:
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According to a famous Hudson Maxim, “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than

overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”. It brings out the significance

of research, increased amount of which makes the progress possible. Research encourages scientific

and inductive thinking, besides promoting the development of logical habits of thinking and

organisation. The role of research in applied economics in the context of an economy or business is

greatly increasing in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of government and business has

raised the use of research in solving operational problems. Research assumes significant role in the

formulation of economic policy for both, the government and business. It provides the basis for almost

all government policies of an economic system. Government budget formulation, for example, depends

particularly on the analysis of needs and desires of people, and the availability of revenues, which

requires research. Research helps to formulate alternative policies, in addition to examining the

consequences of these alternatives. Thus, research also facilitates the decision-making of policy-

makers, although in itself is not a part of research. In the process, research also helps in the proper

allocation of a country’s scarce resources.

Research is also necessary for collecting information on the social and economic structure of an

economy to understand the process of change occurring in the country. Collection of statistical

information, though not a routine task, involves various research problems. Therefore, large staff of

research technicians or experts are engaged by the government these days to undertake this work. Thus,

research as a tool of government economic policy formulation involves three distinct stages of

operation:

(i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;

(ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and analysis of the forces underlying them;

(iii) the prognosis i.e., the prediction of future developments (Wilkinson and Bhandarkar,
28
 1979).

Research also assumes significance in solving various operational and planning problems associated

with business and industry. In several ways, operations research, market research and motivational

research are vital and their results assist in taking business decisions. Market research refers to the

investigation of the structure and development of a market for the formulation of efficient policies

relating to purchases, production and sales. Operational research relates to the application of logical,

mathematical, and analytical techniques to find solution to business problems, such as cost

minimization or profit maximization, or the optimization problems. Motivational research helps to

determine why people behave in the manner they do with respect to market characteristics. More

specifically, it is concerned with the analysis of the motivations underlying consumer behaviour. All

these researches are very useful for business and industry, and are responsible for business decision-

making.

Research is equally important to social scientists for analyzing the social relationships and seeking

explanations to various social problems. It gives intellectual satisfaction of knowing things for the sake

of knowledge. It also possesses the practical utility for the social scientist to gain knowledge to be able

to do something better or in a more efficient manner. The research in social sciences is concerned with

both knowledge for its own sake, and knowledge for what it can contribute to solve practical problems.

Research Process:

Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively conducting research.

The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the conduct of

research:

• Formulating the research problem;

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 • Extensive literature survey;
• Developing hypothesis;
• Preparing the research design;
• Determining sample design;
• Collecting data;
• Execution of the project;
• Analysis of data;
• Hypothesis testing;
• Generalization and interpretation, and
• Preparation of the report or presentation of the results. In other words, it involves the formal
write-up of conclusions.

THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH

According to Horton and Hunt, the scientific method of research comprises the following basic steps:

(i) Defining the problem

(ii) Review of literature
(iii) Formulation of hypothesis
(iv) Developing a research design
(v) Collection of data
(vi) Analysis of data
(vii) Drawing conclusions
(viii) Replicate the study for generalizations

These steps give us an idea of the essential steps involved in conducting research. However, there is
no rigid sequence of research process steps. Depending on each situation, certain steps can be skipped,
can he repeated or circumvented. However, inspire of all these variations, it is possible for us to
develop a sequence of research process. Although each of the steps discussed here are studied in greater
detail in subsequent modules, a brief overview can be provided at this stage. Figure given below shows
the detailed sequence of research process. Each of these steps is the natural outcome of the previous
steps, but these steps are not mutually exclusive. It is possible for instance to develop our research
objectives and working hypothesis simultaneously.

The various steps are:

Step 1: Discover the Problem Area

To start a research, we first of all need to discover the problem which demands solution. The best way
to identify the problem would be to look for an unresolved query, a gap in the existing knowledge or
an unfulfilled need within the chosen subject. Although the world is filled with unsolved problems, yet
not every problem is suitable for research. Researcher should take care that the problem should be one
which can be clearly identified and formulated. Further, while choosing the research area the researcher
should look into the availability of information relevant to the topic. Mere availability is not enough,
it should also be accessible. Sometimes, the cost of obtaining the information being too high, it might

30
not be accessible to the researcher.

Step 2: Review of Literature

The next step is to become familiar with the problem and formulate it clearly. Literature review involves a
comprehensive review of published and unpublished work from the secondary sources of data available in the
relevant area of study. The researcher at this stage may review all the available conceptual literature concerning
the theories and concepts related to the problem as well as the empirical literature comprising of studies done
earlier and bearing similarity to the problem under study. Literature review helps the researcher in two ways;
firstly, it helps him in specifying his research problem in a meaningful context, secondly, it would provide him

31
with an insight into the methods and techniques adopted for handling such problems. The researcher can access
bibliographic databases which display only the bibliographic citations like
name of the author, title of the book, publisher, year, volume and page number. He can also use abstract database
which along with bibliographic citations also provides him with an abstract of the article. The researcher can
also use full text databases which contain the entire text.

Step 3: Problem Formulation and Definition

Initially, the focus of the problem is not clearly defined. However, after the literature review, the researcher is
now in a position to formulate his problem clearly. In the words of Albert Einstein, "The formulation of a
problem is far more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental
skill". A problem well formulated will alone yield fruitful results. It is a clear, precise, and concise statement of
the matter that is to be investigated. The problem statement is a fact oriented information gathering question.
The objectives of the study at this stage are clearly developed. While problem is being formulated, the following
should be taken into account:
• Determine the objective of the study
• Consider various environment factors
• Nature of the problem
• State the alternative

Step 4: Developing a Working Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption regarding the solution to the problem under study. The hypothesis is the
focal point around which the future research efforts will be directed. The kind of data to be collected, the tools
of analysis are influenced by the hypothesis. The hypothesis is a predictive statement which is made in the light,
of the available facts relating to the problem under study. For example, a study conducted to find the amount of
research investment being done by the companies will have the following hypothesis:
Ho: Companies invest 1% of their sales revenue in research activities.
H1: Companies invest less than 1% of their sales revenue in research activities.
The Ho is called as the null hypothesis which assumes there is no difference between the population parameter
and the sample mean and the H1 is called as the alternative hypothesis which presents the alternative solution.
A hypothesis thus presents a relationship between the different variables. In case of social research relating to
human behaviour, the hypothesis helps us in making a prediction about the population parameter.

Step 5: Research Proposal

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A research proposal is a brief summary outlining the objectives of study and the modus operandi of conducting
the research. In case of a thesis, the research proposals are in the form of a synopsis stating the research
objectives, the proposed methodology of research, benefits of study along with a detailed bibliography. In case
of business or government organizations, the research proposal, in addition to the above information, will
contain information about the researcher's qualification, the time and cost schedules, the resources and special
facilities required during research. Essentially, they contain an executive summary, right in the beginning stating
the objective of the study and benefit derived thereon. Research proposal is very important and should be
prepared carefully especially when it is to be reviewed by the concerned authorities for approval to conduct
further research.

Step 6: Research Design

After approval of proposal, the next step is to work out the research design. Research design outlines the
conditions for collection and analysis of data. The what, when, where, how much and the method of data
collection are detailed in the research design. It will specifically contain information about:

(a) The Sampling Design

(b) Data Collection Design
(c) Instrument Design

(a)The Sampling Design:

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from
a given population. If a research involves the study of each and every unit of the population, it is termed as a
census survey. However, it is generally not feasible to conduct a census survey, especially if the universe of the
study is very vast. E.g. TRPs of TV programmes are developed on a sample basis rather than covering all the
households of an area. A sampling design will include a decision on the sampling unit, the sample size and the
sampling method.
'Sampling unit' is the most elementary unit which would be a part of the study e.g. in a survey on newspaper
readership pattern, a single household comprising of all the members of the household can be regarded as a
sampling unit..
Next, the decision on ‘sample size' is taken. The size depends on factors like the availability of time and funds
to the researcher, the ability of the researcher, the size of the population and the nature of the population. The
important thing to remember is that the sample size should be such as to adequately represent the population.
Finally, a decision on the ‘sampling method’ is to be taken. A researcher can use a non-probability method or a
probability method of sampling. Non-probability method of selecting a sample involves an element of bias. The
probability of a unit being a part of the sample is not known. Under this method, one can adopt various methods
like convenience sampling (easily accessible), purposive sampling (specific people for purpose), judgment
sampling (to choose for best data) and quota sampling.
Probability method of sampling involves giving every member a known and unbiased chance of being a part of
the sample. Few probability methods are simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, area
sampling, and systematic sampling.

(b)Data Collection Design:

The method of gathering the data is planned here. The data can be collected through an experiment conducted
in controlled settings or it can he conducted through field survey. The survey can be a simple one involving data

33
collection from one source or it could involve areas spread all over the world. Hence, a well-planned data
collection design becomes necessary. Briefly speaking, some of the data collection techniques available to a
researcher are:

(i)Questionnaire: A set of questions pertaining to the topic under study are compiled and the questionnaire is
then mailed to the respondent through mail. This method of data collection is particularly used in situations
where a large number of respondents are to be covered and they are spread over a wide area.

(ii)Interview: An interview method involves a direct interaction between the respondent and the researcher/field
workers. The interview can be a physical interview where the researcher personally asks questions from the
respondent or it can be a telephonic or virtual interview. The telephonic or virtual method is adopted where the
respondents are spread over a wide area and time available is very less. An important thing to remember is that
while conducting an interview the researcher uses an interview schedule which is like a questionnaire.

(iii)Observation: Observation involves collecting data visually and recording the event. Observation besides
visual aspect also involves listening, smelling and touching. All behavioural activities as well as non-
behavioural activities like physical condition analysis, processes, and records can be analysed through
observation. An observation also involves the use of observation schedules which contains a list of all the items
that are to be observed.

(c)Instrument Design:
Instrument refers to the questionnaire or the schedule that the researcher would use to collect data. The
researcher while designing the questionnaire must think in terms of following issues:

(i)Type of Data: It determines whether the data will be collected in a nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio form.
A nominal data has no order, distance or origin, ordinal data has an order but no distance and origin, an interval
data has order and distance but no origin and a ratio data has order, distance as well as a unique origin.

(ii)Communication Approach: Before designing the instrument the researcher has to decide on how to collect
the data i.e. through mailed questionnaire, interview or observation.

(iii)Question Structure: This decides the type of questions and their order. The instrument can be completely
direct structured, indirect unstructured questionnaire or combination of these two approaches.

(iv)Question Wording: It should be the endeavour of every researcher to have questions with simple words
leaving no scope for ambiguity. Long questions are to be avoided and the wording should not be biased.

After finalizing instrument, it will now be designed and subject it to pilot testing. Pilot testing detects the
weakness in the design and contents of the instrument. It involves selecting a small sample from the target
population and simulating the procedures for data collection that have been designed.

Step 7: Data Collection

From this stage, the researcher moves ahead to data gathering stage. This involves sending questionnaires to
respondents, training field workers in interview and observation methods. A careful control over the data
collection process is maintained. Respondents who have remained incommunicado in the first round of
communication are once again contacted. The basic aim in this stage is that the data is collected in the correct
form and within the specified schedules.

Step 8: Analysis of Data

34
The data gathered in the previous step does not have any meaning until it has undergone for data analysis.
Processing of this raw data will yield some kind of relevant information. The raw data when it is aggregated,
organized and analysed yields us some information which helps us in decision making. Data analysis is
concerned with reducing the bulk of accumulated data to a manageable size. Generally, it involves the following
procedures:
(a)Coding: Under this process, the various responses of the respondents are coded using symbols/ legends e.g.
respondents can be classified in term of education using symbol of L (Literate) or IL (Illiterate). The basic
purpose of coding is to group the responses in well-defined categories which then become easy to tabulate.
(b)Editing: The next step is the editing of responses. Many times the response given by the respondent is either
incomplete, incomprehensible or is written in short hand. Editing removes ambiguities regarding responses,
shunts out the invalid responses and thus improves the quality of data for statistical analysis.
(c)Tabulation: It is the process of putting the classified data in the form of tables. Tables can be one dimensional
where data is tabulated in terms of one feature e.g. sales figure in terms of time. They can be multidimensional
where data is tabulated using two or more features e.g. sales figure in terms of time, region and product are
depicted simultaneously in a table.

(d)Statistical Analysis: In the last stage, the tabulated data is analysed using various statistical techniques like
averages, percentages, trend analysis, correlation and regression techniques etc. Statistical analysis these days
has become highly dependent on computers and softwares e.g. IBM SPSS Statistics, e-views.

Step 9: Hypothesis Testing

After analysing the data, the next step is to test the hypothesis that had been formulated in the beginning of the
research process. There are various parametric and non-parametric tests like t-test, z-test, f-test, Kruskal-Wallis
test, Wilcoxon-Man-Whitney test etc. The choice of test selected for hypothesis testing depends on factors like
the nature and objective of research, characteristics of population distribution, the sampling technique, type of
data etc. Hypothesis testing will help a researcher in establishing the validity of his results. It will help in
determining whether the difference is real or simply an outcome of random fluctuations.

Step 10: Data Interpretation and Generalisation

In case of no-hypothesis testing research, data interpretation is done with the intention of seeking explanation
for the research results on the basis of existing theories. The results are interpreted in the light of existing theories
and doors are thrown open for newer explanations and possibilities for further research. In case of hypothesis
testing research, after the data has been analysed, generalizations are made to builda new theory. Such
generalizations come up with better explanation and new theories for existing phenomenon and greatly
contribute to the existing data bank.

Step 11: Reporting of Results

The last step is concerned with bringing in public the results of the research so that the findings can be put to
application. The style and method of reporting would depend on the target audience, the purpose and the time
of reporting the results. Any research report whether it is presented in a detailed form or in the form of a brief
note should essentially have the following contents.
• The preliminary section containing the title of the report, table of contents, list of tables, graphs, preface
and an executive summary, which gives briefly the research objectives and The findings and importance of the
study.
• A main text section which contains the problem background, research objectives, a note on research
methodology used, the importance of conducting the research and the conclusion arrived thereof. A special

35
mention of the recommendation given by the researcher in light of the findings made by him should also be
included.

• The last section which includes appendices supporting the research with items like questionnaires and
schedules used, glossary of terms and any other matter which although not a part of the main research but
required in order to support the research can be included.
Thus, this is a brief listing of the steps involved in a research process. A researcher should keep in mind that
these steps are not rigid. Their sequence can be altered; steps can overlap or jumped depending on the topic of
research.

Research Problem:

The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the research

problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable or

susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a

researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation, which he/she

would like to answer or find a solution to. A research problem is generally said to exist if the following

conditions emerge (Kothari, 1988):

There should be an individual or an organisation, say X, to whom the Problem can be attributed. The

individual or the organization is situated in an environment Y, which is governed by certain

uncontrolled variables Z;

There should be at least two courses of action to be pursued, say A1 and A2. These courses of action

are defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the number of items

purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.

There should be at least two alternative possible outcomes of the said courses of action, say B1 and

B2. Of them, one alternative should be preferable to the other. That is, at least one outcome should be

what the researcher wants, which becomes an objective.

The courses of possible action available must offer a chance to the researcher to achieve the objective,

but not the equal chance. Therefore, if P(Bj / X, A, Y) represents the probability of the occurrence of

36
an outcome Bj when X selects Aj in Y, then P(B1 / X, A1,Y) ≠ P (B1 / X, A2, Y). Putting it in simple

words, it means that the choices must not have equal efficiencies for the desired outcome.

Above all these conditions, the individual or organisation may be said to have arrived at the research

problem only if X does not know what course of action to be taken is the best. In other words, X should

have a doubt about the solution. Thus, an individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem

if they have more than one desired outcome. They should have two or more alternative courses of

action, which have some but not equal efficiency. This is required for probing the desired objectives,

such that they have doubts about the best course of action to be taken. Thus, the components of a

research problem may be summarised as:

• There should be an individual or a group who have some difficulty or problem.

• There should be some objective(s) to be pursued. A person or an organization who wants
nothing cannot have a problem.
• There should be alternative ways of pursuing the objective the researcher wants to pursue. This
implies that there should be more than one alternative means available to the researcher. This
is because if the researcher has no choice of alternative means, he/she would not have a
problem.
• There should be some doubt in the mind of the researcher about the choice of alternative means.
This implies that research should answer the question relating to the relative efficiency or
suitability of the possible alternatives.
• There should be a context to which the difficulty relates.

Thus, identification of a research problem is the pre-condition to conducting research. A research

problem is said to be the one which requires a researcher to find the best available solution to the given

problem. That is, the researcher needs to find out the best course of action through which the research

objective may be achieved optimally in the context of a given situation. Several factors may contribute

to making the problem complicated. For example, the environment may alter, thus affecting the

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efficiencies of the alternative courses of action taken or the quality of the outcomes. The number of

alternative courses of action might be very large and the individual not involved in making the decision

may be affected by the change in environment and may react to it favorably or unfavorably. Other

similar factors are also likely to cause such changes in the context of research, all of which may be

considered from the point of view of a research problem.

Research Design:

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the research

project, which is popularly known as the ‘research design’. A research design helps to decide upon

issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research

study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a

manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact,

research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the

blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research

design provides an outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its

operational implications and the final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights

decisions which include:

• The nature of the study

• The purpose of the study
• The location where the study would be conducted
• The nature of data required
• From where the required data can be collected
• What time period the study would cover
• The type of sample design that would be used
• The techniques of data collection that would be used
• The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
• The manner in which the report would be prepared
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In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into the

following (Kothari 1988):

• The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selected study;
• The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made;
• The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
• The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

Features Of Research Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:

• It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the research

problem;

• It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which would

be adopted; and

• It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting the

study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research.

Concepts Relating To Research Design:

Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:

Dependent And Independent Variables:

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A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values

like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the

term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence

of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in

decimal points are known as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values

that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical

terms, they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable,

whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depend

upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable,

and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or

explanatory or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a

dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand,

like income and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition

to the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is determined

by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and price of substitutes.

Extraneous Variables:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the

dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants

to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s school performance and their self-

confidence, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable.

In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not

directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an

extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is

technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in
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such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent variable/s is completely

controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly evident.

Control:

One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of extraneous

variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the study in such a

manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental

research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

Confounded Relationship:

The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an

extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

Research Hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it is known

as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which relates to a dependent

variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one

dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not

to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as

research hypotheses.

Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:

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When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-testing

research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-experimental design. The

research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as ‘experimental hypothesis-

testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent variable is not manipulated is termed

as ‘non-experimental hypothesis- testing research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to

examine whether family income influences the school attendance of a group of students, by calculating

the coefficient of correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-

experimental hypothesis- testing research, because the independent variable - family income is not

manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a group of

students who pay their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-groups by randomly

including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in Group B, whose parents do

not have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study, the researcher conducts a test on each

group in order to examine the effects of regular earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the

student. Such a study is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this

particular study the independent variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.

Experimental And Control Groups:

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is

known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new or special

condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be

called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed

to some special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design

may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control groups together.
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Treatments:

Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are subject

to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings and those with

no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to examine through an experiment the

comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers on the yield of rice crop, then the three types

of fertilizers would be treated as the three treatments.

Experiment:

Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a given

research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the yield of a certain new

variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely,

‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact

of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute

experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as

compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.

Experimental Unit(s):

Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which different

treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units must be selected with

great caution.

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Types Of Research Design:

There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:

• Exploratory Research Design;

• Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and

• Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.

Exploratory Research Design:

The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main objective of

using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise

investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose

of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for

such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of

the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research

problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may

necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three

methods are considered in the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of

related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.

Descriptive And Diagnostic Research Design:

A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular

individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which
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a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study analyzing whether

a certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand,

a study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics

related to an individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally,

most of the social research design falls under this category. As a research design, both the descriptive

and diagnostic studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped together. However, the

procedure to be used and the research design need to planned carefully. The research design must also

make appropriate provision for protection against bias and thus maximize reliability, with due regard

to the completion of the research study in an economical manner. The research design in such studies

should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus attention on the following:

Formulation of the objectives of the study,

Proper designing of the methods of data collection,

Sample selection,

Data collection,

Processing and analysis of the collected data, and f) Reporting the findings.

Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:

Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal

relationship between two or more variables. These studies require procedures that would not only

decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality.

Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such

studies, it often refers to the design of experiments.

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Importance Of Research Design:

The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct of the various

stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus yielding the maximum

information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A research design helps to plan in advance,

the methods to be employed for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be adopted for their

analysis. This would help in pursuing the objectives of the research in the best possible manner,

provided the available staff, time and money are given. Hence, the research design should be prepared

with utmost care, so as to avoid any error that may disturb the entire project. Thus, research design

plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained, which forms the strong foundation

of the entire process of the research work.

Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times. This is because

it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many researchers are not able to

achieve the purpose for which the research designs are formulated, due to which they end up arriving

at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of the research project tends to render the

research exercise meaningless. This makes it imperative that an efficient and suitable research design

must be planned before commencing the process of research. The research design helps the researcher

to organize his/her ideas in a proper form, which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the inadequacies

and faults in them. The research design is also discussed with other experts for their comments and

critical evaluation, without which it would be difficult for any critic to provide a comprehensive review

and comments on the proposed study.

Characteristics Of A Good Research Design:

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A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient, economical

and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data

collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A research design which does not

allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the best design for investigation. Further, a

research design that yields maximum information and provides an opportunity of viewing the various

dimensions of a research problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus,

the question of a good design relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem

studied. While a research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other

words, it may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems.

Therefore, no single research design can be applied to all types of research problems.

A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the following

considerations:

• The methods of gathering the information;

• The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;

• The objectives of the research problem being studied;

• The nature of the research problem being studied; and

• The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.

RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS

For effective planning and implementation of business decisions, accurate information about the internal
business environment and the external business environment is of primary importance. The key objective of any
business research is to provide accurate, relevant and timely information to the top management, so that they
can make effective decisions. The business managers have the option of taking decisions either intuitively or
randomly, or under the directions of an authority or through rational analysis. The best approach is to rationally
analyse the problem which requires that the managers should have access to the right kind of information. This
information could have been gathered by others at some time in the past (secondary data) or it could he gathered
by the business managers themselves specifically with the objective of solving the problem at hand (primary

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data). This information is gathered by a manager through research only.

A business manager lives in three time dimensions:

(a) The past-The objectives achieved and those left unaccomplished are dealt in this dimension.
(b) The present-There is a perpetual evaluation of what is being currently accomplished.
(c) The future- An eye on what would be the challenges in future and what endeavours would be required
to handle them.

Research is needed in order to gather data regarding the accomplishments and lacunae of the past and the
performance level in the present times in order to take strategic decisions relating to future. The process of
decision making is a complex one which can be seen in the diagram below. It can be broadly classified into
following five steps. Each of these steps requires information that can be collected through research. Let us
review these steps:

Step 1: Defining the problem: Research is needed to understand the environment in which the organisation is
operating e.g. information gathered on work relationships between the employees may help an organisation to
define the problem of interpersonal conflict.

Step 2: Gathering information: In this stage, information through research is gathered from individuals, groups
or organisations that are affected by the problem. Opinions of experts, top level managers can be gathered
through interviews to thoroughly understand the dimensions and impact of the problem.

Step 3: Developing and selecting the best alternative: This step involves looking at the problem from a different
perspective. Techniques like brain storming are used to generate a free flow of ideas. The, ideas are generally
evaluated to see which suits the problem at hand. Once the ideas have been generated, research can be used to
further draw a consensus on the best alternatives.

Step 4: Implementation: Implementation converts an intention into a solution. It involves a careful and step-by-
step set of actions carried out for solving the problems. The implementation process is carried out within a well-
defined framework of time and resource allocation. Research can be used to obtain an inventory of available
resources and decide on optimal allocation.

Step 5: Evaluation: A continuous monitoring is required to judge the success of implementation. Evaluation is
the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object or
action(s). A research that is carried out with the objective of appraising the extent to which a given set of actions
have managed to achieve their targets within the given time and resource framework is called as evaluation
research.

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Thus, research is needed at every step of decision making. It is through research only that a manager can remove
the uncertainty surrounding a decision. The application of research in business encompasses almost all the
business processes of an organisation. In contemporary times it is expected of the organisations to be research
oriented. Research is carried out in almost all functional areas e.g. advertising research, marketing research,
consumer behaviour research, financial research, performance monitoring research, evaluation research, B2B,
B2C marketing research etc.
Research in business is being actively carried out:
(i) To evaluate the day to day performance of employees;
(ii) To monitor the organisational effectiveness to improve efficiency and productivity;
(iii) To improve consumer relations;
(iv) To review and update existing information which is a key resource;
(v) To identify business opportunities;
(vi) To avail potential investment options and maximize returns; and
(vii) To plan for staff appraisal and development.

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Thus business research is needed to place the organisation competitively within the market.

FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH STUDY

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they all meet on the
common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following
criteria:
1.The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2.The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3.The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4.The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
upon the findings. Good research should have systematically chosen methodologies and datasets to prove the
proposed hypothesis.
5.The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6.Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which
the data provide an adequate basis.
7.Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research
and is a person of integrity.
8.Related state-of-the-art literature should be studied in depth to avoid reinvention of wheel.
9.It should be time-bound and realistic.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

1.Good Research is Systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research
does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
2.Good Research is Logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process
of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in
the context of decision making.
3.Good Research is Empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provide a basis for external validity to research results. Validity and
reliability of data should be checked and researchers should consider an adequate amount of data.
4.Good Research is Replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the
study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
5.Good Research has Utility: The ultimate objective of any research program should be oriented towards
providing benefit to the society/ business. The research work should either form foundation for further
advancement in the domain, draw some concrete conclusions or it should be beneficial from the social,
commercial, or educational point of view.

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6.Good Research is Creative: Creativity is the most important factor in research proposal. Ideally no two
research proposals should be identical to each other. Research proposal should be designed meticulously so as
to consider all factors relevant to the objective of the project. Difference in the formulation and structure of two
research programs results in difference in creativity and also in findings. Any sorts of guessing or imagination
should be avoided in arriving at conclusions of a research program.

Key Points:

•Applied Research: It refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems.

•Case-Study Research: It is concerned with exploring and analysing the life or functioning of a social or
economic unit, such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an. Industry.

•Causal/ Experimental Research: A research carried out so establish the relationship between independent
variable and dependent variable.

•Cohort Study: It is about observing a category of people who share a similar life experience in a specified time
period.
•Conclusive Research: Conclusive research is carried out to provide information that is useful in reaching
conclusions or decision-making.

•Cross-Sectional Research: Cross-sectional research design involves the collection of information from a sample
of a population at only one point of time.

•Descriptive Research: It is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied.

•Diagnostic Research: This research is conducted to establish whether two or more variables are associated and
their degree of association.

•Empirical Research: Research based on first-hand gathering of data through interviews, questionnaires,
ethnographies, participant observation, action research and so on.

•Evaluation Research: Evaluation research aims at evaluating programme that have been implemented or actions
that have taken in order to get an objective.

•Exploratory Research: It is a methodology that investigates research questions that have not previously been
studied in depth.

Ex-Post Facto: Ex post facto research is the process beginning with a phenomenon and going backward in time
to identify casual factors.

•Historical Research: Historical study is a study of past records and data in order to understand the future trends
and development of the organisation or market.

•Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative assumption regarding the solution to the problem under study.

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•Longitudinal Research: Longitudinal study involves survey of the same population over a period of time.

•Panel Study: Panel study is concerned with observing exactly the same people, group, or organisation across
time periods.

•Pure Research: It is a type of scientific research with the aim of improving scientific theories for better
understanding and prediction of natural or other phenomena.

•Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject.

•Quantitative Research: It usually involves the collection and converting of numerical data into numerical form
to made statistical calculations which help in drawing conclusions to answer a specific research question.

•Research Design: Research design refers to the framework of market research methods and techniques that
are chosen by a researcher. The design that is chosen by the researchers allows them to utilize the methods that
are suitable for the study.

•Research Proposal: A research proposal is a brief summary outlining the objectives of study and the modus
operandi of conducting the research.

•Research: The systematic investigation and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach
new conclusions.
•Theoretical Research: This research uses the findings from existing theory and explanations to develop new
ideas.

•Time-Series Research: A time series design collects data on the same variable at regular intervals (weeks,
months, years, etc.) in the form of aggregate measures of a population.

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