OU BBA Second Year Third Sem (2020) DSC 302

Information Technology for Business

Unit - 1

1. Introduction to Information Technology

Information technology (IT) is the application of computers to store, study,

retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data or information, often in the context of a
business or other enterprise.

In today's world computer has become a necessity for everyone. It’s almost
impossible to imagine that someone can live without computers. They have
become an electronic device of almost every day use for individuals of every age,
and essential in almost all the business dealings that are made nowadays as
huge information that need to be processed.

1.1 Computer Systems

A computer is an electronic machine, which accepts and stores data input,

processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format. A
computer performs the following four general operations:

⮚ Input

⮚ Output

⮚ Processing

⮚ Storage

Figure: Computer Hardware Block Diagram

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The computer system is made up of the central processing unit (CPU), memory
and related electronics (main cabinet), all the peripheral devices connected to it
and its operating system

The various components that make the computer system are as follows:

⮚ Power Supply

⮚ Processor (CPU)

⮚ Memory Stick

⮚ Video Card

⮚ Motherboard

⮚ Hard Disk Drive

⮚ Keyboard and Mouse

⮚ Monitor

⮚ Operating System

Figure: Anatomy of a Computer

Power Supply

A power supply unit (or PSU) converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC

power for the internal components of a computer.

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Processor or Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Processor or CPU is the brain of a computer. It receives the user’s instructions

from the connected input devices, processes it and sends processed data to the
appropriate components and output devices. The CPU is where all complex
calculations are carried out, as such the faster the CPU the quicker the programs
will function and respond.

Memory or Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is a short term memory that handles data to be processed before it goes to
the CPU. Every time an application is opened, the CPU allocates a specified
amount of available RAM space to provide faster reaction time to user
commands within that application. RAM similar to a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a
storage device, but unlike HDDs, which are permanent storage spaces, RAM is a
temporary storage space meaning once the application is done using the RAM
space, it will be once again available to be used by the next application that
needs it.

Video Card

A video card inserted into the motherboard, give the system display capabilities.
The video card turns the processed and translated user input, along with any
other information provided by an application and turns it into a video signal to be
sent to a display device.

Motherboard

Motherboard is a large electrical circuit board in the computer and is responsible

for sending electrical signals to and from every component. Even though the
processor is the brain of the operation, without a motherboard all you will have is
a cluster of components, which do not fit each other. Consider the motherboard
as the skeleton or a computer where parts, similar to human organs, fit within it.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Hard disk drive is the long-term storage for files and settings. This is equivalent to
the Micro SD Card of mobile phone. Computer’s hard disk is of certain size and
can fill up and run out of space if periodic deletion of unwanted files are not
carried out.

Keyboard and Mouse

Keyboard and mouse are the input devices which are used to provide input to the
computer system.

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Monitor

Monitory is the output unit which is used to display the output generated by the
computer system.

Operating System

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the
operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer
hardware.

1.2 I/O Devices

Input device:

When data is entered into the computer system, it is called an input. Input comes
in various forms such as texts, graphics, audio and video. Input devices are
needed to input data into the computer system.

Keyboard, mouse, scanner, barcode reader and digital camera are some
example of input devices.

Figure: Input Devices

Input is any data or instructions that we enter into the computer system for
processing.
There are some common ways of feeding input data into the system, which are:

• typing on a keyboard
• pointing with a mouse

Output device:

Output is the result of raw input data that has been processed by the central
processing unit into meaningful information. Common forms of output are texts,
numbers, graphics, sounds, animations and videos.

The most common output devices are computer screens, speakers and printers.

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 Figure: Output Devices

There are four types of output, which are texts, graphics, audio and video.

● The text consists of characters that are used to create texts, sentences
and paragraphs.
● Graphics are digital representations of non text information such as
drawings, charts and photographs.
● Audio is music, speech or any other sound.

● Video consists of images that provide the appearance of full motion

1.3 Memory Devices

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be
processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

Due to physical properties of materials used in the memory manufacturing

processes and the architecture of different types of memories, we end up with a
trade-off between cost, size and speed. In general, large memories (e.g. hard
disk) are cheap but slow, whereas small ones (e.g. RAM, caches or CPU
registers) are more expensive but fast.

Memory is primarily of three types

⮚ Cache Memory

⮚ Primary Memory/Main Memory

⮚ Secondary Memory

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Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to
hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by the
CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from the disk to cache
memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can access them.

Figure: Cache Memory

The advantages of cache memory

✔ Cache memory is faster than main memory.

✔ It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

✔ It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

✔ It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages of cache memory

✔ Cache memory has limited capacity.

✔ It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is
currently working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is
switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories
are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed
resides in the main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Figure: Primary Memory

Characteristics of Main Memory

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 ✔ These are semiconductor memories.

✔ It is known as the main memory.

✔ Usually volatile memory.

✔ Data is lost in case power is switched off.

✔ It is the working memory of the computer.

✔ Faster than secondary memories.

✔ A computer cannot run without the primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is

slower than the main memory. These are used for storing data/information
permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it. For example,
disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Figure: Secondary Memory

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

✔ These are magnetic and optical memories.

✔ It is known as the backup memory.

✔ It is a non-volatile memory.

✔ Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

✔ It is used for storage of data in a computer.

✔ Computer may run without the secondary memory.

✔ Slower than primary memories.

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1.4 Processor

Processor or CPU is the brain of a computer. It receives the user’s instructions

from the connected input devices, processes it and sends processed data to the
appropriate components and output devices. The CPU is where all complex
calculations are carried out, as such the faster the CPU the quicker the programs
will function and respond.

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer and performs all types of data
processing operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program) and controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU has following three components.

⮚ Memory or Storage Unit

⮚ Control Unit

⮚ ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Figure: Central Processing Unit

Memory or Storage Unit

Storage unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit
supplies information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known
as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random
Access Memory (RAM).

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Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer.

Functions of the storage unit are

✔ It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

✔ It stores intermediate results of processing.

✔ It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to
an output device.
✔ All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry
out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are

✔ It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
✔ It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

✔ It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs
the operation of the computer.
✔ It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results
from storage.
✔ It does not process or store data.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic logic unit consists of two subsections namely,

✔ Arithmetic Section

✔ Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.

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Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,

selecting, matching, and merging of data.

1.5 Hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This

includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all
the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard,
video card, and many others. Computer hardware is what you can physically
touch. Example – Keyboard, Monitor, CPU, Processor etc.

1.6 Software

Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined

function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.

1.7 Classification of Software

Software can be classified into two types:

⮚ System Software

⮚ Application Software

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and

extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself. System software is
generally prepared by the computer manufacturers. These software products
comprise of programs written in low-level languages, which interact with the
hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between
the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers,

Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent features of a system software

✔ Close to the system

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 ✔ Fast in speed

✔ Difficult to design

✔ Difficult to understand

✔ Less interactive

✔ Smaller in size

✔ Difficult to manipulate

✔ Generally written in low-level language

Application Software

Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a

particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab
can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's

notepad for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of
programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a
task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Some examples of Application software are Payroll Software, Student Record

Software, Railways Reservation Software, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel,
Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows

✔ Close to the user

✔ Easy to design

✔ More interactive

✔ Slow in speed

✔ Generally written in high-level language

✔ Easy to understand

✔ Easy to manipulate and use

✔ Bigger in size and requires large storage space

1.8 Operating Systems

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Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software

and the computer hardware. It is an integrated set of specialized programs used
to manage overall resources and operations of the computer. It is a specialized
software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that
reside in the computer, including application programs and other system
software.

Objectives of Operating System

⮚ To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.

⮚ To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.

⮚ To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it

easier for the users to access and use other resources.
⮚ To manage the resources of a computer system.

⮚ To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests,

and mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users.
⮚ To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and
programs.

Characteristics features of Operating System

⮚
Memory Management Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, wh

⮚
Processor Management Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor wh

⮚
Device Management Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides wh

⮚
File Management Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.

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 ⮚
Security Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other simila

⮚
Interaction with the Operators Interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the form

⮚
Error-detecting Aids Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-det

1.9 Types of OS

The different types of Operating system are as follows.

1) Real Time
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of
required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method,
the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

Real-time systems are used when there time bound requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data. A real-time operating system must
have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail.

For example, Scientific experiments, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control
systems, etc.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.

a) Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In
hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the
data is stored in ROM.

b) Soft real-time systems

A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the
priority until it completes. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, etc.

2) Time Sharing
Time-sharing or multitasking is a technique which enables many people, located
at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time.

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Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed
as time-sharing.

In Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time. Multiple

jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur
so frequently that the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a
transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short
quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a
time slice. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.

Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are

⮚ Provides quick response.

⮚ Reduces CPU idle time.

Multiprogramming

Multiprogramming is the allocation of more than one concurrent program on a

computer system and its resources. Multiprogramming allows using the CPU
effectively by allowing various users to use the CPU and I/O devices effectively.
Multiprogramming makes sure that the CPU always has something to execute,
thus increases the CPU utilization.

Multiprogramming is the fast switching of CPU between several programs. A

program is generally made up of several tasks. A task usually ends with some
request to move data which would require some I/O operations to be executed.
Multitasking was commonly done to keep the CPU busy, while the currently
running program is doing I/O operations. Compared to other executing
instructions, I/O operations are extremely slow. Even if a program contains a very
small number of I/O operations, most of the time taken for the program is spent
on those I/O operations. Therefore, using this idle time and allowing another
program to utilize the CPU at that time will increase the CPU utilization.

Multiprogramming Vs Time sharing

The main difference between multiprogramming and time sharing is that
multiprogramming is the effective utilization of CPU time, by allowing several
programs to use the CPU at the same time but time sharing is the sharing of a
computing facility by several users that want to use the same facility at the same
time. Each user on a time sharing system gets her own terminal and gets the
feeling that she is using the CPU alone. Actually, time sharing systems use the
concept of multiprogramming to share the CPU time between multiple users at
the same time.

Multiprocessing

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A computer’s capability to process more than one task simultaneously is called
multiprocessing. A multiprocessing operating system is capable of running many
programs simultaneously, and most modern network operating systems (NOSs)
support multiprocessing.

A multiprocessing system uses more than one processor to process any given
workload, increasing the performance of a system’s application environment
beyond that of a single processor’s capability.

1.10 Understanding of GUI

A graphical user interface (GUI) is an interface through which a user interacts

with electronic devices such as computers, hand-held devices and other
appliances. This interface uses icons, menus and other visual indicator (graphics)
representations to display information and related user controls, unlike text-
based interfaces, where data and commands are in text. GUI representations are
manipulated by a pointing device such as a mouse

The need for GUI was clear since the first human/computer interface was through
keyboard text creation by what is called a DOS prompt. Commands were typed
on a keyboard at the DOS prompt to initiate responses from a computer. The use
of these commands and the need for exact spelling created a cumbersome and
inefficient interface.

1.11 Networks Definition

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing

hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users.

Networks are used to:

⮚ Facilitate communication via email, video conferencing, instant
messaging, etc.
⮚ Enable multiple users to share a single hardware device like a printer or
scanner
⮚ Enable file sharing across the network

⮚ Allow for the sharing of software or operating programs on remote

systems
⮚ Make information easier to access and maintain among network users

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1.12 Types of Network

There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can
be characterized by their size as well as their purpose.

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and
the number of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover
anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions of devices
spread across the entire globe.

Some of the different networks based on size are:

1. LAN - Local area network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site,

typically an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for sharing
resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with relatively
inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables.

The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on wired
connections for increased speed and security, but wireless connections can
also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost are the defining
characteristics of LANs.

LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources
among themselves but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office
building where everybody should be able to access files on a central server or
be able to print a document to one or more central printers. Those tasks
should be easy for everybody working in the same office, but you would not
want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a document to the
printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely
wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local area network, or WLAN.

2. CAN - Campus area network

CAN is larger network than LAN. CAN is usually established in university

campus to establish a connection among different computer labs, library,
registration office and different academic units.

3. MAN - Metropolitan area network

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across

an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN,
which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on the
configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to
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 tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form
a bigger network.

4. WAN - Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire
country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks,
such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a public
WAN.

1.13 Network Topologies

Network Topology refers to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a
network are connected to each other and how they communicate. Topologies are
either physical (the physical layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way
that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data passes
through the network from one device to the next).

The most common network topologies are

⮚ Mesh Topology

⮚ Star Topology

⮚ Bus Topology

⮚ Ring Topology

⮚ Tree Topology

1. Mesh Topology:

In a mesh topology every node has a connection to every other node in the
network. There are two types of mesh topologies:

Full mesh topology: occurs when every node has a circuit connecting it to every
other node in a network. Full mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the

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greatest amount of redundancy, so in the event that one of those nodes fails,
network traffic can be directed to any of the other nodes. Full mesh is usually
reserved for backbone networks.

Partial mesh topology: is less expensive to implement and yields less

redundancy than full mesh topology. With partial mesh, some nodes are
organized in a full mesh scheme but others are only connected to one or two in
the network.

2. Star Topology:

In a star network devices are connected to a central computer, called a hub.

Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the hub.

Main Advantage: In a star network, one malfunctioning node doesn't affect the
rest of the network.

Main Disadvantage: If the central computer fails, the entire network becomes
unusable.

3. Bus Topology:

In networking a bus is the central cable,the main wire that connects all devices
on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used
to describe the main network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks
are relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet
systems use a bus topology.

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Main Advantage: It's easy to connect a computer or device and typically it
requires less cable than a star topology.

Main Disadvantage: The entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main
wire and it can be difficult to identify the problem if the network shuts down.

4. Ring Topology:

A local-area network (LAN) whose topology is a ring. That is, all of the nodes are
connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node
reading those messages addressed to it.

Main Advantage: One main advantage to a ring network is that it can span larger
distances than other types of networks, such as bus networks, because each
node regenerates messages as they pass through it.

5. Tree Topology:

This is a "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. In a tree network, groups of star-configured networks are connected
to a linear bus backbone cable.

Main Advantage: A Tree topology is a good choice for large computer networks
as the tree topology "divides" the whole network into parts that are more easily
manageable.

Main Disadvantage: The entire network depends on a central hub and a failure of
the central hub can cripple the whole network.

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1.14 Physical Communication Media

Physical communication media are the physical channels through which data is
transmitted between computers in a network. Media may be classified as
bounded (eg. wires, cables, and optical fibres) and unbounded (eg. radion wave,
microwave, infrared etc)

There are two categories of transmission media used in computer

communications.

1. Bounded or Guided Media

2. Unbounded or Unguided Media

Bounded Media:
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to
narrow path. These are also called guide media. Bounded media are made up of
an external conductor (Usually Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded
media are great for LABS because they offer high speed, good security and low
cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance communication.
Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission.
These are

⮚ Coaxial Cable

⮚ Twisted Pairs Cable

⮚ Fiber Optics Cable

Coaxial Cable:

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Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example
TV wire is usually coaxial.Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two
conductors that are parallel to each other. The center conductor in the cable is
usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or stranded martial.

Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white,

plastic material used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor.
The other Conductor is a fine mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield
the cable form EMI.

Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. The actual data travels
through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by outer
copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge &
impedance.

Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade
measurement, or RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner the central
conductor core, the lower the number the thicker the core.

Here the most common coaxial standards.

50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE

✔ Low cost

✔ Easy to install

✔ Up to 10Mbps capacity

✔ Medium immunity form EMI

✔ Medium of attenuation

ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE

✔ Inexpensive

✔ Easy to wire

✔ Easy to expand

✔ Moderate level of EMI immunity

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DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE
✔ Single cable failure can take down an entire network

Twisted Pair Cable

The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install,
inexpensive and support many different types of network. It also supports the
speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded
copper twisted along each other. The twists are done to reduce vulnerably to EMI
and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The
copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire
gauge standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on
the condition. UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less
than STP and easily available due to its many use. There are five levels of data
cabling

Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.

Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.

Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.

Category 4
These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.

Category 5

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This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11
connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

Characteristics of UTP
✔ low cost

✔ easy to install

✔ High speed capacity

✔ High attenuation

✔ Effective to EMI

✔ 100 meter limit

Advantages of UTP
✔ Easy installation

✔ Capable of high speed for LAN

✔ Low cost

Disadvantages of UTP
✔ Short distance due to attenuation

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)

It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding that’s protects it from EMI which
allows for higher transmission rate. IBM has defined category for STP cable.

Type 1
STP features two pairs of 22-AWG

Type 2
This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs

Type 6
This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG

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Type 7
This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG

Type 9
This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

Characteristics of STP
✔ Medium cost

✔ Easy to install

✔ Higher capacity than UTP

✔ Higher attenuation, but same as UTP

✔ Medium immunity from EMI

✔ 100 meter limit

Advantages of STP:
✔ Shielded

✔ Faster than UTP and coaxial

Disadvantages of STP:
✔ More expensive than UTP and coaxial

✔ More difficult installation

✔ High attenuation rate

3. Fiber Optics

Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber
optic cable light only moves in one direction for two way communication to take
place a second connection must be made between the two devices. It is actually
two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for one direction of
communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to
other device. These pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser
moves through this glass to the other device around the internal core is a
reflective material known as CLADDING. No light escapes the glass core
because of this reflective cladding.

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Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Characteristics Of Fiber Optic Cable:

✔ Expensive

✔ Very hard to install

✔ Capable of extremely high speed

✔ Extremely low attenuation

✔ No EMI interference

Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:

✔ Fast

✔ Low attenuation

✔ No EMI interference

Disadvantages Fiber Optics:

✔ Very costly

✔ Hard to install

UnBounded Media

Unguided or wireless media sends the data through air (or water), which is
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them. Types of
unguided/ unbounded media are discussed below:

⮚ Radio Transmission

⮚ MicroWave Transmission

1. Radio Transmission
Its frequency is between 10 kHz to 1GHz. It is simple to install and has high
attenuation. Radio waves can operate on a single or multiple frequency bands.

2. MicroWave Transmission
Microwaves have been used in data communications for a long time. They have
a higher frequency than radio waves and therefore can handle larger amounts of
data.

25
1.15 TCP/IP

Have you ever wondered how your computer talks to other computers on your
local LAN or to other systems on the internet?

Communications between computers on a network is done through protocol

suits. The most widely used and most widely available protocol suite is TCP/IP
protocol suite.

A protocol suit consists of a layered architecture where each layer depicts some
functionality which can be carried out by a protocol. Each layer usually has more
than one protocol options to carry out the responsibility that the layer adheres to.
TCP/IP is normally considered to be a 4 layer system. The 4 layers are as
follows:

⮚ Application layer

⮚ Transport layer

⮚ Network layer

⮚ Data link layer

1. Application layer
This is the top layer of TCP/IP protocol suite. This layer includes applications or
processes that use transport layer protocols to deliver the data to destination
computers.

At each layer there are certain protocol options to carry out the task designated
to that particular layer. So, application layer also has various protocols that
applications use to communicate with the second layer, the transport layer.

Some of the popular application layer protocols are :

HTTP (Hypertext transfer protocol)
FTP (File transfer protocol)
SMTP (Simple mail transfer protocol)
SNMP (Simple network management protocol) etc

2. Transport Layer
This layer provides backbone to data flow between two hosts. This layer receives
data from the application layer above it. There are many protocols that work at
this layer but the two most commonly used protocols at transport layer are TCP
and UDP.

26
TCP is used where a reliable connection is required while UDP is used in case of
unreliable connections.

TCP divides the data(coming from the application layer) into proper sized chunks
and then passes these chunks onto the network. It acknowledges received
packets, waits for the acknowledgments of the packets it sent and sets timeout to
resend the packets if acknowledgements are not received in time. The term
‘reliable connection’ is used where it is not desired to loose any information that
is being transferred over the network through this connection. So, the protocol
used for this type of connection must provide the mechanism to achieve this
desired characteristic. For example, while downloading a file, it is not desired to
loose any information(bytes) as it may lead to corruption of downloaded content.

UDP provides a comparatively simpler but unreliable service by sending packets

from one host to another. UDP does not take any extra measures to ensure that
the data sent is received by the target host or not. The term ‘unreliable
connection’ are used where loss of some information does not hamper the task
being fulfilled through this connection. For example while streaming a video, loss
of few bytes of information due to some reason is acceptable as this does not
harm the user experience much.

3. Network Layer
This layer is also known as Internet layer. The main purpose of this layer is to
organize or handle the movement of data on network. By movement of data, we
generally mean routing of data over the network. The main protocol used at this
layer is IP. While ICMP(used by popular ‘ping’ command) and IGMP are also
used at this layer.

4. Data Link Layer

This layer is also known as network interface layer. This layer normally consists
of device drivers in the OS and the network interface card attached to the
system. Both the device drivers and the network interface card take care of the
communication details with the media being used to transfer the data over the
network. In most of the cases, this media is in the form of cables. Some of the
famous protocols that are used at this layer include ARP(Address resolution
protocol), PPP(Point to point protocol) etc.

TCP/IP Concept Example

One thing which is worth taking note is that the interaction between two
computers over the network through TCP/IP protocol suite takes place in the
form of a client server architecture.

Client requests for a service while the server processes the request for client.
Now, since we have discussed the underlying layers which help that data flow

27
from host to target over a network. Lets take a very simple example to make the
concept more clear.

Consider the data flow when you open a website.

As seen in the above figure, the information flows downward through each layer
on the host machine. At the first layer, since http protocol is being used, so an
HTTP request is formed and sent to the transport layer.

Here the protocol TCP assigns some more information(like sequence number,
source port number, destination port number etc) to the data coming from upper
layer so that the communication remains reliable i.e, a track of sent data and
received data could be maintained.

At the next lower layer, IP adds its own information over the data coming from
transport layer. This information would help in packet travelling over the network.
Lastly, the data link layer makes sure that the data transfer to/from the physical
media is done properly. Here again the communication done at the data link layer
can be reliable or unreliable.

This information travels on the physical media (like Ethernet) and reaches the
target machine.
Now, at the target machine (which in our case is the machine at which the
website is hosted) the same series of interactions happen, but in reverse order.

The packet is first received at the data link layer. At this layer the information
(that was stuffed by the data link layer protocol of the host machine) is read and
rest of the data is passed to the upper layer.

28
Similarly at the Network layer, the information set by the Network layer protocol
of host machine is read and rest of the information is passed on the next upper
layer. Same happens at the transport layer and finally the HTTP request sent by
the host application(your browser) is received by the target application(Website
server).

One would wonder what happens when information particular to each layer is
read by the corresponding protocols at target machine or why is it required? Well,
lets understand this by an example of TCP protocol present at transport layer. At
the host machine this protocol adds information like sequence number to each
packet sent by this layer.

At the target machine, when packet reaches at this layer, the TCP at this layer
makes note of the sequence number of the packet and sends an
acknowledgement (which is received seq number + 1).

Now, if the host TCP does not receive the acknowledgement within some
specified time, it re sends the same packet. So this way TCP makes sure that no
packet gets lost. So we see that protocol at every layer reads the information set
by its counterpart to achieve the functionality of the layer it represents.

1.16 OSI Model

The International Standard Organization has a well-defined model for

Communication Systems known as Open System Interconnection, or the OSI
Model. This layered model is a conceptualized view of how one system should
communicate with the other, using various protocols defined in each layer.
Further, each layer is designated to a well-defined part of communication system.
For example, the Physical layer defines all the components of physical nature,
i.e. wires, frequencies, pulse codes, voltage transmission etc. of a
communication system.

The OSI Model has the following seven layers:

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Application Layer (Layer-7):
This is where the user application sits that needs to transfer data between or
among hosts. For example: HTTP, file transfer application (FTP) and electronic
mail etc.

Presentation Layer (Layer-6):

This layer helps to understand data representation in one form on a host to other
host in their native representation. Data from the sender is converted to on-the-
wire data (general standard format) and at the receiver’s end it is converted to
the native representation of the receiver.

Session Layer (Layer-5):

This layer provides session management capabilities between hosts. For
example, if some host needs a password verification for access and if credentials
are provided then for that session password verification does not happen again.
This layer can assist in synchronization, dialog control and critical operation
management (e.g., an online bank transaction).

Transport Layer (Layer-4):

This layer provides end to end data delivery among hosts. This layer takes data
from the above layer and breaks it into smaller units called Segments and then
gives it to the Network layer for transmission.

Network Layer (Layer-3):

This layer helps to uniquely identify hosts beyond the subnets and defines the
path which the packets will follow or be routed to reach the destination.

Data Link Layer (Layer-2):

30
This layer takes the raw transmission data (signal, pulses etc.) from the Physical
Layer and makes Data Frames, and sends that to the upper layer and vice versa.
This layer also checks any transmission errors and sorts it out accordingly.

Physical Layer (Layer-1):

This layer deals with hardware technology and actual communication mechanism
such as signaling, voltage, cable type and length, etc.

31
 Unit - 2

2. Introduction to Information System

2.1 Definition of Data, Information and Knowledge

Data:
Facts and figures which relay something specific, but which are not organized in
any way and which provide no further information regarding patterns, context,
etc.

Information:
For data to become information, it must be contextualized, categorized,
calculated and condensed. Information gives a bigger picture, it is data with
relevance and purpose. It may convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps
indicate a pattern of sales for a given period of time.

Knowledge:
Knowledge is closely linked to doing and implies know-how and understanding.
The knowledge possessed by each individual is a product of his experience, and
encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his
surroundings.

2.2 Information System (IS)

It is often observed that term information system and information technology are
used interchangeably. Information technology is a subset of information systems.
Information systems consist of people, processes, machines and information
technology. The great advancement in information systems is due to
development in information technology and introduction of computers.

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An information system can be defined as set of coordinated network of
components, which act together towards producing, distributing and or
processing information. An important characteristic of computer-based
information systems information is precision, which may not apply to other types.
In any given organization information system can be classified based on the
usage of the information. Therefore, information systems in business can be
divided into operations support system and management support system.

Information Technology (IT)

Everyday knowingly or unknowingly, everyone is utilizing information technology.

It has grown rapidly and covers many areas of our day to day life like movies,
mobile phones, the internet, etc.

Information technology can be broadly defined as integration of computer with

telecommunication equipment for storing, retrieving, manipulating and storage of
data.

Information technology greatly enhances the performance of economy; it

provides edge in solving social issues as well as making information system
affordable and user friendly.

Information technology has brought big change in our daily life be it education,
life at home, work place, communication and even in function of government.

Information Technology Vs Information System (IT vs IS)

Information system and information technology are similar in many ways but at
the same time they are different. Following are some aspects about information
system as well as information technology.

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Origin: Information systems have been in existence since pre-mechanical era in
form of books, drawings, etc. However, the origin of information technology is
mostly associated with invention of computers.

Development: Information systems have undergone great deal of evolution, i.e.

from manual record keeping to the current cloud storage system. Similarly,
information technology is seeing constant changes with evermore faster
processor and constantly shrinking size of storage devices.

Business Application: Businesses have been using information systems for

example in form of manual books of accounts to modern TALLY. The mode of
communication has also gone under big change, for example, from a letter to
email. Information technology has helped drive efficiency across organization
with improved productivity and precision manufacturing.

2.3 Management information system (MIS)

A Management Information System is a systematic organization and presentation

of information that is generally required by the management of an organization.

The MIS data is mostly derived from various units of the organization. However it
is very difficult to say the exact structure of MIS as the structure and goals of
different types of organizations are different. Hence both the data and structure
of MIS is dependent on the type of organization and often customized to the
specific requirement of the management.

2.3.1 MIS and other information Systems

As an organization generally consists of various departments and involves

various types of functions, a single type of information system cannot fulfill the
needs of all these departments and functions. Hence different types of
information systems are designed for different purposes.

2.3.2 MIS and Transaction Processing systems

Transaction processing systems (TPS) deal with computerization of any type of

transactions such as financial transactions (receipts, payments etc.), sales
transactions (purchases, sales etc.). The purpose of TPS is:

✔ To track the routine activities and automate the day-to-day operations of

specific activities of an organization such as sales, production, payroll etc.

34
 ✔ To computerize day-to-day transactions like sales etc., print sales
vouchers, prepare daily reports, summary reports etc. This system intends
to reduce manual work and speed up operations by using computers.

At the operational level the tasks and goals are predefined and the processes are
highly structured. There are specific rules on how a payslip is to be calculated
and specific format on how a payslip is to be printed. Hence, in most cases,
ready made software packages are available for transaction processing systems.

Difference between MIS and TPS:

✔ While transaction processing systems are meant for minute to minute

activities, the Management Information systems are meant for medium
term planning and strategic decision making.

✔ If a transaction processing system halts for an hour or a day it will affect

the activities of the organization to incur loss. But the MIS data is not
computed so frequently.

✔ Transaction processing systems generally deal with high volume of data.

The MIS typically deals with much less volume of data.

✔ The transaction processing system is meant for operators and supervisors

involved in specific operations. The MIS is meant for middle and higher
level managers.

✔ Often the TPS is used as input to MIS. The summary of TPS is periodically
transferred to MIS.

2.3.3 MIS and Office Automation Systems (OAS)

Office automation systems use computerized systems to automate any workflow

of the organization. For example, a manual payroll system may be computerized
for an automatic calculation of salaries and other payments. Standard
acknowledgements may be automatically sent by emails. The replies to queries
may be standardized and to some extent automated.

✔ There are many office automation systems such as MS Office Suite, Star
Office (from Sun Microsystems), IBM Lotus symphony, Open Office etc.

35
 ✔ Office automation systems have nothing to do with MIS. But they are used
for all types of purposes at every level. Hence sometimes office
automation tools are useful for compiling and presenting MIS reports/
presentations.

2.3.4 MIS and Executive Support Systems (ESS)

Executive Support Systems are intended to provide necessary information to

Executives and senior management to take non-routine and strategic decisions.
ESS may get input from TPS of an organization and from other sources and
present the information in formats that may be useful to the senior management
to take effective decisions.

Thus as we saw above all these systems including MIS, DSS, ESS etc. are used
by the senior management to take effective decisions. But there are certain
differences between them so far as their field of application is concerned.

2.4 MIS and Decision Support (DSS)

Decision support systems are meant for assisting the decision makers (human
beings) in taking non-standard and complex decisions. Decision support systems
use intelligence like human beings to decide “what if this happens…”. Decision
support systems are intelligent systems and similar to expert systems.

✔ Decision Support Systems use data from both TPS and MIS. They also take
information input from other sources such as competitors’ reports, information
from websites.

✔ Decision support systems use various scientific methods and statistical

calculations to arrive at better decisions on a given condition.

✔ DSS do not necessarily follow conventional rules. For example, a

conventional system can compute the price of a product based on the cost of
production, but it cannot compute the price of product to be less than the cost
of production. But sometimes a decision may be taken to sell the product at a
price lower than the manufacturing cost (thereby incurring loss) because of
competitor’s price.

✔ The decision support systems are based on highly unstructured data. As the
problem environment is frequently changing there is no ready-made decision
support software. There are various software tools for advanced statistical

36
 calculations and presentations. The decision maker may use some of these
tools to fine-tune his decisions.

2.5 Expert System

The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex
problems in a particular domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence
and expertise.

Characteristics of Expert Systems

✔ High performance

✔ Understandable

✔ Reliable

✔ Highly responsive

Capabilities of Expert Systems

✔ The expert systems are capable of

✔ Advising

✔ Instructing and assisting human in decision making

✔ Deriving a solution

✔ Diagnosing

✔ Explaining

✔ Interpreting input

✔ Predicting results

✔ Suggesting alternative options to a problem

Components of Expert Systems

✔ Knowledge Base

✔ Inference Engine

✔ User Interface

Expert Systems Limitations

37
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require significant developme

✔ Limitations of the technology

✔ Difficult knowledge acquisition

✔ ES are difficult to maintain

✔ High development costs

Applications of Expert System

⮚ Design Domain - Camera lens design, automobile design

⮚ Medical Domain - Diagnosis Systems to deduce cause of disease from

observed data, conduction medical operations on humans
⮚ Monitoring Systems - Comparing data continuously with observed system
or with prescribed behavior such as leakage monitoring in long petroleum
pipeline.
⮚ Finance/Commerce - Detection of possible fraud, suspicious transactions,
stock market trading, Airline scheduling, cargo scheduling.

2.6 Types of Information System (Functional)

Functional Information System is based on the various business functions such

as Production, Marketing, Finance and Personnel etc. These departments or
functions are known as functional areas of business. Each functional area
requires applications to perform all information processing related to the function.
The popular functional areas of the business organization are:

2.6.1 Human Resource Information System

This functional information system supports the functions of human resource

management of an organization. The human resource management function, in
its narrow sense, it also known as personnel management .The function involves:

✔ Manpower planning.

✔ Staffing

✔ Training and development

38
 ✔ Performance evaluation, and

✔ Separation activities

2.6.2 Financial Information System

A financial information system (FIS) accumulates and analyzes financial data

used for optimal financial planning and forecasting decisions and outcomes. FIS
is used along with decision support system (DSS) and helps a firm attain its
financial objectives.

2.6.3 Marketing Information System

The marketing information system distributes the relevant information to the

marketers who can make the efficient decisions related to the marketing
operations viz. Pricing, packaging, new product development, distribution, media,
promotion, etc.

This sub-system of management information system provides information about

various functions of the marketing system of an organization. Marketing is
another functional area of the business organization, which is engaged in
marketing (selling) of its products to its customers.

Important functions of the marketing process include the following.

✔ Pricing

✔ Packaging

✔ New product development

✔ Distribution

✔ Media

✔ Promotion

2.7 Information system from managerial perspective

The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly

related to:

✔ the level of management decision making

✔ the amount of structure in the decision situations managers face

39
The levels of management decision making that must be supported by
information technology in a successful organization (independently of its size,
shape, and participants), are often shown as a managerial pyramid as shown
below

2.7.1 Strategic management:

A part of a strategic planning process top executives develop overall

organizational goals, strategies, policies, and monitor the strategic performance
of the organization and its overall direction in the political, economic, and
competitive business environment

2.7.2 Tactical management:

Business unit managers and business professionals in self-directed teams

develop short- and medium-range plans, schedules, budgets and specify
policies, procedures, and business objectives for their sub-units of the company,
and allocate resources and monitor the performance of their organizational sub-
units, including departments, divisions, process teams, project teams, and other
workgroups.

2.7.3 Operational management:

Operating managers and members of self-directed teams develop short-range

plans (e.g. weekly production schedules), and direct the use of resources and the
performance of tasks according to procedures and within budgets and schedules
they establish for the teams and other workgroups of the organization.

40
2.8 Executive Information System (EIS) or Executive Support Systems
(ESS)

An executive information system (EIS), also known as an executive support

system (ESS), is a type of management information system that facilitates and
supports senior executive information and decision-making needs

Executive support systems are intended to provide necessary information to

executives and senior management to take non-routine and strategic decisions.
ESS may get input from TPS of an organization and from other sources and
present the information in formats that may be useful to the senior management
to take effective decisions.

Thus as we saw above all these systems including MIS, DSS, ESS etc. are used
by the senior management to take effective decisions. But there are certain
differences between them so far as their field of application is concerned.

2.9 Data Base

Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of facts and

figures that can be processed to produce information.

Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing information,

which is based on facts. For example, if we have data about marks obtained by
all students, we can then conclude about toppers and average marks.

2.10 Database Management System(DBMS)

DBMS A database management system is the software system that allows users
to define, create and maintain a database and provides controlled access to the
data.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is basically a collection of programs

that enables users to store, modify, and extract information from a database as
per the requirements. DBMS is an intermediate layer between programs and the
data. Programs access the DBMS, which then accesses the data. There are
different types of DBMS ranging from small systems that run on personal
computers to huge systems that run on mainframes. The following are main
examples of database applications:

✔ Computerized library systems

✔ Automated teller machines

✔ Flight reservation systems

41
2.11 Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS

Advantages of DBMS

i. Controlling Redundancy: In file system, each application has its own

private files, which cannot be shared between multiple applications. 1:his
can often lead to considerable redundancy in the stored data, which
results in wastage of storage space. By having centralized database most
of this can be avoided. It is not possible that all redundancy should be
eliminated. Sometimes there are sound business and technical reasons
for· maintaining multiple copies of the same data. In a database system,
however this redundancy can be controlled.

ii. Integrity can be enforced: Integrity of data means that data in database
is always accurate, such that incorrect information cannot be stored in
database. In order to maintain the integrity of data, some integrity
constraints are enforced on the database. A DBMS should provide
capabilities for defining and enforcing the constraints.

iii. Inconsistency can be avoided: When the same data is duplicated and
changes are made at one site, which is not propagated to the other site, it
gives rise to inconsistency and the two entries regarding the same data
will not agree. At such times the data is said to be inconsistent. So, if the
redundancy is removed chances of having inconsistent data is also
removed.

iv. Data can be shared: The data can be shared by multiple applications in
centralized DBMS as compared to file system, applications can be
developed to operate against the same stored data.

v. Standards can be enforced: Since DBMS is a central system, hence

standard can be enforced easily.

vi. Restricting unauthorized access: When multiple users share a

database, it is likely that some users will not be authorized to access all
information in the database. A DBMS provides security and authorization
subsystem, which the DBA uses to create accounts and to specify account
restrictions. The DBMS then enforce these restrictions automatically.

vii. Concurrency Control: DBMS systems provide mechanisms to provide

concurrent access of data to multiple users.

42
viii. Providing Backup and Recovery: A DBMS provides facilities for
recovering from hardware or software failures.

Disadvantages of DBMS

i. Complexity: The provision of the functionality that is expected of a good

DBMS makes the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software.
Database designers, developers, database administrators and end-users
must understand this functionality to take full advantage of it. Failure to
understand the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have
serious consequences for an organization.

ii. Size: The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an
extremely large piece of software, occupying many megabytes of disk
space and requiring substantial amounts of memory to run efficiently.

iii. Performance: Typically, a File Based system is written for a specific

application, such as invoicing. As result, performance is generally very
good. However, the DBMS is written to be more general, to cater for many
applications rather than just one. The effect is that some applications may
not run as fast as they used to.

iv. Higher impact of a failure: The centralization of resources increases the

vulnerability of the system. Since all users and applications rely on the
availabi1ity of the DBMS, the failure of any component can bring
operations to a halt.

v. Cost of DBMS: The cost of DBMS varies significantly, depending on the

environment and functionality provided. There is also the recurrent annual
maintenance cost.

vi. Additional Hardware costs: The disk storage requirements for the DBMS
and the database may necessitate the purchase of additional storage
space. Furthermore, to achieve the required performance it may be
necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a machine
dedicated to running the DBMS. The procurement of additional hardware
results in further expenditure.

2.12 Ethical and Social Issues in IS

Information systems have made many businesses successful today. Some

companies such as Google, Facebook, EBay, etc. would not exist without
information technology. However, improper use of information technology can
create problems for the organization and employees.

43
Criminals gaining access to credit card information can lead to financial loss to
the owners of the cards or financial institute. Using organization information
systems i.e. posting inappropriate content on Facebook or Twitter using a
company account can lead to lawsuits and loss of business.

Some of the threats that information system face and what can be done to
eliminate or minimize the damage if the threat were to materialize are as follows

Computer viruses – Computer viruses are unwanted malicious software

programs or piece of codes that interfere with the functioning of computer. They
spread through contaminated files, data and insecure networks. Once it enters
your system it can replicate to produce copies of itself. These copies of virus
enable it to spreads from one program to other program of computer and from
one infected computer to other computer.

The threats posed by viruses can be eliminated or the impact minimized by using
Anti-Virus software and following laid down security best practices of an
organization.

Unauthorized access – the standard convention is to use a combination of a

username and a password. Hackers have learnt how to circumvent these
controls if the user does not follow security best practices. Most organizations
have added the use of mobile devices such as phones to provide an extra layer
of security.

Data loss – If the data center caught fire or was flooded, the hardware with the
data can be damaged, and the data on it will be lost. As a standard security best
practice, most organizations keep backups of the data at remote places. The
backups are made periodically and are usually put in more than one remote area.

Ethics refers to rules of right and wrong that people use to make choices to guide
their behaviors. Ethics in MIS seek to protect and safeguard individuals and
society by using information systems responsibly. Most professions usually have
defined a code of ethics or code of conduct guidelines that all professionals
affiliated with the profession must adhere to.

In a nutshell, a code of ethics makes individuals acting on their free will

responsible and accountable for their actions.

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 Unit - 3

3. Multimedia Concepts

3.1 Multimedia

Multimedia is the integration of multiple forms of media. This includes text,

graphics, audio, video, etc.

For example, a presentation involving audio and video clips would be considered
a "multimedia presentation." Educational software that involves animations,
sound, and text is called "multimedia software." CDs and DVDs are often
considered to be "multimedia formats" since they can store a lot of data and most
forms of multimedia require a lot of disk space.

3.2 Multimedia Devices

Types of multimedia devices include microphones, speakers, cameras and

headphones. A multimedia device is computer hardware designed to display,
store, record or play multimedia content such as photos, music and videos.

People use multimedia audio devices to record and play audio such as speech,
sound effects and music. The most common multimedia device for recording
audio is a microphone, which can be an internal microphone built into a computer
or an external microphone attached to a computer with a plug. Some headsets
provide a microphone to record audio along with speakers in the headphones to
play audio. Other devices that play audio are external speakers and earphones.

Multimedia video devices are designed for recording and playing videos,
animations and slide shows. Recording devices include cameras, which are often
built into a computer or phone. Dedicated camcorders are separate devices that
record live action and can be attached to a computer with a cable. Display
screens and digital projectors are multimedia devices for playing video.

People use similar devices to take and display photos. For example, they use
cameras to take photos and display screens to view them. Cameras can be built
into a computer, making them webcams. They can be separate devices, such as
a point-and-shoot digital camera, and they can also be built into a phone.

3.3 Multimedia Formats

Multimedia elements (like audio or video) are stored in media files. The most
common way to discover the type of a file, is to look at the file extension.
Multimedia files have formats and different extensions
like: .swf, .wav, .mp3, .mp4, .mpg, .wmv, and .avi.

45
3.4 Compression / Decompression Issues

Most people have downloaded large files, such as music or video, from the
Internet. Because of the large size of these files, downloading them can take
hours. To solve this problem, and make better use of disk space, large files are
compressed, using various software. Once downloaded, they can then be
decompressed, and viewed, using a decompression program.

How Compression Works

Compression software works by using mathematical equations to scan file data

and look for repeating patterns. The software then replaces these repeating
patterns with smaller pieces of data, or code, that take up less room. Once the
compression software has identified a repeating pattern, it replaces that pattern
with a smaller code that also shows the locations of the pattern. For example, in
a picture, compression software replaces every instance of the color red with a
code for red that also indicates everywhere in the picture red occurs.

Types of Compression

Compressed files usually end with .zip, .sit and .tar. These are called extensions,
and they indicate different compression formats--different types of software used
to compress files. For PCs, .zip is most common, .sit is used often with Macs and
.tar used with Linux. When you see a file with one of these extensions, it may be
either a single large file or a group of files bundled together.

Lossless Compression

Lossless compression is a way to compress files without losing any data. This
method shoves the data closer together by replacing it with a type of shorthand. It
can reduce file sizes by around half. The .zip format uses lossless compression.
With this form, the file decompresss to provide an exact duplicate of the
compressed file, with the same quality. However, it cannot compress files to a
really small size, making it less useful for very large files.

Lossy Compression

To make files up to 80 percent smaller, lossy compression is used. Lossy

compression software removes some redundant data from a file. Because data is
removed, the quality of the decompressed file is less than the original. This
method compresses graphic, audio and video files, and the slight damage to
quality may not very noticeable. JPEG uses lossy compression, which is why files
converted to JPEG lose some quality. MP3 also uses lossy compression to fit a
great deal of music files in a small space, although the sound quality is lower
than with WAV, which uses lossless compression.

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Decompression

In order to use a compressed file, you must first decompress it. The software
used to decompress depends on how the file was compressed in the first place.
To decompress a .zip file you need software, such as WinZip. To decompress
a .sit file, you need the Stuffit Expander program. WinZip does not
decompress .sit files, but one version of StuffIt Expander can decompress
both .zip and .sit files. Files ending in .sea or .exe are called self-extracting files.
These are compressed files that do not require any special software to
decompress. Just click on the file and it will automatically decompress and open.

3.5 Business Applications of Multimedia

Communication is vital in startup businesses. Now that the communication

landscape has evolved along with technological changes, businesses should
also know how to take advantage and how to maximize the opportunities along
with these developments.

Information that can only be delivered through texts on a traditional print platform,
such as newspapers and magazines, can now be conveyed through multimedia
– photos, graphics, videos, and even social media.

Advertisements that used to be published on magazines can now be watched on

a webcast or listened to on a podcast on your mobile phones and tablet through
free apps on IOS and Android.

For business, these changes in the communication landscape could mean that
publicity and promotions of products and services are no longer limited to the
three traditional platforms – print, radio, and television.

Other online platforms like blogs, websites, social media sites such as Facebook
and Twitter, among others, are now available and accessible. These multimedia
tools and platforms, if used suitably, can help entrepreneurs and startup founders
in growing the business.

Application of multimedia for the below business environment

3.5.1 Education and Training

In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses

(popularly called CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia. Edutainment is
an informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment,

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especially multimedia entertainment. The idea of media convergence is also
becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education.

Defined as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data

(and productivity applications) and video that now share resources and interact
with each other, media convergence is rapidly changing the curriculum in
universities all over the world. Likewise, it is changing the availability, or lack
thereof, of jobs requiring this savvy technological skill.

3.5.2 Entertainment

Multimedia is heavily used in the entertainment industry,especially to develop

special effects in movies and animations.

Multimedia games are a popular pastime and are software programs available
either as CD-ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features.
Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just
sitting by as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia

3.5.3 Business

Business applications in multimedia are presentation, training, marketing,

advertising, product demos, catalogues, networked communication and
voicemail.

Presentation are very useful in many aspects of work and life and are important
in business for sales, training, teaching, lectures and entertainment.

Presentation can be oral or using multimedia, power point presentations,

educational or training sessions to discuss a particular subject within a group.
Using multimedia in business marketing, it is easy to persuade customers to buy
products. Business has different kinds of customers such as teenager, elderly
people etc, hence we can use multimedia customer showcase our products and
convince customers easily.

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 Unit 4 - Internet & Security Issues

Internet

The Internet can be defined as the wired or wireless mode of communication

through which one can receive, transmit information that can be used for single
or multiple operations. The Internet is the global system of interconnected
computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices
worldwide. It is a network of networks.

History

This marvelous tool has quite a history that holds its roots in the cold war
scenario. A need was realized to connect the top universities of the United States
so that they can share all the research data without having too much of a time
lag. This attempt was a result of Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
which was formed at the end of 1950s just after the Russians had climbed the
space era with the launch of Sputnik. After the ARPA got success in 1969, it
didn’t take the experts long to understand that how much potential can this
interconnection tool have. In 1971 Ray Tomlinson made a system to send
electronic mail. This was a big step in the making as this opened gateways for
remote computer accessing internet.

During all this time, rigorous paper work was being done in all the elite research
institutions. From giving every computer an address to setting out the rules,
everything was getting penned down. 1973 saw the preparations for the vital
TCP/IP and Ethernet services. At the end of 1970s, Usenet groups had surfaced
up. By the time the 80s had started, IBM came up with its PC based on Intel 8088
processor which was widely used by students and universities for it solved the
purpose of easy computing. By 1982, the Defence Agencies made the TCP/IP
compulsory and the term “internet” was coined.

In 1992, internet browser called “Mosaic” came into existence. One of the very
popular internet browsers, Netscape Navigator made its debut in 1994 which
ultimately went to compete with Microsoft’s Internet Explorer.

Addressing and architecture

Every computer on the Internet is assigned a unique Internet Protocol (IP)

address, which currently is a 32-bit number represented by four strings of
numbers ranging from 0 to 255 separated by periods. For instance, the IP
address of www.microsoft.com is 207.46.250.119. When a user sends a
message to another user on the Internet, the message is first decomposed into
packets using the TCP protocol. Each packet contains its destination address.
The packets are then sent from the client to the network server and from there on
to as many other servers as necessary to arrive at a specific computer with a
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known address. At the destination address, the packets are reassembled into the
original message.

The Domain Name System

Because it would be incredibly difficult for Internet users to remember strings of
12 numbers, the Domain Name System (DNS) converts domain names to IP
addresses. The domain name is the English-like name that corresponds to the
unique 32-bit numeric IP address for each computer connected to the Internet.
DNS servers maintain a database containing IP addresses mapped to their
corresponding domain names. To access a computer on the Internet, users need
only specify its domain name. DNS has a hierarchical structure (see Figure 7.6).
At the top of the DNS hierarchy is the root domain. The child domain of the root is
called a top-level domain, and the child domain of a top-level domain is called is
a secondlevel domain. Top-level domains are two- and three-character names
you are familiar with from surfing the Web, for example, .com, .edu, .gov, and the
various country codes such as .ca for Canada or .it for Italy. Second-level
domains have two parts, designating a top-level name and a second-level name
—such as buy.com, nyu.edu, or amazon.ca. A host name at the bottom of the
hierarchy designates a specific computer on either the Internet or a private
network.

Internet Architecture and Governance

Internet data traffic is carried over transcontinental high-speed backbone
networks that generally operate in the range of 45 Mbps to 2.5 Gbps (see Figure
7.7). These trunk lines are typically owned by long-distance telephone
companies (called network service providers) or by national governments.

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Local connection lines are owned by regional telephone and cable television
companies in the United States that connect retail users in homes and
businesses to the Internet. The regional networks lease access to ISPs, private
companies, and government institutions. Each organization pays for its own
networks and its own local Internet connection services, a part of which is paid to
the long-distance trunk line owners. Individual Internet users pay ISPs for using
their service, and they generally pay a flat subscription fee, no matter how much
or how little they use the Internet.

No one “owns” the Internet, and it has no formal management. However,

worldwide Internet policies are established by a number of professional
organizations and government bodies, including the Internet Architecture Board
(IAB), which helps define the overall structure of the Internet; the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which assigns IP
addresses; and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which sets Hypertext
Markup Language and other programming standards for the Web. These
organizations influence government agencies, network owners, ISPs, and
software developers with the goal of keeping the Internet operating as efficiently
as possible.

The Future Internet: IPv6

The Internet was not originally designed to handle the transmission of massive
quantities of data and billions of users. Because many corporations and
governments have been given large blocks of millions of IP addresses to
accommodate current and future workforces, and because of sheer Internet
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population growth, the world is about to run out of available IP addresses using
the old addressing convention. The old addressing system is being replaced by a
new version of the IP addressing schema called IPv6 (Internet Protocol version
6), which contains 128-bit addresses (2 to the power of 128).

WWW

WWW stands for World Wide Web. The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging
information between computers on the Internet, tying them together into a vast
collection of interactive multimedia resources.

Evolution
World Wide Web was created by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN in
Geneva. World Wide Web came into existence as a proposal by him, to allow
researchers to work together effectively and efficiently at CERN. Eventually it
became World Wide Web.

WWW Architecture
WWW architecture is divided into several layers as shown in the following
diagram:

Identifiers and Character Set

Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) is used to uniquely identify resources on the
web and UNICODE makes it possible to built web pages that can be read and
write in human languages.

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Syntax
XML (Extensible Markup Language) helps to define common syntax in semantic
web.

Data Interchange
Resource Description Framework (RDF) framework helps in defining core
representation of data for web. RDF represents data about resource in graph
form.

Taxonomies
RDF Schema (RDFS) allows more standardized description of taxonomies and
other ontological constructs.

Ontologies
Web Ontology Language (OWL) offers more constructs over RDFS. It comes in
following three versions:
⮚ OWL Lite for taxonomies and simple constraints.

⮚ OWL DL for full description logic support.

⮚ OWL for more syntactic freedom of RDF

Rules
RIF and SWRL offers rules beyond the constructs that are available from RDFs
and OWL. Simple Protocol and RDF Query Language (SPARQL) is SQL like
language used for querying RDF data and OWL Ontologies.

Proof
All semantic and rules that are executed at layers below Proof and their result will
be used to prove deductions.

Cryptography
Cryptography means such as digital signature for verification of the origin of
sources is used.

User Interface and Applications

On the top of layer User interface and Applications layer is built for user
interaction.

Browser

Web Browser is an application software that allows us to view and explore

information on the web. User can request for any web page by just entering a
URL into address bar.

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Web browser can show text, audio, video, animation and more. It is the
responsibility of a web browser to interpret text and commands contained in the
web page.

Earlier the web browsers were text-based while now a days graphical-based or
voice-based web browsers are also available. Following are the most common
web browser available today:

Browser Vendor

Internet Explorer Microsoft

Google Chrome Google

Mozilla Firefox Mozilla

Netscape Navigator Netscape Communications Corp.

Architecture
There are a lot of web browser available in the market. All of them interpret and
display information on the screen however their capabilities and structure varies
depending upon implementation. But the most basic component that all web
browser must exhibit are listed below:

✔ Controller/Dispatcher

✔ Interpreter

✔ Client Programs

Controller works as a control unit in CPU. It takes input from the keyboard or
mouse, interpret it and make other services to work on the basis of input it
receives.

Interpreter receives the information from the controller and execute the
instruction line by line. Some interpreter are mandatory while some are optional
For example, HTML interpreter program is mandatory and java interpreter is
optional.

Client Program describes the specific protocol that will be used to access a
particular service. Following are the client programs tat are commonly used:

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 ✔ HTTP

✔ SMTP

✔ FTP

✔ POP

Servers

Web server is a computer where the web content is stored. Basically web server
is used to host the web sites but there exists other web servers also such as
gaming, storage, FTP, email etc.

Web site is collection of web pages while web server is a software that respond
to the request for web resources.

Web Server Working

Web server respond to the client request in either of the following two ways:

⮚ Sending the file to the client associated with the requested URL.

⮚ Generating response by invoking a script and communicating with

database

Key Points

⮚ When client sends request for a web page, the web server search for the
requested page if requested page is found then it will send it to client with
an HTTP response.

⮚ If the requested web page is not found, web server will the send an HTTP
response:Error 404 Not found.

⮚ If client has requested for some other resources then the web server will
contact to the application server and data store to construct the HTTP
response.

Examples
Following table describes the most leading web servers available today:
S.N. Web Server Description

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 Apache HTTP Server
This is the most popular web server in the world developed by the Apache Software
1 Foundation. Apache web server is an open source software and can be installed on almost
all operating systems including Linux, UNIX, Windows, FreeBSD, Mac OS X and more.
About 60% of the web server machines run the Apache Web Server.

Internet Information Services (IIS)

The Internet Information Server (IIS) is a high performance Web Server from Microsoft. This
2. web server runs on Windows NT/2000 and 2003 platforms (and may be on upcoming new
Windows version also). IIS comes bundled with Windows NT/2000 and 2003; Because IIS
is tightly integrated with the operating system so it is relatively easy to administer it.

Sun Java System Web Server

This web server from Sun Microsystems is suited for medium and large web sites. Though
the server is free it is not open source. It however, runs on Windows, Linux and UNIX
3.
platforms. The Sun Java System web server supports various languages, scripts and
technologies required for Web 2.0 such as JSP, Java Servlets, PHP, Perl, Python, and
Ruby on Rails, ASP and Coldfusion etc.

Search engines

Search Engine refers to a huge database of internet resources such as web

pages, newsgroups, programs, images etc. It helps to locate information on
World Wide Web.

User can search for any information by passing query in form of keywords or
phrase. It then searches for relevant information in its database and return to the
user.

Search Engine Components

Generally there are three basic components of a search engine as listed below:

⮚ Web Crawler

⮚ Database

⮚ Search Interfaces

Web crawler
It is also known as spider or bots. It is a software component that traverses the
web to gather information.

Database

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All the information on the web is stored in database. It consists of huge web
resources.

Search Interfaces
This component is an interface between user and the database. It helps the user
to search through the database.

Search Engine Working

Web crawler, database and the search interface are the major component of a
search engine that actually makes search engine to work. Search engines make
use of Boolean expression AND, OR, NOT to restrict and widen the results of a
search. Following are the steps that are performed by the search engine:

⮚ The search engine looks for the keyword in the index for predefined
database instead of going directly to the web to search for the keyword.

⮚ It then uses software to search for the information in the database. This
software component is known as web crawler.

⮚ Once web crawler finds the pages, the search engine then shows the
relevant web pages as a result. These retrieved web pages generally
include title of page, size of text portion, first several sentences etc.

⮚ User can click on any of the search results to open it.

Internet services

Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text,

graphics, sound and software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four
different categories of Internet Services.

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There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of
information with individuals or groups. The following table gives a brief
introduction to these services:

Email

E-mail or Electronic mail is a paperless method of sending messages, notes or

letters from one person to another or even many people at the same time via
Internet. E-mail is very fast compared to the normal post. E-mail messages
usually take seconds to arrive at their destination. One can send messages
anytime of the day or night, and, it will get delivered immediately.

Remote Login

Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet. Telnet or remote

computing is telecommunication utility software, which uses available
telecommunication facility and allows you become a user on a remote computer.

Once you gain access to remote computer, you can use it for the intended
purpose. The TELNET works in a very step by step procedure. The commands
typed on the client computer are sent to the local Internet Service Provider (ISP),
and then from the ISP to the remote computer that you have gained access. Most
of the ISP provides facility to TELENET into your own account from another city
and check your e-mail while you are traveling or away on business.

Chatting

Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time. Online
chatting is a text-based communication between two or more people over the
network. In this, the text message is delivered in real time and people get
immediate response.

Examples:

Yahoo! It offers PC-PC, PC-phone, Phone-to-PC, file transfer, webcam

Messenger hosting, text messaging service etc.
It is an instant messaging service application available on smart
WhatsApp
phones.
It offers instant chatting, sending and receiving mails, and video
Gmail
calling services.

Messaging groups

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Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo
messenger, MSN messenger. Instant messaging is a software utility that allows
IM users to communicate by sending text messages, files, and images. Some of
the IMs also support voice and video calls.

Example:
It is an instant messaging service application available on smart
WhatsApp
phones.

Social networking

Social Networking refers to grouping of individuals and organizations together via

some medium, in order to share thoughts, interests, and activities.

There are several web based social network services are available such as
facebook, twitter, linkedin, Google+ etc. which offer easy to use and interactive
interface to connect with people with in the country an overseas as well. There
are also several mobile based social networking services in for of apps such as
Whatsapp etc.

The following table describes some of the famous social networking services
provided over web and mobile:

S.N
Service Description
.
Facebook
1. Allows to share text, photos, video etc. It also offers interesting online
games.
Twitter
2. Twitter allows the user to send and reply messages in form of tweets.
These tweets are the small messages, generally include 140+ characters.
Linkedin
3.
Linkedin is a business and professional networking site.
Whatsapp
4. It is a mobile based messaging app. It allows to send text, video, and audio
messages

Internet in Business

Internet is important for businesses. It has revolutionised trades and emerged as

a powerful tool for businesses. This intelligent web resource allows merchants
and buyers to access the information from any location at any time. It doesn’t
have geographical limits, time zones and eliminates the need of a physical office.

59
Due to its incredible potential, it is an effective platform for customers and
entrepreneurs for enabling transactions, right from email services to e-shopping.

Importance of internet in business

⮚ Communication: Internet is an excellent communication medium. It allows

you to instantly communicate with clients, customers, sales persons and
employees. You can communicate with others through messages, emails,
video calls and social networks. One of the greatest advantages of using this
mass media is that you can interact with different people simultaneously. For
instance, you can send emails and can talk to your clients simultaneously.

⮚ Advertisement: During recent times, the internet has become a major

concourse for advertisements. Recent surveys say that 95% of global
population uses internet. So, it can reach the targeted customers within
seconds when compared to TV, radio and Banner advertisements.

⮚ Entertainment: It is the best entertainment channel. For instance, there is a

great demand for entertainment firms. Gamers will always be in hunt of new
games. Design and develop new games which may increase your profit rates.

⮚ Information: 90% of users surf online for tracking desired information. Before
purchasing products, buyers may look for information about the products or
services on the net. They may check for product functionalities and features.
Make sure to provide unique information about your products which builds
trust.

⮚ Research: If you’re not aware of marketing skills, research online. Identify the
best marketing strategies which give best results. If you’re unable to manage
your finances, take the help of financial adviser who can give better solutions
to cut down your business expenses. Research online where you can find
required information within seconds.

⮚ Publishing: Internet is a cost effective source which helps you in publishing

important news. You can save huge dollars by shifting to paperless
distribution of data.

⮚ Recruitments: If you’re in search of new employees, internet is the best

medium. Today, 60% of recruitments are done online. You can directly
contact candidates and can conduct the interview right from your PC.

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⮚ Sales: Internet is the biggest marketing channel. You can promote your
business online and can attract the global customers. Your business can
expand beyond horizons and can target the potential dealers. Compared to
traditional marketing, online marketing increases your productivity rates.

⮚ Better services: Through internet, you can solve customer issues more
quickly and rapidly. You can connect with your targeted clients and can get
their valuable feedback. Listen to your customer’s words. You can ask them
to rate your products which may increase your business standards.

⮚ Eliminate risks: You can eliminate business risks. For instance, in traditional
business, you may require middle man to market your products. He acts as a
channel between entrepreneur and customers. By shifting to online trade, you
can not only eliminate risks but can also cut down costs as you do not require
a middleman.

e-commerce definition

E-Commerce or Electronic Commerce is a methodology of modern business

which addresses the need of business organizations, vendors and customers to
reduce cost and improve the quality of goods and services while increasing the
speed of delivery.
E-commerce or electronic commerce refers to the process of buying and selling
on the internet. The birth of e-commerce is believed to occur in 1994, with the
first purchase made over the internet in Philadelphia, USA. Generally, e-
commerce points to online buying activities that happen over a computer or
laptop. E-commerce refers to paperless exchange of business information using
following ways.

⮚ Electronic Data Exchange (EDI)

⮚ Electronic Mail (e-mail)

⮚ Electronic Bulletin Boards

⮚ Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT)

⮚ Other Network-based technologies

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Features
E-Commerce provides following features

⮚ Non-Cash Payment
E-Commerce enables use of credit cards, debit cards, smart cards, electronic fu

⮚ 24x7 Service availability

E-commerce automates business of enterprises and services provided b

⮚ Advertising / Marketing
E-commerce increases the reach of advertising of products and services of busine

⮚ Improved Sales
Using E-Commerce, orders for the products can be generated any time, any where

⮚ Support
E-Commerce provides various ways to provide pre sales and post sales assistance to provi

⮚ Inventory Management
Using E-Commerce, inventory management of products becomes autom

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 ⮚ Communication improvement
E-Commerce provides ways for faster, efficient, reliable commu

M-Commerce
M-commerce refers to online payment transactions that happen over a mobile
device. The advancement of mobile connectivity, security, and apps development
has spurred retailers to offer services, products, and payment gateways over the
smartphone. The m-commerce trend is also spurred by the increasing population
that own smartphones.

Online spending driven by m-commerce in the US has been increasing steadily

for the past few years. In 2022, the total revenue driven by transaction over the
mobile is expected to hit $423.24 million. The positive trend will see more
retailers jostling for a space in the consumer’s mobile phones.

Difference Between M-Commerce And E-Commerce

1. Mobility: E-commerce is performed over computers and laptops with internet

connections. Such technologies were once marveled at, but with users turning to
mobile phones, computers become severely lacking in mobility.

It is tedious to flip open your laptop just to order a pair of sneakers online.
However, shoppers can easily whip up their mobile phone and start browsing for
the right products on an m-commerce app.

The difference between the ability to make purchases easily on the spot and
logging into an e-commerce website later favors retailers with e-commerce apps.
Impulsive shoppers are also better targeted by means of instant access to the
shopping cart.

With the introduction of mobile payment wallets like Apple Pay and Android Pay,
mobile users are given more choices to make instantaneous transactions on the
spot.

2. Push Notification: Another obvious advantage m-commerce has over e-

commerce is the use of push notification on mobile phones. Compared to
blasting promotional letters to the email list, push notifications are perceived to be
less intrusive.

From a retailer point of view, push notifications are deemed to be more effective.
Promotion emails risk being delivered to the spam folder or ignored by users.
Push notification, on the other hand, is delivered instantly to the user’s mobile.

Today, push notifications can also include beautifully-rendered images of the

products, which leads the users to the m-commerce app with a single touch. With

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an average opt-in rate of 67.5%, the chances of getting the attention of users
with push notification are high.

3. Location Tracking: The only metric used to track e-commerce shoppers on

computers is the IP address. The IP of computers gives a loose indication of the
whereabouts of shoppers and is limited in terms of locational advertising
strategies.

On the other hand, m-commerce leverage on the various positional tracking

technologies on the mobile phones of users, such as GPS, WiFi, and cellular
connections. The accuracy of the location can be used by retailers to alert users
of promotions within their vicinity.

For example, a retail outlet that is having an on-going sales can send
notifications to users within a 5-miles radius. A fitness gym could target
consumers in the vicinity with yearly membership signups by piggy-backing on a
navigational app.

4. Security: According to Shift Processing, credit card frauds increased by

18.5% in 2018 and resulted in a loss of a whopping $24.26 billion. The e-
commerce platform, which is mostly transacted over credit cards, puts the
financial safety of users at stake.

Even without massive breaches of credit card data, the accounts of e-commerce
shoppers aren’t exactly safe. The security provided by a username and password
isn’t the best protection against modern-day hackers.

M-commerce, where transactions are conducted over a mobile phone, has the
potential to incorporate better security. The use of phone identification as a
second layer of security removes the possibility of a fraud committed remotely.

For additional security measures, existing biometrics technologies such as facial

recognition or iris-scanning can be introduced as an option in the m-commerce
app.

5. Omnichannel: There is a shift in multi-channel to omnichannel in the online

retailing industry. Brands are expected to provide a seamless shopping
experience instead of targetting different demographics with different messages.

E-commerce, which is highly dependent on computers, is limited in the sense

that it has lesser mobility. Meanwhile, m-commerce has found itself in the right
position, to close the gaps between brands and consumers.

Mobile apps technologies have allowed better engagement with retailers and
consumers. It will enable personalization and a customized shopping experience
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that is unique to users. Retailers are also able to immediately respond to the
needs of a shopper and suggest recommendations, which results in higher
conversion.

Advantages of M-Commerce
For those who are used to the traditional e-commerce platforms, making a shift
towards m-commerce can be challenging. However, there are proven benefits
that will make the shift worthy in every business sense.

1)Gain Better Customer Insights: Understanding the behavior of shoppers is a

necessity for retailers to remain competitive in their respective niche. Mobile
apps, which are a crucial component of m-commerce, allows retailers to collect
crucial information of the users. Consumer-oriented data such as browsing
behavior, shopping interests, and time spent on the app are helpful analytics.

With the rise of big data and AI, retailers can send better-targeted promotions
that are more likely to engage and convert. The historical data collected also
helps retailers to strengthen their branding efforts by prioritizing elements that
resonate with their shoppers.

2)Increases Revenue: All the numbers point to the potential of revenue increase
when m-commerce is put to proper use. According to Oberlo, global m-
commerce revenue is expected to hit $2.91 trillion in 2020, which is a remarkable
25.4% increase than the previous year.

Internet users are spending more of their time on mobile phones, and shopping
for products is a few touches away. Besides that, push notifications with tailor-
made promotions draw users’ attention and lead to better conversion.

M-commerce also encourages purchases. The checkout process is more

straightforward, where users can complete checkout with a few touches on the
screen. Naturally, this would lead to more sales and less discarded shopping
carts.

3)Enhance Customer Experience: The secret to a thriving business is to keep

its customers continuously engaged. In other words, your customers need to
perceive that they are given the best experience ever. This goes beyond the
ability to browse and shop at any place or time.

M-commerce enhances the customer experience by increasing the availability of

support to customers. A responsive live-chat on the app or the ease of refunds
and exchange could strengthen brand loyalty amongst customers.

Personalization, whether in the form of product listings or promotions, gives off

the perception of a caring brand. This is made possible with the combination of
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the mobile app, analytics, and locational information on an m-commerce
ecosystem.

4)Reduce Cost: Spendings on ads placements, whether physically or digitally, is

also reduced with m-commerce. With direct reach to customers, the latest
offerings and messages can be delivered through the mobile app or push
notification.

Once perceived as exorbitant, the cost of app-development has decreased as

there are development tools that help simplify the process. With the reduction of
ads-budget, businesses can achieve a lower cost of acquisition and retainment of
customers.

Summary
The shift from e-commerce to m-commerce is inevitable. Businesses that refuse
to jump on the wagon will find themselves on the losing end. M-commerce offers
better connectedness, engagement, and personalization. For businesses, it
means higher revenues, stronger brands, and rewarding experiences for
customers.

Types of online business

Online business - also referred to as e-business - is any kind of business activity

that happens online (over the internet).

A business owner who does any, or all, of their business using the internet, is
running an online business. Running an online business can include buying and
selling online, and providing an online service. A wide variety of businesses can
be found online, in many different industries.

Anyone can start an online business. If you have a unique product or idea, you
can find a way to sell or trade it online. It's just like a traditional business, except
your office or shop is online, so you have to decide how it will look and appeal to
customers.

Types of online business

Online businesses can have different online business-fronts (how they appear on
the internet). These can take many forms, such as:

⮚ websites

⮚ online shops or marketplaces

⮚ blogs

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 ⮚ social media accounts.

Advantages and disadvantages of online business

Advantages of doing business online may include:

⮚ cost savings in rent and staffing

⮚ greater flexibility and efficiency in product and service delivery

⮚ 24/7 accessibility to customers all over the world

There can also be disadvantages in doing business online, such as:

⮚ some technical or web knowledge may be necessary

⮚ software and hardware expenses

⮚ risk of online scams and fraud.

Types of E-Commerce Business Models

1. B2C (Business to consumer): B2C businesses sell to their end-user. The B2C
model is the most common business model, so there are many unique
approaches under this umbrella.

Anything you buy in an online store as a consumer — think wardrobe, household

supplies, entertainment — is done as part of a B2C transaction.

The decision-making process for a B2C purchase is much shorter than a

business-to- business (B2B) purchase, especially for items that have a lower
value.

Because of this shorter sales cycle, B2C businesses typically spend less
marketing dollars to make a sale, but also have a lower average order value and
less recurring orders than their B2B counterparts and B2C doesn’t only include
products, but services as well.

B2C innovators have leveraged technology like mobile apps, native advertising
and remarketing to market directly to their customers and make their lives easier
in the process.

2. B2B (Business to business): In a B2B business model, a business sells its

product or service to another business. Sometimes the buyer is the end user, but
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often the buyer resells to the consumer. B2B transactions generally have a
longer sales cycle, but higher order value and more recurring purchases.

Recent B2B innovators have made a place for themselves by replacing catalogs
and order sheets with ecommerce storefronts and improved targeting in niche
markets.

In 2020, close to half of B2B buyers are millennials — nearly double the amount
from 2012. As younger generations enter the age of making business
transactions, B2B selling in the online space is becoming more important.

3. C2B (Consumer to business): C2B businesses allow individuals to sell goods

and services to companies.In this ecommerce model, a site might allow
customers to post the work they want to be completed and have businesses bid
for the opportunity. Affiliate marketing services would also be considered C2B.

Elance (now Upwork) was an early innovator in this model by helping businesses
hire freelancers.The C2B ecommerce model’s competitive edge is in pricing for
goods and services.

This approach gives consumers the power to name their price or have
businesses directly compete to meet their needs. Recent innovators have
creatively used this model to connect companies to social media influencers to
market their products.

4. C2C (Consumer to consumer): A C2C business — also called an online

marketplace — connects consumers to exchange goods and services and
typically make their money by charging transaction or listing fees.

Online businesses like Craigslist and eBay pioneered this model in the early days
of the internet and now Facebook has become really popular. C2C businesses
benefit from self-propelled growth by motivated buyers and sellers, but face a key
challenge in quality control and technology maintenance.

Security issues in internet

Security is an essential part of any transaction that takes place over the internet.
Customer will loose his/her faith in e-business if its security is compromised.

Following are the essential requirments for safe e-payments/transactions –

⮚ Confidential
Information should not be accessible to unauthorized person. It should not be intercep

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 ⮚ Integrity
Information should not be altered during its transmission over the network.

⮚ Availability
Information should be available wherever and whenever requirement within time limit

⮚ Authenticity
There should be a mechanism to authenticate user before giving him/her access to req

⮚ Non-Repudiabiity
It is protection against denial of order or denial of payment. Once a sender sends a mes

⮚ Encryption
Information should be encrypted and decrypted only by authorized user.

⮚ Auditability
Data should be recorded in such a way that it can be audited for integrity requirements

Security threats

Internet security threats impact the network, data security and other internet
connected systems. Cyber criminals have evolved several techniques to threat
privacy and integrity of bank accounts, businesses, and organizations.

Following are some of the internet security threats:

⮚ Mobile worms

⮚ Malware

⮚ PC and Mobile ransomware

⮚ Large scale attacks like Stuxnet that attempts to destroy infrastructure.

⮚ Hacking as a Service

⮚ Spam

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 ⮚ Phishing

Email Phishing
Email phishing is an activity of sending emails to a user claiming to be a
legitimate enterprise. Its main purpose is to steal sensitive information such as
usernames, passwords, and credit card details.

Such emails contains link to websites that are infected with malware and direct
the user to enter details at a fake website whose look and feels are same to
legitimate one.

What a phishing email may contain?

Following are the symptoms of a phishing email:

⮚ Spelling and bad grammar

⮚ Most often such emails contain grammatically incorrect text. Ignore such
emails, since it can be a spam.
⮚ Beware of links in email

⮚ Don’t click on any links in suspicious emails.

Threats
Such emails contain threat like “your account will be closed if you didn’t respond
to an email message”.

Spoofing popular websites or companies

These emails contain graphics that appear to be connected to legitimate website
but they actually are connected to fake websites.

Measures to control them

Internet security refers to securing communication over the internet. It includes

specific security protocols such as:

⮚ Internet Security Protocol (IPSec)

⮚ Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

Internet Security Protocol (IPSec)

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It consists of a set of protocols designed by Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). It provides security at network level and helps to create authenticated and
confidential packets for IP layer.

Secure Socket Layer (SSL)

It is a security protocol developed by Netscape Communications Corporation. ). It
provides security at transport layer. It addresses the following security issues:

⮚ Privacy

⮚ Integrity

⮚ Authentication

Passwords

A password is a word or string of characters used for user authentication to prove

identity or access approval to gain access to a resource, which is to be kept
secret from those not allowed access. The use of passwords is known to be
ancient. Sentries would challenge those wishing to enter an area or approaching
it to supply a password or watchword, and would only allow a person or group to
pass if they knew the password. In modern times, user names and passwords
are commonly used by people during a log in process that controls access to
protected computer operating systems, mobile phones, cable TV decoders,
automated teller machines (ATMs), etc.

Smart cards

A smart card is any pocket-sized card that has embedded integrated circuits.
Smart cards are made of plastic, generally polyvinyl chloride. Smart cards can be
contact, contactless, or both. They can provide personal identification,
authentication, data storage, and application processing. Smart cards may
provide strong security authentication for single sign-on within organizations.

Encryption/decryption

It is a very effective and practical way to safeguard the data being transmitted
over the network. Sender of the information encrypt the data using a secret code
and specified receiver only can decrypt the data using the same or different
secret code.

Unit 5 – Office Management Applications

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Intranets

Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own
server and firewall. Moreover we can define Intranet as:

● Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each

other. PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.

● Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and
members/employees of that company can access the computers in their
intranet.

● Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

● Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique

among the computers in that Intranet.

Benefits
Intranet is very efficient and reliable network system for any organization. It is beneficial
in every aspect such as collaboration, cost-effectiveness, security, productivity and
much more.

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Communication
Intranet offers easy and cheap communication within an organization. Employees can
communicate using chat, e-mail or blogs.
Time Saving
Information on Intranet is shared in real time.
Collaboration
Information is distributed among the employees as according to requirement and it can
be accessed by the authorized users, resulting in enhanced teamwork.
Platform Independency
Intranet can connect computers and other devices with different architecture.
Cost Effective
Employees can see the data and other documents using browser rather than printing
them and distributing duplicate copies among the employees, which certainly decreases
the cost.
Workforce Productivity
Data is available at every time and can be accessed using company workstation. This
helps the employees work faster.
Business Management
It is also possible to deploy applications that support business operations.
Security
Since information shared on intranet can only be accessed within an organization,
therefore there is almost no chance of being theft.
Specific Users
Intranet targets only specific users within an organization therefore, once can exactly
know whom he is interacting.
Immediate Updates
Any changes made to information are reflected immediately to all the users.

Extranets

Extranet refers to network within an organization, using internet to connect to the

outsiders in controlled manner. It helps to connect businesses with their
customers and suppliers and therefore allows working in a collaborative manner.

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Implementation

Extranet is implemented as a Virtual Private Networks (VPN) because it uses

internet to connect to corporate organization and there is always a threat to
information security. VPN offers a secure network in public infrastructure
(Internet).

Extranet vs. Intranet

The following table shows differences between Extranet and Intranet:

Extranet Intranet
Internal network that can be accessed Internal network that can not be
externally. accessed externally.
Extranet is extension of company's
Only limited users of a company.
Intranet.
For limited external communication
Only for communication within a
between customers, suppliers and
company.
business partners.

VPN – Internet Telephony

A VPN or Virtual Private Network is a method used to add security and privacy to
private and public networks, like WiFi Hotspots and the Internet. VPNs are most
often used by corporations to protect sensitive data. However, using a personal
VPN is increasingly becoming more popular as more interactions that were
previously face-to-face transition to the Internet. Privacy is increased with a VPN
because the user's initial IP address is replaced with one from the VPN provider.
This method allows subscribers to attain an IP address from any gateway city the
VPN service provides. For instance, you may live in San Francisco, but with a
VPN, you can appear to live in Amsterdam, New York, or any number of gateway
cities.

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Security is the main reason why corporations have used VPNs for years. VPN
use advanced encryption protocols and secure tunneling techniques to
encapsulate all online data transfers.

Internet telephony

Internet telephony is a type of communications technology that allows voice calls

and other telephony services like fax, SMS and other voice-messaging
applications to be transmitted using the Internet as a connection medium.
Software under this technology is cost-effective and convenient because it allow
the user to communicate through fax, voice and video calls anywhere in the world
as long as there is an Internet connection.

In this way, users are able to bypass the charges that are common in traditional
telephone services. However, the quality of this service is not as good as that of
traditional circuit-switched networks used in traditional telephone services
because it is very dependent on the quality and speed of the Internet connection.
Internet telephony is also called IP telephony or broadband telephony.

Audio and video conferencing

An audio conference is a phone call made when you have multiple participants.
Video conferencing is one of the most effective and efficient ways for companies
to communicate. It saves companies on travel costs, promotes more face-to-face
interactions, and increases productivity. Video plays a huge role in providing the
many benefits of video conferencing, but the importance of clear audio is too
often overlooked. However, when a video conference involves numerous
locations with multiple people, cross talk is a major issue.

Audio issues can hinder the various benefits of video conferencing, but there are
ways to combat these issues. Cross talk is an issue that will continue to arise,
despite the technology being used. However, having a clear, structured, and
outlined video conference can eliminate some cross talk. Another non-
technological solution for issues such as background noise is to simply educate
and inform participants and employees. Encouraging employees to use the mute
function on their microphone when they are listening can make a world of
difference.

Wireless Communication:

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance

without the help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.

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Wireless communication is a broad term that incorporates all procedures and
forms of connecting and communicating between two or more devices using a
wireless signal through wireless communication technologies and devices.

Features of Wireless Communication:

The evolution of wireless technology has brought many advancements with its
effective features.

✔ The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters (for

example, a television's remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for
example, radio communication).

✔ Wireless communication can be used for cellular telephony, wireless

access to the internet, wireless home networking, and so on.

✔ Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS

units, garage door openers, wireless computer mice, keyboards and
headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast
television and cordless telephones.

Wireless – Advantages:
Wireless communication involves transfer of information without any physical
connection between two or more points. Because of this absence of any 'physical
infrastructure', wireless communication has certain advantages. This would often
include collapsing distance or space.

Wireless communication has several advantages; the most important ones are discussed below

⮚ Cost effectiveness
Wired communication entails the use of connection wires. In wireless networks,
communication does not require elaborate physical infrastructure or maintenance
practices. Hence the cost is reduced.

⮚ Flexibility
Wireless communication enables people to communicate regardless of their
location. It is not necessary to be in an office or some telephone booth in order to
pass and receive messages.

⮚ Convenience

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Wireless communication devices like mobile phones are quite simple and
therefore allow anyone to use them, wherever they may be. There is no need to
physically connect anything in order to receive or pass messages.

⮚ Speed
Improvements can also be seen in speed. The network connectivity or the
accessibility were much improved in accuracy and speed.

⮚ Accessibility
The wireless technology helps easy accessibility as the remote areas where
ground lines can’t be properly laid, are being easily connected to the network.

⮚ Constant connectivity
Constant connectivity also ensures that people can respond to emergencies
relatively quickly.

WLANS:

In the field of computers, the wide usage of group connections have become
inevitable, which lead to the introduction of LANs (Local Area Networks). These
LANs come under the category of small scale networks within a single building or
campus.

WANs are Wide Area Networks which cover a wider area such a city, or a limited
area greater than LAN.

WLAN Uses:

Wireless computer networks are capable of offering versatile functionalities.

WLANs are very flexible and can be configured in a variety of topologies based
on the application. Some possible uses of WLANs are described below.

✔ Users would be able to surf the Internet, check e-mail, and receive Instant
Messages on the move.

✔ In areas affected by earthquakes or other disasters, no suitable

infrastructure may be available on the site. WLANs are handy in such
locations to set up networks on the fly.

✔ There are many historic buildings where there has been a need to set up
computer networks. In such places, wiring may not be permitted or the

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 building design may not be conductive to efficient wiring. WLANs are very
good solutions in such places.

Definitions of Blue tooth:

Bluetooth is an open wireless technology standard for transmitting fixed and

mobile electronic device data over short distances. Bluetooth was introduced in
1994 as a wireless substitute for RS-232 cables.

Bluetooth communicates with a variety of electronic devices and creates personal

networks operating within the unlicensed 2.4 GHz band. Operating range is
based on device class. A variety of digital devices use Bluetooth, including MP3
players, mobile and peripheral devices and personal computers.

Bluetooth is used for the following:

✔ Wireless control and communication between mobile and hands-free

headsets
✔ Wireless networking between multiple computers in areas with limited service

✔ Wireless communication with PCs and peripheral input/output (I/O) devices

✔ To replace conventional wired communication, like GPS receivers, medical
equipment, traffic control devices and bar code scanners

RFID:

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) uses electromagnetic fields to automatically

identify and track tags attached to objects. An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio
transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter. When triggered by an
electromagnetic interrogation pulse from a nearby RFID reader device, the tag
transmits digital data, usually an identifying inventory number, back to the reader.
This number can be used to track inventory goods.

There are two types of RFID tags:

1) Passive tags are powered by energy from the RFID reader's interrogating
radio waves.
2) Active tags are powered by a battery and thus can be read at a greater
range from the RFID reader; up to hundreds of meters.

Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn't need to be within the line of sight of the reader,
so it may be embedded in the tracked object. RFID is one method of automatic
identification and data capture (AIDC).

Wi Fi:

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Wi-Fi is a type of wireless network technology used for connecting to the Internet.
The frequencies wi-fi works at are 2.4Ghz or 5Ghz, ensure no interference with
cellphones, broadcast radio, TV antenna and two-way radios are encountered
during transmission.

Wi-Fi is basically just radio waves broadcast from a Wi-Fi router, a device
detecting and deciphering the waves, and then sending back data to the router. It
works very similarly to an AM/ FM radio but it is two-way communication channel.
Wi-Fi works over longer distances than bluetooth or infrared and is also a low
power technology, making it suitable for portable devices such as laptops and
palmtops. Wi-Fi is governed by the Wi-Fi Alliance, an association of
manufacturers and regulators defining standards and certifying products as Wi-Fi
compatible.

There are several standards of Wi-Fi with different speeds and power
requirements. The earliest standard was 802.11b, though it is the slowest but
least expensive in terms of cost. This was soon upgraded to 802.11a and
802.11g. Both of these standards included technology for splitting the radio
signal and thus reducing interference. The latest standard is 802.11n, which
allows even longer ranges and data throughput.
A Wi-Fi network may be public (called a hotspot), for private use by an
organization or for home use.

Wi Max:

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a family of wireless

broadband communication standards based on the IEEE 802.16 set of
standards, which provide multiple physical layer (PHY) and Media Access
Control (MAC) options.

The name "WiMAX" was created by the WiMAX Forum, which was formed in
June 2001 to promote conformity and interoperability of the standard, including
the definition of predefined system profiles for commercial vendors. The forum
describes WiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last
mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL". IEEE
802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced was a candidate for the 4G, in competition
with the LTE Advanced standard.

WiMAX was initially designed to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates,

with the 2011 update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations.

The latest version of WiMAX, WiMAX release 2.1, popularly branded as/known
as WiMAX 2+, is a backwards-compatible transition from previous WiMAX
generations. It is compatible and interoperable with TD-LTE.

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Use of Spreadsheets for office:

Use of Spreadsheets for office

1) Build great charts

Excel allows business users to unlock the potential of their data, by using
formulas across a grid of cells. Data is inserted into individual cells in rows
or columns, allowing it to be sorted and filtered, and then displayed in a
visual presentation. Using pie charts, graphs and clustered columns adds
meaning to data, which otherwise may just exist as row after row of
numbers. These visualisations can add extra emphasis to business
reports and persuasive marketing material.

2) Use conditional formatting

Excel users can format their spreadsheets using different colours, bolds
and italics, to differentiate between columns and bring the most important
data to the fore. The vast number of tasks that can be achieved using this
tool is impressive, here are just a few: Display simple icons which
represent related data, Highlighting a row based on a single value,
Comparing values, Comparing lists and Finding duplicates. Find out more
about conditional formating.

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 3) Help identify trends
When presenting data in the form of charts or graphs, it can be helpful to
include average lines, which explicitly detail the key trends emerging from
the information. This may help demonstrate the key points to other users
in a straightforward manner - for instance, an executive from a different
department during a board meeting. Excel allows trend lines to be
extended beyond the graph, to offer predictions of future activity - and
such forecasts can help businesses develop their future strategy.

4) Bring data together

Excel can be used to bring information from various files and documents
together, so that it exists in a single location. As well as raw data and
information from other spreadsheets, it is possible to import text and
images. Other objects can be added using the Insert tab, or additional
spreadsheets can be added to the file.

5) Online access
Excel is available online as part of Microsoft's Office 365 productivity suite.
This means business leaders and employees have access to the program
from a range of devices, from almost any location. Providing they have a
web-enabled PC, laptop, smartphone or tablet it should be possible to
access Excel, making remote and mobile working viable.

Spreadsheet applications

1) Uses of Microsoft Excel in Education: Teachers can use table styles, shapes,
charts, data tools, and formulas to teach students in the classrooms. Students
can learn and solve basic and logical-mathematical problems and statistics in
excel.

2) Uses of Microsoft Excel in Business: Microsoft Excel application can be used

in various business operations. Such as goal setting, budgeting process, and
planning, team management, accounts management, income, and expenses
calculation, product and service valuation and management of client’s data
etc. in business.

3) Uses of Microsoft Excel in Goal Setting and Planning: –Goal setting and
planning is a task that all we do repeatedly each day. Goal setting and
planning is very important for everyone from students to business owners. But
goal setting and planning takes white paper, time and lots of calculation but if
you use Excel then it becomes very easy and environmentally friendly.

4) Uses of Microsoft Excel for Business Owners: –Online business owners or

offline can use Excel to manage their daily life work. Such as work progress,
team management, payouts details, business progress.

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5) Uses of Microsoft Excel for Housewives: – Housewives can use Excel to
manage their daily house expenses. They can create monthly expenses
report. They can track their spending habits.

6) Uses of Microsoft Excel for Data Analysis: –Data analysis is very important to
work today for an online business or website owners (eCommerce, blog,
forums etc.). Such as from tracking website visitors, products sell, customer
reviews, marketing campaigns, user behavior and events etc. Such work is
very time and brain consuming especially when things are not going
according to the plan.

7) Uses of Excel in Daily Progress Report: –Many online and offline companies
and clients making it mandatory for virtual and offline staff to maintain their
daily progress report. It is not only beneficial for employees but also for
companies to track daily progress report.

Uses of databases for the office

The business world depends on databases 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
Inventory, order processing, payroll, accounting, shipping and transportation
routing are often tracked within a main database that keeps the company
functioning.

Database applications

1) They store data

2) They store special information used to manage the data. This information is
called metadata and it is not shown to all the people looking at the data.
3) They can solve cases where many users want to access (and possibly
change) the same entries of data.
4) They manage access rights (who is allowed to see the data, who can change
it)
5) When there are many users asking questions to the database, the questions
must be answered faster. So, the last person to ask a question, can get an
answer in reasonable time.

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